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Photosynthetic Protists makes coral reefs one of the most pro-

ductive ecosystems on earth. Corals
Pyrrhophyta: The primarily live in warm tropical seas
Dinoflagellates that are typically extremely low in nu-
trients; without the aid of their photo-

Heterotrophs with restricted mobility

Nonmotile spore-formers
Heterotrophs with flagella
Heterotrophs with no permanent
locomotor apparatus

Photosynthetic protists
The dinoflagellates consist of about
synthetic endosymbionts, they would
2100 known species of primarily uni-
not be able to form large reefs in the
cellular, photosynthetic organisms,
nutrient-poor environment. Most of
most of which have two flagella. A
the carbon that the zooxanthellae fix is
majority of the dinoflagellates are ma-
translocated to the host corals.
rine, and they are often abundant in
The poisonous and destructive “red
the plankton, but some occur in fresh
tides” that occur frequently in coastal
water. Some planktonic dinoflagel-
areas are often associated with great
lates are luminous and contribute to
population explosions, or “blooms,” of
the twinkling or flashing effects that
dinoflagellates. The pigments in the in-
we sometimes see in the sea at night,
dividual, microscopic cells of the di-
especially in the tropics.
noflagellates are responsible for the
The flagella, protective coats, and
color of the water. Red tides have a pro-
biochemistry of dinoflagellates are
found, detrimental effect on the fishing
distinctive, and they do not appear to
industry in the United States. Some 20
be directly related to any other phy-
species of dinoflagellates are known to
lum. Plates made of a cellulose-like
produce powerful toxins that inhibit the
material encase the cells. Grooves
diaphragm and cause respiratory failure
form at the junctures of these plates
in many vertebrates. When the toxic di-
and the flagella are usually located
noflagellates are abundant, fishes, birds,
within these grooves, one encircling
and marine mammals may die in large
the body like a belt, and the other
numbers.
perpendicular to it. By beating in
More recently, a particularly danger-
their respective grooves, these
ous toxic dinoflagellate called Pfiesteria
flagella cause the dinoflagellate to
piscicida is reported to be a carnivorous,
rotate like a top as it moves. The di-
ambush predator. During blooms, it
noflagellates that are clad in stiff cel-
Noctiluca Ptychodiscus stuns fish with its toxin and then feeds
lulose plates, often encrusted with
on the prey’s body fluids.
silica, may have a very unusual ap-
Dinoflagellates reproduce primarily
pearance (figure 35.11). Most have
by asexual cell division. But sexual re-
chlorophylls a and c, in addition to
production has been reported to occur
carotenoids, so that in the biochem-
under starvation conditions. They
istry of their chloroplasts, they re-
have a unique form of mitosis in which
semble the diatoms and the brown
the permanently condensed chromo-
algae, possibly acquiring such chloro-
somes divide longitudinally within the
plasts by forming endosymbiotic
confines of a permanent nuclear enve-
relationships with members of those
lope. After the numerous chromo-
groups.
somes duplicate, the nucleus divides
Some dinoflagellates occur as sym-
Ceratium Gonyaulax into two daughter nuclei. Also the di-
bionts in many other groups of or-
noflagellate chromosome is unique
ganisms, including jellyfish, sea FIGURE 35.11 among eukaryotes in that the DNA is
anemones, mollusks, and corals. Some dinoflagellates: Noctiluca, not complexed with histone proteins.
When dinoflagellates grow as sym- Ptychodiscus, Ceratium, and Gonyaulax. In all other eukaryotes, the chromoso-
bionts within other cells, they lack Noctiluca, which lacks the heavy cellulose
mal DNA is complexed with histones
their characteristic cellulose plates armor characteristic of most dinoflagellates,
to form nucleosomes, which represents
and flagella, appearing as spherical, is one of the bioluminescent organisms that
causes the waves to sparkle in warm seas. In the first order of DNA packaging in
golden-brown globules in their host
the other three genera, the shorter, encircling the nucleus. How dinoflagellates are
cells. In such a state they are called
flagellum is seen in its groove, with the able to maintain distinct chromosomes
zooxanthellae. Photosynthetic
longer one projecting away from the body of without histones and nucleosomes re-
zooxanthellae provide their hosts
the dinoflagellate. (Not drawn to scale.) mains a mystery.
with nutrients. It is the photosynthe-
sis conducted by zooxanthellae that

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Euglenophyta: The Euglenoids

Most of the approximately 1000 known species of eugle-
noids live in fresh water. The members of this phylum
clearly illustrate the impossibility of distinguishing “plants”
from “animals” among the protists. About a third of the ap-
proximately 40 genera of euglenoids have chloroplasts and
are fully autotrophic; the others lack chloroplasts, ingest
their food, and are heterotrophic. These organisms are not
significantly different from some groups of zoomastigotes
(see next section), and many biologists believe that the two
phyla should be merged into one.
Some euglenoids with chloroplasts may become het-
erotrophic if the organisms are kept in the dark; the
chloroplasts become small and nonfunctional. If they are
put back in the light, they may become green within a few
hours. Normally photosynthetic euglenoids may sometimes
feed on dissolved or particulate food.
Individual euglenoids range from 10 to 500 micrometers
long and are highly variable in form. Interlocking proteina-
ceous strips arranged in a helical pattern form a flexible
structure called the pellicle, which lies within the cell
membrane of the euglenoids. Because its pellicle is flexible,
a euglenoid is able to change its shape. Reproduction in
this phylum occurs by mitotic cell division. The nuclear en-
velope remains intact throughout the process of mitosis.
No sexual reproduction is known to occur in this group.
In Euglena (figure 35.12), the genus for which the phy-
lum is named, two flagella are attached at the base of a
flask-shaped opening called the reservoir, which is located
at the anterior end of the cell. One of the flagella is long (a)
and has a row of very fine, short, hairlike projections along
one side. A second, shorter flagellum is located within the Flagellum
reservoir but does not emerge from it. Contractile vacuoles
collect excess water from all parts of the organism and Stigma
empty it into the reservoir, which apparently helps regulate Second
the osmotic pressure within the organism. The stigma, an flagellum
organ that also occurs in the green algae (phylum Chloro- Reservoir
phyta), is light-sensitive and aids these photosynthetic or- Basal body
ganisms to move toward light. Contractile
Cells of Euglena contain numerous small chloroplasts. vacuole
These chloroplasts, like those of the green algae and plants, Pellicle
contain chlorophylls a and b, together with carotenoids. Al-
though the chloroplasts of euglenoids differ somewhat in Nucleus
structure from those of green algae, they probably had a
common origin. It seems likely that euglenoid chloroplasts
ultimately evolved from a symbiotic relationship through Chloroplast
ingestion of green algae.
Paramylon
granule

FIGURE 35.12
Euglenoids. (a) Micrograph of individuals of the genus Euglena (b)
(Euglenophyta). (b) Diagram of Euglena. Paramylon granules are
areas where food reserves are stored.

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Chrysophyta: The Diatoms and Golden Algae There are two major groups of diatoms, one with radial
symmetry (like a wheel) and the other with bilateral (two-
The Diatoms. Diatoms, members of the phylum Chrys-
sided) symmetry (figure 35.13). Diatom shells are rigid, and
ophyta, are photosynthetic, unicellular organisms with
the organisms reproduce asexually by separating the two
unique double shells made of opaline silica, which are often
halves of the shell, each half then regenerating another half
strikingly and characteristically marked. The shells of di-
shell within it. Because of this mode of reproduction, there
atoms are like small boxes with lids, one half of the shell fit-
is a tendency for the shells, and consequently the individual
ting inside the other. Their chloroplasts, with chlorophylls
diatoms, to get smaller and smaller with each asexual re-
a and c, as well as carotenoids, resemble those of the brown
production. When the resulting individuals have dimin-
algae and dinoflagellates. In other respects, however, there
ished to about 30% of their original size, one may slip out
are few similarities between these groups, and they proba-
of its shell, grow to full size, and regenerate a full-sized pair
bly do not share an immediate common ancestor. Another
of new shells.
member of the phylum Chrysophyta is the golden algae.
Individual diatoms are diploid. Meiosis occurs more fre-
Diatoms and golden algae are grouped together because
quently under conditions of starvation. Some marine di-
they both produce a unique carbohydrate called chrysolam-
atoms produce numerous sperm and others a single egg. If
inarin.
fusion occurs, the resulting zygote regenerates a full-sized
There are more than 11,500 living species of diatoms,
individual. In some freshwater diatoms, the gametes are
with many more known in the fossil record. The shells of
amoeboid and similar in appearance.
fossil diatoms often form very thick deposits, which are
sometimes mined commercially. The resulting “diatoma-
The Golden Algae. Also included within the Chryso-
ceous earth” is used as an abrasive or to add the sparkling
phyta are the golden algae, named for the yellow and
quality to the paint used on roads, among other purposes.
brown carotenoid and xanthophyll accessory pigments in
Living diatoms are often abundant both in the sea and in
their chloroplasts, which give them a golden color. Unicel-
fresh water, where they are important food producers. Di-
lular but often colonial, these freshwater protists typically
atoms occur in the plankton and are attached to submerged
have two flagella, both attached near the same end of the
objects in relatively shallow water. Many species are able to
cell. When ponds and lakes dry out in summer, golden
move by means of a secretion that is produced from a fine
algae form resistant cysts. Viable cells emerge from these
groove along each shell. The diatoms exude and perhaps
cysts when wetter conditions recur in the fall.
also retract this secretion as they move.

FIGURE 35.13
Diatoms (Chrysophyta). Several different centric (radially symmetrical) diatoms.

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Rhodophyta: The Red Algae
Along with green algae and brown
algae, red algae are the seaweeds we
see cast up along shores and on
beaches. Their characteristic colors re-
sult from phycoerythrin, a type of
phycobilin pigment. Phycobilins are
responsible for the colors of the
cyanobacteria. Chlorophyll a also oc-
curs with the phycobilins in red algae,
just as it does in cyanobacteria. These
similarities with cyanobacteria make it
likely that the rhodophyta evolved
when their heterotrophic eukaryotic
ancestor developed an endosymbiotic
relationship with a cyanobacteria
which eventually gave rise to their
chloroplasts.
The great majority of the estimated
4000 species of red algae occur in the
sea, and almost all are multicellular.
Red algae have complex bodies
made up of interwoven filaments of
cells. In the cell walls of many red
algae are sulfated polysaccharides such
as agar and carrageenan, which make
these algae important economically.
Agar is used to make gel capsules, as
material for dental impressions, and as
a base for cosmetics. It is also the basis
of the laboratory media on which bac-
teria, fungi, and other organisms are
often grown. In addition, agar is used
to prevent baked goods from drying
out, for rapid-setting jellies, and as a
temporary preservative for meat and
fish in warm regions. Carrageenan is
used mainly to stabilize emulsions
such as paints, cosmetics, and dairy
products such as ice cream. In addition
to these uses, red algae such as Por-
phyra, called “nori,” are eaten and, in
Japan, are even cultivated as a human
food crop.
The life cycles of red algae are com-
plex but usually involve an alternation
of generations (sporic meiosis). None
of the red algae have flagella or cilia at
any stage in their life cycle, and they
may have descended directly from an-
cestors that never had them, especially
as the red algae also lack centrioles. To-
gether with the fungi, which also lack
flagella and centrioles, the red algae
may be one of the most ancient groups
of eukaryotes.
FIGURE 35.14
Brown algae (Phaeophyta). The massive
“groves” of giant kelp that occur in
relatively shallow water along the coasts of
the world provide food and shelter for
many different kinds of organisms.
Phaeophyta: The Brown Algae
The phaeophyta, or brown algae, con-
sist of about 1500 species of multicel-
lular protists, almost exclusively
marine. They are the most conspicu-
ous seaweeds in many northern
regions, dominating rocky shores al-
most everywhere in temperate North
America. In habitats where large
brown algae known as kelps (order
Laminariales) occur abundantly in so-
called kelp forests (figure 35.14), they
are responsible for most of the food
production through photosynthesis.
Many kelps are conspicuously differ-
entiated into flattened blades, stalks,
and grasping basal portions that an-
chor them to the rocks.
Among the larger brown algae are
genera such as Macrocystis, in which
some individuals may reach 100 me-
ters in length. The flattened blades of
this kelp float out on the surface of
the water, while the base is anchored
tens of meters below the surface. An-
other ecologically important member
of this phylum is sargasso weed, Sar-
gassum, which forms huge floating
masses that dominate the vast Sar-
gasso Sea, an area of the Atlantic
Ocean northeast of the Caribbean.
The stalks of the larger brown algae
often exhibit a complex internal dif-
ferentiation of conducting tissues
analogous to that of plants.
The life cycle of the brown algae is
marked by an alternation of genera-
tions between a sporophyte and a ga-
metophyte. The large individuals we
recognize, such as the kelps, are
sporophytes. The gametophytes are
often much smaller, filamentous indi-
viduals, perhaps a few centimeters
across. Sporangia, which produce
haploid, swimming spores after meio-
sis, are formed on the sporophytes.
These spores divide by mitosis, giving
rise to individual gametophytes.
There are two kinds of gametophytes
in the kelps; one produces sperm, and
the other produces eggs. If sperm and
eggs fuse, the resulting zygotes grow
into the mature kelp sporophytes,
provided that they reach a favorable
site.
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Chlorophyta: The Green

Algae – Strain

Green algae are an extremely varied

group of more than 7000 species.
The chlorophytes have an extensive
fossil record dating back 900 million Asexual
years. They are mostly aquatic, but reproduction
some are semiterrestrial in moist
places, such as on tree trunks or in n – Gamete
soil. Many are microscopic and uni- – Strain + Strain
cellular, but some, such as sea let-
tuce, Ulva (see figure 35.16), are
tens of centimeters across and easily + Strain + Gamete
visible on rocks and pilings around Pairing of
2n
the coasts. positive and
Green algae are of special inter- negative
strains
est, both because of their unusual di-
versity and because the ancestors of SYNGAMY
the plant kingdom were clearly mul-
ticellular green algae. Many features MEIOSIS
of modern green algae closely re-
semble plants, especially their Zygospore (diploid)
chloroplasts which are biochemically
similar to those of the plants. They FIGURE 35.15
contain chlorophylls a and b, as well Life cycle of Chlamydomonas (Chlorophyta). Individual cells of this microscopic,
as carotenoids. Green algae include biflagellated alga, which are haploid, divide asexually, producing identical copies of themselves.
a very wide array of both unicellular At times, such haploid cells act as gametes—fusing, as shown in the lower right-hand side of the
diagram, to produce a zygote. The zygote develops a thick, resistant wall, becoming a
and multicellular organisms.
zygospore; this is the only diploid cell in the entire life cycle. Within this diploid zygospore,
Among the unicellular green
meiosis takes place, ultimately resulting in the release of four haploid individuals. Because of the
algae, Chlamydomonas (figure 35.15) segregation during meiosis, two of these individuals are called the (+) strain, the other two the
is a well-known genus. Individuals (–) strain. Only + and – individuals are capable of mating with each other when syngamy does
are microscopic (usually less than 25 take place, although both may divide asexually to reproduce themselves.
micrometers long), green, rounded,
and have two flagella at the anterior
end. They move rapidly in water by beating their flagella in trait, but do not have the ability to form flagella. Chlorella is
opposite directions. Each individual has an eyespot, which widespread in both fresh and salt water as well as soil and is
contains about 100,000 molecules of rhodopsin, the same only known to reproduce asexually. Recently, Chlorella has
pigment employed in vertebrate eyes. Light received by been widely investigated as a possible food source for hu-
this eyespot is used by the alga to help direct its swimming. mans and other animals, and pilot farms have been estab-
Most individuals of Chlamydomonas are haploid. Chlamy- lished in Israel, the United States, Germany, and Japan.
domonas reproduces asexually (by cell division) as well as Another major line of specialization from cells like
sexually. In sexual reproduction, two haploid individuals Chlamydomonas concerns the formation of motile, colonial
fuse to form a four-flagellated zygote. The zygote ulti- organisms. In these genera of green algae, the Chlamy-
mately enters a resting phase, called the zygospore, in domonas-like cells retain some of their individuality. The
which the flagella disappear and a tough protective coat is most elaborate of these organisms is Volvox (see figure 35.1),
formed. Meiosis occurs at the end of this resting period and a hollow sphere made up of a single layer of 500 to 60,000
results in the production of four haploid cells. individual cells, each cell with two flagella. Only a small
Chlamydomonas probably represents a primitive state for number of the cells are reproductive. The colony has defi-
green algae and several lines of evolutionary specialization nite anterior and posterior ends, and the flagella of all of the
have been derived from organisms like it. The first is the cells beat in such a way as to rotate the colony in a clockwise
evolution of nonmotile, unicellular green algae. Chlamy- direction as it moves forward through the water. The repro-
domonas is capable of retracting its flagella and settling ductive cells of Volvox are located mainly at the posterior
down as an immobile unicellular organism if the ponds in end of the colony. Some may divide asexually, bulge inward,
which it lives dry out. Some common algae of soil and bark, and give rise to new colonies that initially remain within the
such as Chlorella, are essentially like Chlamydomonas in this parent colony. Others produce gametes. In some species of

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Spores
+ Gametophyte
MEIOSIS
Sporangia
FIGURE 35.16
Life cycle of Ulva. In this green alga, the
gametophyte and the sporophyte are identical in
appearance and consist of flattened sheets two
cells thick. In the haploid (n) gametophyte,
gametangia give rise to haploid gametes, which
Sporophyte
fuse to form a diploid (2n) zygote. The zygote (2n)
germinates to form the diploid sporophyte.
Sporangia within the sporophyte give rise to
haploid spores by meiosis. The haploid spores
develop into haploid gametophytes.
Volvox, there is a true division of labor among the different
types of cells, which are specialized in relation to their ulti-
mate function throughout the development of the organism.
In addition to these two lines of specialization from
Chlamydomonas-like cells, there are many other kinds of
green algae of less certain derivation. Many filamentous
genera, such as Spirogyra, with its ribbon-like chloro-
plasts, differ substantially from the remainder of the green
algae in their modes of cell division and reproduction.
Some of these genera have even been placed in separate
phyla. The study of the green algae, involving modern
methods of electron microscopy and biochemistry, is be-
ginning to reveal unexpected new relationships within this
phylum.
Ulva, or sea lettuce (figure 35.16), is a genus of marine
green algae that is extremely widespread. The glistening
individuals of this genus, often more than 10 centimeters
across, consist of undulating sheets only two cells thick.
Sea lettuce attaches by protuberances of the basal cells to
rocks or other substrates. The reproductive cycle of Ulva
involves an alternation of generations (sporic meiosis;
figure 35.16) as is typical among green algae. Unlike
most organisms that undergo sporic meiosis, however,
– Gametophyte (n)
– Gametangia
(n)
+ Gametangia
n
2n
Gametes
+ –
Gametes fuse
SYNGAMY
Germinating
zygote Zygote
the gametophytes (haploid phase) and sporophytes
(diploid phase) resemble one another closely.
The stoneworts, a group of about 250 living species of
green algae, many of them in the genera Chara and Nitella,
have complex structures. Whorls of short branches arise
regularly at their nodes, and the gametangia (structures
that give rise to gametes) are complex and multicellular.
Stoneworts are often abundant in fresh to brackish water
and are common as fossils.
Dinoflagellates are primarily unicellular,
photosynthetic, and flagellated. Euglenoids (phylum
Euglenophyta) consist of about 40 genera, about a third
of which have chloroplasts similar biochemically to
those of green algae and plants. Diatoms and golden
algae are unicellular, photosynthetic organisms that
produce a unique carbohydrate. Diatoms have double
shells made of opaline silica. Nonmotile, unicellular
algae and multicellular, flagellated colonies have been
derived from green algae like Chlamydomonas—a
biflagellated, unicellular organism. The life cycle of
brown algae is marked by an alternation of generations
between the diploid phase, or sporophyte, and the
haploid phase, or gametophyte.
Chapter 35 Protists 707