Deformation,

Mountain Building,
and the Evolution of
Continents
 Deformation
™Deformation is a general term that refers to
all changes in the original form and/or size
of a rock body
™Most crustal deformation occurs along plate
margins
™Factors that influence the strength of a rock
• Temperature and confining pressure
• Rock type
• Time
 Deformation
™Deformed rocks are manifestation of the dynamic
nature of the Earth
™Many ancient rocks are fractured or highly
contorted, clearly indicating that the forces within
the Earth caused deformation during the past.
™This deformation is not restricted to the past,
however, seismic activity and continuing
deformation at plate boundaries indicate that
deforming forces remain active ....
™Mountain formation
 Deformation
Fractured and contorted rocks are said to be DEFORMED;
that is their original
¾ Shape
¾ Volume or
¾ Both

have been altered by STRESS ⇒ the result of force applied

to a given volume of rock.

⇒ The force per unit area applied to a material such as within

the Earth’s crust

STRAIN ⇒ Deformation caused by stress ⇒ if the intensity

of stress is greater than the internal strenght of the rocks, it
will go stratin.
 Stress vs Strain

Force (F)
Stress (σ) =
Area (A)
Stress vs Strain
Stress vs Strain
 STRESS
Compression⇒ when rocks are squeezed or compressed
by external forces directed to one another.
shortenning and thickening by folding
and faulting
Tension⇒ forces acting in opposite direction along the
same line.
lengthening and thinning; rocks are pulled
apart
Shear⇒ forces act parallel to one another but in opposite
directions
displacement of adjacent layers along closely
spaced planes.
 STRAIN
Elastic Strain⇒ Strain is elastic if a deformed object
returns to its original position when the stresses are
released.

Plastic Strain⇒ When stess is applied to rocks, they

repond first by elastic strain, BUT when strained
beyond their elastic limit they cannot recover their
original shape ⇒ Permenant Deformation

The amount of plastic deformation rocks exhibit before

fracturing depends on their ductility:

Rocks ⇒ at or near surface ⇒ brittle

⇒ At depth with high P & T ⇒ plastic
Stress vs Strain
 The amount of strain depends on
‰ Kind of stress applied
‰ Amount of pressure
‰ Amount of temperature
‰ The rock type
‰ Length of time the rock is subjected to stress
‰ Hydrothermal fluids

Types of rocks are of two depending on the amount of

plastic train they exhibit
Ductile – considerable plastic deformation
Brittle – little or no plastic deformation before
fracturing
 STRIKE & DIP
TO describe the orientation of deformed rock layers
¾ principle of original horizontality
¾ inclined beds (tilting)
 STRIKE & DIP

Strike ⇒ direction of
line formed by the
intersection of a
horizontal plane
with a inclined
plane.

Dip ⇒ measure of
maximum angular
deviation of an
inclined plane
from horizontal,
perpendicular to
strike.
 Ductile Deformation: Folds
™Rocks bent into
a series of
waves (up- and
down-arched
features)
™Most folds
result from
compressional
forces which
shorten and
thicken the crust
 Types of Folds
• Anticline – upfolded, or arched, rock layers: each limb dip away
from each other; oldest rock is ezposed at the core
• Syncline – downfolded rock layers: each limb dips toward
eachother; youngest rock is exposed at the core
• Monocline – simple bend or flezure in otherwise horizontal or
uniformly dipping rock layer.

• Anticlines and synclines can be

• Symmetrical - limbs are mirror images: axial plane is vertical; each limbs
dip at the same angle
• Asymmetrical - limbs are not mirror images: axial plabe is inclined; limbs
dip at different angles
• Overturned - one limb is tilted beyond the vertical: both limbs dip in the
same direction, one limb has been rotated 90 degres from its original
position so that it is now upside down
• Recumbent – axial plane is horizontal
• Where folds die out they are said to be plunging
Parts of Folds
 Parts of Folds:
Plunging & non-plunging folds

Crest/crest line
Through/Through line
Hinge/hinge line
A series of anticlines
and synclines
 Types of Folds
• Anticline – upfolded, or arched, rock layers: each limb dip away
from each other; oldest rock is ezposed at the core
• Syncline – downfolded rock layers: each limb dips toward
eachother; youngest rock is exposed at the core
• Monocline – simple bend or flezure in otherwise horizontal or
uniformly dipping rock layer.

• Anticlines and synclines can be

• Symmetrical - limbs are mirror images: axial plane is vertical; each limbs
dip at the same angle
• Asymmetrical - limbs are not mirror images: axial plabe is inclined; limbs
dip at different angles
• Overturned - one limb is tilted beyond the vertical: both limbs dip in the
same direction, one limb has been rotated 90 degres from its original
position so that it is now upside down
• Recumbent – axial plane is horizontal
• Where folds die out they are said to be plunging
Types of Folds
Types of Folds
Types of Folds
Plunging folds
Outcrop patterns of
plunging folds
Outcrop patterns of
plunging folds
 Types of Folds

Other types of folds

• Dome
• Circular, or slightly elongated
• Upwarped displacement of rocks
• Oldest rocks in core
• Basin
• Circular, or slightly elongated
• Downwarped displacement of rocks
• Youngest rocks in core
 The Black
Hills of South
Dakota are a
large dome
The bedrock geology of
the Michigan Basin
• Folds are classified on the basis of several
geometric factors:
– 1. Tightness of folding
– Open
– Tight
– Isoclinal
• Folds
are classified on the basis of several
geometric factors:

2. Orientation of axial plane:

Upright Inclined Recumbent
Examples
Examples
Examples
Examples
Stratigraphic younging
Stratigraphic younging
Stratigraphic younging
 Folding and Faulting
Classification
 Brittle Deformation: Fractures
Fractures are surfaces along which rocks has lost cohesion
™Types of fractures
• Joints: fractures along which no movement has occurred or
movement is perpendicular to the fracture walls: That is
fractures may open-up, BUT the rocks on opposite side of
fracture show no movement parallel to the fracture
• Commonest structures in rocks
• Brittle deformation by fracturing on all near-surface rocks
• From in response to C, T or S stresses
• They are related to large-scale structures like folds and faults
(crest of anticlines)

• Columnar joints: cooling of magma in dykes, sills and thick

lava flows
• Sheet joints: pressure release mechanism
 Faults

™Faults are fractures (breaks) in rocks along which

appreciable displacement has taken place: blocks
on opposit sides of fracture move parallel to the
fracture surface (fault plane)
™Types of faults
• Dip-slip fault
• Movement along the inclination (dip) of fault plane
• Parts of a dip-slip fault
• Hanging wall – the rock above the fault surface
• Footwall – the rock below the fault surface
Concept of hanging wall and
footwall along a fault
 Faults
™Types of faults
• Dip-slip fault
• Types of dip-slip faults
• Normal fault
• Hanging wall block moves down
• Associated with fault-block mountains
• Prevalent at spreading centers
• Caused by tensional forces
A normal fault
A normal fault
Fault block mountains produced
by normal faulting
Fault block mountains produced
by normal faulting
A normal fault
A normal fault
A normal fault
A normal fault
A normal fault
A normal fault
 Faults
™Types of faults
• Dip-slip fault
• Types of dip-slip faults
• Reverse and thrust faults
• Hanging wall block moves up
• Caused by strong compressional stresses
• Reverse fault - dips greater than 45º
• Thrust fault - dips less than 45º
A reverse fault
A reverse fault
A thrust fault
A reverse fault
A reverse fault
 Faults
™Types of faults
• Strike-slip faults
• Dominant displacement is horizontal and parallel to
the trend, or strike
• Transform fault
• Large strike-slip fault that cuts through the
lithosphere
• Often associated with plate boundaries
 A strike-slip fault
(sinistral = left lateral)
 A strike-slip fault
(dextral = right lateral)
A strike-slip fault
A strike-slip fault
A strike-slip fault
Faulting
 Mountain belts
™Orogenesis refers to processes that
collectively produce a mountain belt
™Mountain building at convergent boundaries
• Most mountain building occurs at convergent
plate boundaries
• Aleutian-type mountain building
• Where two oceanic plates converge and one is
subducted beneath the other
 Mountain belts
™Mountain building at convergent boundaries
• Aleutian-type mountain building
• Volcanic island arcs forms
• Found in shrinking ocean basins, such as the
Pacific
• e.g., Mariana, Tonga, Aleutian, and Japan arcs
Formation of a volcanic island arc
 Mountain belts
™Mountain building at convergent boundaries
• Andean-type mountain building
• Oceanic-continental crust convergence
• e.g., Andes Mountains
• Types related to the overriding plate
• Passive margins
• Prior to the formation of a subduction zone
• e.g., East Coast of North America
 Mountain belts
™Mountain building at convergent boundaries
• Andean-type mountain building
• Types related to the overriding plate
• Active continental margins
• Subduction zone forms
• Deformation process begins
• Continental volcanic arc forms
• Accretionary wedge forms
• Examples of inactive Andean-type orogenic
belts include Sierra Nevada Range and
California's Coast Ranges
Orogenesis along an Andean-
type subduction zone
Orogenesis along an Andean-
type subduction zone
Orogenesis along an Andean-
type subduction zone
 Mountain belts
™Mountain building at convergent boundaries
• Continental collisions
• Where two plates with continental crust converge
• e.g., India and Eurasian plate collision
• Himalayan Mountains and the Tibetan Plateau
Plate relationships prior to the
collision of India with Eurasia
Position of India
in relation to
Eurasia at various
times
Formation of the Himalayas
 Mountain belts
™Mountain building at convergent boundaries
• Continental accretion
• Third mechanism of mountain building
• Small crustal fragments collide with and accrete to
continental margins
• Accreted crustal blocks are called terranes
• Occurred along the Pacific Coast
 Distribution of modern day
oceanic plateaus and other
submerged crustal fragments
 Accreted
terranes along
the western
margin of
North America
 Mountain belts
™Buoyancy and the principle of isostasy
• Evidence for crustal uplift includes wave-cut
platforms high above sea level
• Reasons for crustal uplift
• Not so easy to determine
• Isostasy
• Concept of a floating crust in gravitational
balance
• When weight is removed from the crust, crustal
uplifting occurs
• Process is called isostatic adjustment
The principle of isostasy
Erosion and resulting isostatic
adjustment of the crust
Erosion and resulting isostatic
adjustment of the crust
Erosion and resulting isostatic
adjustment of the crust