Functions (J)

Michelle Chen

March/April 2021

1 What is a function?
A function is like a machine which can take an input and convert it into an output. For a function
f : A → B,
ˆ A is called the domain and indicates the set of allowed inputs.
ˆ B is called the codomain and indicates the set of allowed outputs.
ˆ The range of f is the set of outputs that f actually attains. By definition, range ⊆ codomain.
For example, the function
f : R → R where f (x) = x2
has domain R, codomain R, and range R≥0 .

1.1 Examples of functions

Most functions you’ll encounter will probably have a domain and codomain like R or N or R+ . In these
cases, some common functions include
ˆ Linear functions: e.g. 2x + 5
ˆ Polynomials: e.g. 3x2021 + x2 + 7
ˆ Exponential functions: e.g. ex
ˆ Floor function: bxc denotes the largest integer that is less than or equal to x
ˆ Ceiling function: dxe denotes the smallest integer that is strictly greater than x
ˆ Fractional part function: {x} = x − bxc
√
ˆ Absolute value function: |x| = x2

2 Terminology
ˆ Monotonicity: A function f is increasing if, for all x and y in the domain, x < y implies
f (x) ≤ f (y). Similarly, f is decreasing if x < y implies f (x) ≥ f (y) for all x and y. A monotonic
function is one that is either increasing or decreasing.
In the case that x < y implies f (x) < f (y), we say that f is strictly increasing. Similarly, if x < y
implies f (x) > f (y), we say that f is strictly decreasing.
ˆ Injectivity: A function f is injective, one-to-one, or an injection if each input leads to a different
output, i.e. f (a) = f (b) implies a = b.

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 ˆ Surjectivity: A function f is surjective, onto, or a surjection if the range is the same set as
the codomain, i.e. for every value y in the codomain, there is some x in the domain such that
f (x) = y.
ˆ Bijectivity: A function f is bijective or a bijection if it is both injective and surjective. In this
case, every member of the domain can be paired with exactly one member of the codomain and
vice versa.
ˆ Function composition: We can compose functions by using the output of one function g as the
input to another function f . We denote the result as (f ◦ g)(x) or f (g(x)). Note that f ◦ g and
g ◦ f are usually different functions.
ˆ Continuity: Informally, a function is continuous if you can draw its graph in a single pen stroke.
In other words, there are no gaps or jumps in the graph.

Examples
1. Prove that the function f : R → R given by f (x) = 3x3 + 1 is bijective.

2. For the function f : R → R given by f (x) = x2

(a) Prove that f is neither injective nor surjective.
(b) What is the largest domain you can choose so that f is injective?
(c) What is the largest codomain you can choose so that f is surjective?

3. Is the function f : N → N where f (n) is the number of factors of n injective? Is f surjective?

3 Things to do with functions

3.1 Zeros
Sometimes you want to find the zeros of a function or the solutions to an equation. At other times, you
won’t be required to find the explicit value of a solution and instead, you just need to show a solution
exists. The following results can be useful:
ˆ Intermediate Value Theorem: If a function f is continuous on the interval [a, b] and y is a
number between f (a) and f (b), then there exists some c ∈ [a, b] such that f (c) = y.
ˆ Mean Value Theorem: If a function f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and differentiable
on the open interval (a, b), then f attains its average gradient at some point. For example, if a
train takes 10 minutes to travel 10km, then at some moment it must have been travelling at
exactly 60km/h.
ˆ Extreme Value Theorem: If f : R → R is continuous on the closed and bounded interval [a, b],
then f must attain a maximum and minimum at least once.

Examples
1. Prove that ex = x2 has a real solution.
2. Prove that at any given moment, there are two diametrically opposite points on the Earth’s
equator that are at exactly the same temperature.

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3.2 No More Zeros
Sometimes you want to be sure that you’ve found all the zeros of a function. In these cases, you need
to be able to not only find the zeros, but also prove that you’ve found them all. Some techniques which
can be useful here include:
ˆ Using monotonicity: If a function is strictly monotonic then it is also injective and therefore
attains any particular value at most once.

ˆ Size arguments: By comparing the rates at which different functions grow, you can some-
times guess that one side of an equation will eventually become much bigger than the other side.
Generally, exponentials grow really quickly, logarithms grow really slowly, and polynomials are
somewhere in between.

Examples
1. Find all real solutions to the equation 3x = 2x + 1.

2. If a, b, c ∈ R+ , find all solutions to the equation

√ √ √ √ √ √
a + bx + b + cx + c + ax = b − ax + c − bx + a − cx.

3.3 Functional equations

A functional equation is an equation where the solutions are functions, not just numbers. Typically,
there’ll be some conditions like “function f : R → R satisfies f (x − f (y)) = 1 − x − y for all x, y ∈ R” and
you want to find all functions f which satisfy those conditions. We won’t delve too much into functional
equations this lecture, but you can expect to see a lot more of them in Intermediate and Senior lectures!

Example
1. Find all functions f : R → R satisfying f (x − f (y)) = 1 − x − y for all x, y ∈ R.

4 Problems
1. Show that a strictly increasing function must be injective.
2. If f : [0, 1] → [0, 1] is continuous, prove that f (x) = x for some x.
3. (Two-pancake problem) Prove that two pancakes, each having an arbitrary two-dimensional shape,
can both be perfectly bisected with one straight line.
4. An involution is a function f for which f (f (x)) = x for all x in the domain of f . Show that all
involutions are bijective.
5. Suppose f : R → R is such that the equation f (f (f (x))) = x has exactly one solution at x = a.
Prove that f (a) = a.

6. Find three different functions f : R → R satisfying f (x)2 − x2 = 0 for all x ∈ R.

7. Find all real numbers x for which
8x + 27x 7
= .
12x + 18x 6
8. Find all real numbers x for which

10x + 11x + 12x = 13x + 14x .

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 9. Find all functions f : R → R such that f (x + y) = x + f (y) for all x, y ∈ R.
10. A function f : R → R satisfies f (f (x) + yf (y)) = x + y 2 for all x, y ∈ R. Prove that f is injective.

11. Consider functions f : R → R satisfying f (f (x) + x) = 0 for all x ∈ R.

(a) Find all injective functions satisfying the given conditions.
(b) Give an example of a non-injective function satisfying the given conditions.

12. Find all functions f : R → R such that f (2x + f (y)) = f (f (x) + x) + y for all x, y ∈ R.
13. Find all functions f : R → R such that f (2f (x) + 2f (y) − x − y) = f (x) + y.
14. Find all functions f : N → R≥0 such that:
(i) f (n) = 0 for all n ∈ N where the last digit of n is 4;
(ii) f (a · b) = f (a) + f (b) for all a, b ∈ N.
15. (Cauchy’s functional equation) Find all functions f such that:
(a) f : N → R and f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y) for all x, y ∈ N.
(b) f : Z → R and f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y) for all x, y ∈ Z.
(c) f : Q → R and f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y) for all x, y ∈ Q.