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Sean Li
Cornell University
sxl6@cornell.edu
Jan. 2013
Introduction
Notation
ϕ(n) Euler totient function
µ(n) Möbius function
Λ(n) von Mangoldt function
λ(n) Louiville’s function
∗ Dirichlet multiplication
I(n) identity function, I(1) = 1, I(n) = 0 if n 6= 1
u(n) unit function, u(n) = 1 for all n
N (n) the function for which N (n) = n for all n
fp (x) Bell series of f modulo p
1
2.1. Find all integers such that
If 2 is the only prime factor, this product is equal to 1/2. If there were any
other prime factor, then the denominator would be greater than 2. Hence
ϕ(n) = n/2 if and only if n = 2k for some k ≥ 1.
(b) ϕ(n) = ϕ(2n).
Applying Theorem 2.4, we have
Y 1
Y 1
1− =2 1− .
p p
p|n p|2n
All the prime factors other than 2 are the same in both products, so the only
prime that matters is 2. If n is even, then both products are equal, which is
a contradiction as there is an additional factor of 2 on the right-hand-side
(RHS). If n is odd, then the product on the RHS is half as large, which
cancels out the factor of 2. Hence ϕ(n) = ϕ(2n) if and only if n is odd.
(c) ϕ(n) = 12.
Factor n = pa1 1 · · · pakk . Then Theorem 2.4 gives the product formula
k
Y
ϕ(n) = pai i −1 (pi − 1).
i=1
2
Since 12 = 2 · 3, we enumerate through all posibilities of pi and ai that
have 2, 3, 4, 6, or 12 as factors in the product. Of these, m = 2, 4, 6, and 12
satisfy m + 1 is prime, so can come from the pi − 1 term.
Let pi − 1 = 12. Then pi = 13 and thus n = 13 or n = 2 · 13. Let pi − 1 = 6.
Then pi = 7 and we need a factor of 2. It can come from pj − 1 = 2, thus
n = 3 · 7 = 21 or n = 2 · 3 · 7 = 42. But the factor of 2 could also come
from 22−1 = 2, thus n = 22 · 7 = 28. Let pi − 1 = 4, then pi = 5 and we
need a factor of 3. Since 3 + 1 = 4 is not prime, it must come from p2−1 j ,
but this is impossible as it adds in another factor of 3 − 1 = 2. Finally, let
pi − 1 = 2. Then pi = 3, and we need a factor of 6. The only way to do
this is to have n = 22 · 32 = 36. Hence the integers with ϕ(n) = 12 are
n = 13, 21, 26, 28, 36, and 42.
2.2. For each of the following statements either give a proof or exhibit a coun-
terexample.
2
(a) If (m, n) = 1 then (ϕ(m), ϕ(n)) = 1.
False. Clearly (5, 9) = 1, but (ϕ(5), ϕ(9)) = (2, 6) = 2.
(b) If n is composite, then (n, ϕ(n)) = 1.
False. 6 is composite, but (6, ϕ(6)) = (6, 2) = 2.
Let n = pa1 1 · · · pakk . Note that the nonzero terms of the sum come from d = 1
and divisors which are products of distinct prime divisors of n. Moreover, each
numerator for a nonzero term is equal to µ(n)2 = 1. Thus the RHS is equal to
X µ2 (d)
=1 + 1/ϕ(p1 ) + · · · + 1/ϕ(pk ) + 1/ϕ(p1 p2 ) + · · ·
ϕ(n)
d|n
+ 1/ϕ(pk−1 pk ) + · · · + 1/ϕ(p1 · · · pk ).
1
Hence the RHS equals (p1 −1)···(pj −1) times
k
X k−1
X k
X
1+ (pi − 1) + (pi − 1)(pj − 1) + · · · + (p1 − 1) · · · (pj − 1).
i=1 i=1 j=i+1
((p1 − 1) + 1) · · · ((pk − 1) + 1) = p1 · · · pk ,
3
and thus the equation holds.
2.4. Prove that ϕ(n) > n/6 for all n with at most 8 distinct prime factors.
when there are at most 8 p’s. It is easy to see that the product is minimized
when the smallest 8 primes are selected. Hence
Yp−1 1 2 4 6 10 12 16 18 1
≥ · · · · · · · ≈ 0.171 > .
p 2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 6
p|n
2.5. Define v(1) = 0, and for n > 1 let v(n) be the number of distinct prime
factors of n. Let f = µ ∗ v and prove that f (n) is either 0 or 1.
The base case of the induction, m = 2, has two possibilities: either n = p21 or
n = p1 p2 . In the first possibility we have
f (p21 ) = µ(1)v(p2 ) + µ(p)v(p) = 1 − 1 = 0,
and the second possibility we have
f (p1 p2 ) = µ(1)v(p1 p2 ) + µ(p1 )v(p2 ) + µ(p2 )v(p1 ) = 2 − 1 − 1 = 0.
Since v( npdk+1 ) = v( nd ) + 1, the first sum is just f (n) + d|n µ(d) = f (n) as m
P
4
by the induction hypothesis. Hence the induction step holds when the additional
power is from a new prime.
The first sum is 0 by the induction hypothesis, and thePsecond sum is 0 as well:
if ai > 1 then µ = 0, and if ai = 1 then it is the sum d|s µ(d) = 0. Thus the
induction step holds and f (n0 ) = 0.
The last sum is extended over all positive divisors d of n whose kth power also
divide n.
a
Proof. Let n = pa1 1 · · · pj j . If all a1 , . . . , aj < k, then sum is empty except for
the d = 1 term, which gives the value of 1.
2.7. Let µ(p, d) denote the value of the Möbius function at the gcd of p and d.
Prove that for every prime p we have
X 1 if n = 1,
µ(d)µ(p, d) = 2 if n = pa , a ≥ 1,
d|n
0 otherwise.
5
a
Pan = 1i casei is trivial. If n = p with a ≥ 1, then the sum is in
Proof. The
the form i=0 µ(p )µ(p , i). The first two terms each contribute +1, and the
remaining terms are all 0. Hence the sum is 2.
Now suppose neither of these cases are true, then n = pa q1b1 · · · qkbk . Note that
each factor is in the form pα q1β1 · · · qkβk , where 0 ≤ α ≤ a and 0 ≤ βi ≤ bi . We
split the sum into groups based on α. For α = 0, the sum is
X X
µ(d)µ(p, d) = µ(d) = 0
b b b b
d|q11 ···qkk d|q11 ···qkk
Proof. We prove the claim by induction. Let m = 1 and there is more than 1
distinct prime factor. Then n = pa1 1 · · · pakk , k ≥ 2. Note that µ(d) 6= 0 only if d
is the product of distinct primes, i.e. d = pi1 . . . pij where i1 , . . . , ij are a subset
of 1, . . . , k. Finally, let x = p1 · · · pk . Then
X X
µ(d) log d = µ(d) log(pi1 · · · pij )
d|n d|x
X
= µ(d)(log pi1 + · · · + log pij )
d|x
XX
= µ(d) log pi
d|x pi |d
X X
= log pi µ(d).
pi |x d|x
pi |d
But the condition that pi |x, pi |d is equivalent to the condition that d|(x/pi ).
Since n was assumed to have more than 1 distinct prime factor, d|(x/pi ) is not
equal to 1, hence the double sum is equal to
X X
log pi µ(d) = 0
pi |x d|(x/pi )
6
P
as each d|(x/pi ) µ(d) is 0.
Now assume that d|n µ(d) logm d = 0 for m ≥ 1, with more than m distinct
P
prime factors. Now suppose n has more than m + 1 distinct prime factors, i.e.
n = pa1 1 · · · pakk , k ≥ m + 2. Let x = p1 · · · pk . The only nonzero µ(d) come from
d which are the product of distinct primes, i.e. d = pi1 . . . pij where i1 , . . . , ij
are a subset of 1, . . . , k. Then
X X
µ(d) logm+1 d = µ(d) logm+1 (pi1 · · · pij )
d|n d|x
X
= µ(d) logm d(log pi1 + · · · + log pij )
d|x
XX
= µ(d) logm d log pi
d|x pi |d
X X
= log pi µ(d) logm d
pi |x d|x
pi |d
X X
= log pi µ(d) logm d.
pi |x d|(x/pi )
X [x/d]
X X [x/d]
X X hxi
µ(d) = µ(d) 1= µ(d) .
d
d|n q=1 d|n q=1 d|n
7
For the second part, use the same technique as the proof on p. 26: partition
the numbers 1, . . . , [x] into disjoint sets based on their gcd with n, the result
follows.
2.10.−2.12. In Exercises 10, 11, and 12, d(n) denotes the number of positive
divisors of n.
t = nd(n)/2 .
Q
2.10. Prove that t|n
Q Q
Proof. If t is a divisor of n, then so is n/t. Thus t|n t= t|n n/t, and
2
Y Y Yn Y
t = t = n = nd(n) .
t
t|n t|n t|n t|n
Proof. We may enumerate through all factors of n as follows. Let n = pa1 1 · · · pakk .
Then every divisor is of the form pb11 · · · pbkk where 0 ≤ bi ≤ ai . Hence the LHS
sum is
a1
X Xak
··· (b1 · · · bk )3
b1 =0 bk =0
2.13. Product form of the Möbius inversion formula. If f (n) > 0 for all n and
if a(n) is real, a(1) 6= 0, prove that
Y Y
g(n) = f (d)a(n/d) if and only if f (n) = g(d)b(n/d) ,
d|n d|n
8
f (d)a(n/d) as
Q
Proof. Rewrite the relation g(n) = d|n
P
a(n/d) log f (d)
elog g(n) = e d|n .
Taking the log of both sides (as f > 0) gives
X
log g(n) = a(n/d) log f (d),
d|n
We see that each k nd is unique, and moreover they run through every integer
from 1 to n. Thus the sum equals precisely F (n), so that u ∗ F ∗ = F .
Dirichlet mulplication by µ gives
µ ∗ F = µ ∗ (u ∗ F ∗ ) = (µ ∗ u) ∗ F ∗ = F ∗ .
(b) Use (a) or some other means to prove that µ(n) is the of the primitive nth
roots of unity:
Xn
µ(n) = e2πik/n .
k=1
(k,n)=1
Pn
Let f (x) = e2πix . Then F (n) = k=1 e2πix is equal to 1 when n is 1, and
is 0 when n > 1, as all the terms cancel. Then
n
X
µ=µ∗F = e2πik/n
k=1
(k,n)=1
as F = I.
9
2.15. Let ϕk (n) denote the sum of the kth powers of the numbers ≤ n and
relatively prime to n. Note that ϕ0 (n) = ϕ(n). Use Exercise 14 or some other
means to prove that
X ϕk (d) 1k + · · · + nk
= .
dk nk
d|n
Proof.
X ϕk (d) X ϕk (d)(n/d)k 1 X
= = ϕk (d)(n/d)k .
dk nk nk
d|n d|n d|n
k
It suffices to show that the sum includes each m , 1 ≤ m ≤ n, once. This is as
in Exercise 2.14(a).
ϕ1 (n) X 1 + · · · + d n
= µ
n d d
d|n
X d(d + 1) n
= µ
2d d
d|n
1X n
= (d + 1)µ
2 d
d|n
1 X n
= dµ
2 d
d|n
1
= ϕ(n).
2
Hence ϕ1 (n) = 21 nϕ(n).
10
Next, we have
ϕ2 (n) X 12 + · · · + d2 n
= µ
n2 d2 d
d|n
X d(d + 1)(2d + 1) n
= µ
6d2 d
d|n
1X 1 n
= 2d + 3 + µ
6 d d
d|n
1 X n X 1 n
= 2dµ + µ
6 d d d
d|n d|n
1 1Xd
= ϕ(n) + µ(d)
3 6 n
d|n
1 1 X
= ϕ(n) + dµ(d)
3 6n
d|n
1 1 Y
= ϕ(n) + (1 − p).
3 6n
p|n
Finally, we have
ϕ3 (n) X 13 + · · · + d3 n
= µ
n3 d3 d
d|n
X d2 (d + 1)2 n
= µ
4d3 d
d|n
1X 1 n
= d+2+ µ
4 d d
d|n
1 X n X 1 n
= dµ + µ
4 d d d
d|n d|n
1 1 Y
= ϕ(n) + (1 − p).
4 4n
p|n
11
(a) Prove that
X n k X
Jk (n) = µ(d) and nk = Jk (d).
d
d|n d|n
Proof. Write n = pa1 1 · · · pamm . Since µ(d) is nonzero only when d is the
product of distinct primes, we have
k
Jk (n) X 1
k
= µ(d)
n d
d|n
1 1
=1 − + · · · + +
pk1 pkm
1 1 1
+ · · · + + · · · + (−1)m k
pk1 pk2 pkm−1 pkm p1 · · · pkm
Y
1 − p−k ,
=
p|n
which shows the first result. The second result follows by Möbius inversion
of the first: Jk = N k ∗ µ implies N k = Jk ∗ u.
(b) Determine the Bell series for Jk .
The Bell series for µ is µp (x) = 1 − x for all p, and Bell series for Npk (x) =
1+pk x+p2k x2 +· · · = 1−p1 k x . By Theorem 2.25, the Bell series of a Dirichlet
product is the product of the Bell series, so
1−x
(Jk )p (x) = µp (x) · Npk (x) = .
1 − pk x
2.18. Prove that every number of the form 2a−1 (2a − 1) is perfect if 2a − 1 is
prime.
2.19. Prove that if n is even and perfect then n = 2a−1 (2a − 1) for some a ≥ 2.
12
Since (c + 1, c) = 1 and we have c|2a − 1 and c + 1|2a . Moreoever, 2a - 2a−1 , so
that 2a |c + 1, thus c + 1 = 2a and c = 2a − 1.
Finally, suppose c has some prime factor with a power higher than 1, say pb11 ,
b1 > 1. PThen Pthe sum of divisors is even greater than in the previous case, as
a−1 b1
σ(n) = i=0 j=0 2i pj1 · · · > 2a c = 2n. Thus c must be a prime of the form
a−1 a
2 (2 − 1).
2.20. Let P (n) be the product of the positive integers which are ≤ n and
relatively prime to n. Prove that
Y d! µ(n/d)
ϕ(n)
P (n) = n .
dd
d|n
Proof. From the product form of the Möbius inversion formula (Exercise 2.13),
µ(n/d)
P (n) Y d! n! Y P (d)
= if and only if = .
nϕ(n) dd nn dϕ(d)
d|n d|n
Note that
n
n! 1 2 n Y k
= · · · · = .
nn n n n n
k=1
Now put all the fractions 1/n, · · · , n/n in reduced form. Grouping same de-
nominators together, we have
n d
Y k Y Y a Y P (d)
= = ,
n
k=1 a=1
d dϕ(d)
d|n d|n
(a,d)=1
13
√ √
2.21. Let f (n) = [ n] − [ n − 1]. Prove that f is multiplicative but not
completely multiplicative.
Proof. It is clear that f (n) equals 1 if n is a square and 0 otherwise. Let n = ab,
where (a, b) = 1. Thus the prime factorizations of a and b consist of disjoint sets
of primes. Then clearly if both a and b are squares (i.e. each prime in the prime
factorization is raised to an even power), the product ab is also a square. And
if one of a or b is not a square then the product ab is not a square, hence the
function f (n) is multiplicative. It is not completely multiplicative, as f (4) = 1,
but f (2)f (2) = 0.
False. Let f = N , i.e. f (n) = n. This is clearly multiplicative, but F (2)F (3) =
2 ∗ 3 = 6, but F (6) = 2 ∗ 3 ∗ 6 = 36, so F is not multiplicative.
2.24. Let A(x) and B(x) be fomal power series. If the product A(x)B(x) is
the zero series, prove that at least one factor is zero. In other words, the ring
of formal power series has no zero divisors.
14
Proof. Assume both A(x) and B(x) are not zero, then let m be the smallest
integer such that a(m) 6= 0, and let n be the smallest integer such that b(n) 6= 0.
Each coefficient in A(x)B(x) is zero, so the xm+n must be zero. But this
coefficient equal to the sum
a0 bm+n + · · · + am bn + · · · + am+n b0 = 0.
Since we assumed that every ai = 0 with i < m and every bj = 0 with j < n,
every term above except the am bn term is equal to zero. Removing all those
terms results in am bn = 0, contradicting that both am and bn are not equal to
zero.
since f (1) = 1 and I(n) = 0 for n > 1. Hence g(n) = f −1 (n) for squarefree
n.
(b) f −1 (p2 ) = f (p)2 − f (p2 ) for every prime p.
Proof. Write f2 (p) = f (p2 ). Let g(p) = f (p)2 − f2 (p). Then
X
(g ∗ f2 )(p) = (f (d)2 − f2 (d))f2 (p/d)
d|p
Proof. Assume f −1 (pa ) = 0 for all primes p and all integers a ≥ 2. Since
f ∗ f −1 = I we have X
f (d)f −1 (pa /d) = 0
d|pa
for prime p and a ≥ 2. Since f −1 (pb ) = 0 for all 2 ≤ b ≤ a, the terms are 0
except for d = pa−1 and d = pa , so the sum is equal to
f (pa )f −1 (1) + f (pa−1 )f −1 (p) = 0.
15
From Exercise 2.25(a), we have that f −1 (p) = µ(p)f (p) = −f (p), hence
2.27.
f · (g ∗ h) = (f · g) ∗ (f · h)
= (f · (g ∗ h))(n)
(b) If f is multiplicative and the relation in (a) holds for g = µ and h = µ−1 ,
prove that f is completely multiplicative.
Proof. We have f · (µ ∗ u) = (f · µ) ∗ (f · u).
X
I(n) = µ(d)f (d)f (n/d)
d|n
for all n. Letting n = pa be a prime power, if a ≥ 2 then all the terms are
zero except for d = 1 and d = p, else µ(d) = 0. Hence we have
2.28.
16
(a) If f is completely multiplicative, prove that
(f · g)−1 = f · g −1
for every arithmetical function g with g(1) 6= 0.
Proof. Let h = f · g −1 . Then h ∗ (f · g) = (f · g −1 ) ∗ (f · g). By Exercise
2.27(a), if f is completely multiplicative then
(f · g −1 ) ∗ (f · g) = f · (g ∗ g −1 ) = f · I = I.
Hence h = (f · g)−1 . The condition that g(1) 6= 0 is used to guarantee that
g −1 exists.
(b) If f is multiplicative and the relation in (a) holds for g = µ−1 , prove that f
is completely multiplicative.
Proof. Suppose (f · u)−1 = f · µ. Then (f · u) ∗ (f · µ) = I. For each n = pa
a prime power with a ≥ 2,
X n
((f · u) ∗ (f · µ))(n) = µ(d)f (d)f = 0,
d
d|n
for every arithmetical function f . Here (k, n) is the gcd of n and k. Use this
identity to prove that
Xn
(k, n)µ((k, n)) = µ(n).
k=1
Proof. The technique on p. 26 shows that g = ϕ. For the second part, the
function in question is f = N · µ, so it remains to show that f ∗ ϕ = µ. Now N
is completely multiplicative, so its inverse is µ · N . Since ϕ = N ∗ µ, we have
f ∗ ϕ = (N · µ) ∗ (N ∗ µ) = (N −1 ∗ N ) ∗ µ = I ∗ µ = µ.
17
for all primes p and all n ≥ 1. Prove that for each prime p the Bell series for f
has the form
1
fp (x) = .
1 − f (p)x + g(p)x2
Also prove the converse.
Rearranging gives
fp (x)(1 − f (p)x + g(p)x2 ) = 1,
so that
1
fp (x) = .
1 − f (p)x + g(p)x2
These steps are all reversible, so the converse holds.
where the sum is extended over the positive divisors of the gcd(m, n).
18
as desired. Now suppose the equation is true for 1, . . . , b − 1. Then
Hence the equation is true when m and n are prime powers. Since f is multi-
plicative, it follows that the equation is true for all m and n.
19
The case α = 0 is trivial to show, so assume that α 6= 0. Then
(p2α − 1)(p(b+1)α − 1) pα (pbα − 1)
σα (p)σα (pb ) − pα σα (pn−1 ) = −
(pα − 1)2 pα − 1
(p2α − 1)(p(b+1)α − 1) pα (pbα − 1)(pα − 1)
= −
(pα − 1)2 (pα − 1)2
p(b+2)α+1 − p(b+2)α − pα + 1
=
(pα − 1)2
p(b+2)α − 1
=
pα − 1
= σα (pb+1 ).
Hence the first statement in Exercise 30 holds for f = σα and g = N α , and
since N α is completely multiplicative, the result of Exercise 31 gives
X mn
σα (m)σα (n) = dα σα .
d2
d|(m,n)
Proof. The sum consists of just one nonzero term, as µ(n/d2 ) = 0 except when
n/d2 is the product of distinct primes. Let n = pa1 1 · · · pakk . Now we list the
odd ai as ai1 , . . . , aij . Then the nonzero term is n/d2 = pi1 · · · pij . If j is
even, then µ(pi1 · · · pij ) = 1, and if j is odd then µ(pi1 · · · pij ) = −1. Similarly,
λ(n) = (−1)a1 +···+ak = (−1)j , so the equation holds.
2.34. This exercise describes an alternate proof of Theorem 2.16 which states
that the Dirichlet inverse of a multiplicative function is multiplicative. Assume
g is multiplicative and let f = g −1 .
20
(b) Let h be the uniquely determined multiplicative function which agrees with
f at the prime powers. Show that h ∗ g agrees with the identity function I
at the prime powers and deduce that h ∗ g = I. This shows that f = h so
f is multiplicative.
Proof. Let p be prime and k ≥ 1. Then
X
(h ∗ g)(pk ) = h(d)g(pk /d)
d|pk
k
X
= h(pt )g(pk−t )
t=0
k
X
= f (pt )g(pk−t )
t=0
= (f ∗ g)(pk ) = 0.
This and the fact that (h ∗ g)(1) = 1 imply h ∗ g = I, and since Dirichlet
inverses are unique, this implies f = h and f is multiplicative.
2.35. If f and g are multiplicative and if a and b are positive integers with
a ≥ b, prove that the function h given by
X n n
h(n) = f g b
a
da d
d |n
is also multiplicative. The sum is extended over those divisors d of n for which
da also divides n.
Proof. Let (m, n) = 1. If da |m and (d0 )a |n, then (dd0 )a |mn and
Hence
X m m X n n
h(m)h(n) = f g b f g b
da d da d
d|m d|n
X mn mn
= f g
da db
d|mn
= h(mn),
21
2.36.−2.40. In Exercises 36−40, we study µk , the Möbius function of order k,
defined as follows:
µk (1) = 1,
µk (n) = 0 if pk+1 |n for some prime p,
Y
µk (n) = (−1)r if n = pk1 · · · pkr pai i , 0 ≤ ai < k,
i>r
µk (n) = 0 otherwise.
Prove the properties of the functions µk described in the following exercises.
Proof. Clearly if n = 1 then µk (1) = µ(1). If n contains any prime square factor,
then both sides are 0 as pk+1 |p2k and p2k |nk , so that pk+1 |nk . Finally, suppose
n = p1 · · · pj is the product of distinct primes. Then µk (nk ) = µ(pk1 · · · pkj ) =
(−1)j = µ(n).
2.38. If k ≥ 2 we have
X n n
µk (n) = µk−1 µk−1 .
dk d
dk |n
Proof. Write n = pk1 · · · pkr i>r pai i , ai 6= k. If n equals one then the equation is
Q
evident, and if any ai is greater than k, then the sum is 0 as one of µk−1 (n/dk )
or µk−1 (n/d) will be 0 for every d, so the sum is 0. Finally, suppose all ai < k
for all i > r. Then µk (n) = (−1)r . The sum runs through all products of
p1 , . . . , pr . Thus the sum is equal to
X !
2
X n n n n
µk−1 (n) + µk−1 µk−1 + µk−1 µk−1
i
pki pi i,j
pki pkj pi pj
n n
+ · · · + µk−1 µk−1 .
pk1 · · · pkr p1 · · · pr
22
Note that if ai = k − 1 for any i, then the contribution is canceled out when it
is multiplied twice (i.e. (−1)(−1) = 1). Thus we may assume that none of the
ai are equal to k − 1. Now every term except the last term has some factor in
the form pki , and thus are all equal to 0. Hence the sum equals
n n n
µk−1 µk−1 = µk−1 = (−1)r ,
pk1 · · · pkr p1 · · · pr p1 · · · pr
2.39. If k ≥ 1 we have X
|µk (n)| = µ(d).
dk+1 |n
Proof. Note that |µk (n)| = 1 if there is no prime p such that pk+1 |n, and
|µk (n)| = 0 otherwise. It is easy to see that if there is no prime p such that
pk+1 |n, then the sum is just one term that is equal to µ(1) = 1. Otherwise,
[a /(k+1)] [a /(k+1)]
let n = pa1 1 · · · pamm , and let n0 = p1 1 · · · p1 m , where [x] denotes the
greatest integer less than or equal to x. Then the sum is equal to
X
µ(d) = 0
d|n0
1 − 2xk + xk+1
(µk )p (x) = .
1−x
Proof. Since
1
if a < k,
a
µk (p ) = −1 if a = k,
0 if a > k,
we have
(µk )p (x) = 1 + x + · · · + xk−1 − xk .
Now (1 − x)(1 + x + · · · + xk−1 − xk ) = 1 − 2xk + xk+1 , so that
1 − 2xk + xk+1
(µk )p (x) = .
1−x
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