T7

INDIAN RAILWAYS INSTITUTE OF
SIGNAL ENGINEERING & TELECOMMUNICATIONS

SECUNDERABAD - 500 017
T7
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS IN TELECOM
Issued in October 2008

T-7
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS IN TELECOM

Contents
Chapter Description Page no.
1. Fundamental Concepts 1
2. Basic meter principles.. 5
3. Analog amp, volt, ohm and multi meter 9
4. Analogue and digital electronic meters 22
5. Oscilloscope 34
6. Megger 50
7. Transmission measurements 66
8. Cable Route and fault locator 90
9. Selective Level meter 98
10. Frequency counter 106
PREPARED BY P.BHATTACHARYA, IMW-2

APPROVED BY S.K.BISWAS, Sr Professor Tele
DTP AND DRAWINGS K.SRINIVAS, JE II(D)
DATE OF ISSUE October 2005
EDITION NO 02
First Reprint October 2008
NO. OF PAGES 82
NO.OF SHEETS
© IRISET
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http://www.iriset.ac.in
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
CHAPTER 1
1.1 Introduction
An ideal measuring instrument interfaces between the physical world and information
world by its sensing and display control systems respectively. The quantities like voltage,
current, resistance, power, frequency, inductance, capacitance, Q-factor, pulse width,
heat, luminous intensity of light, sound level, rotational and wind speeds are measured
either electrically or electronically. Before selecting a good measuring meter, the most
important things likely to be considered are - Sensitivity, Resolution, Range, Linearity,
Precision, Sensing time, Sample rate etc.
1.1.1System of units: The system of units that follow in the measurement of above quantities
is SI (International System) system of units. Some prefixes are also used with these
units for varying magnitude of the measured quantities. The Table 1.1 below shows the
prefixes as powers of 10.
Name Giga Mega Kilo Milli Micro Nano Pico

Prefix G M K m µ n p
Equivalent to 109 106 103 10-3 10-6 10-9Nano seconds 10-12
Kilo meters
Giga hertz
Micro-amps
pico- farads
Meg. Ohms
GHz
Milli meters
Km.
mm
MΩ
Example
µA
pF
ns
Table 1.1 System of units
1.2 Measuring Instruments
An electrical meter couldn’t directly measure the various quantities mentioned above, but
a transformation is necessary, so that the quantity to be measured is first converted to its
analogous electrical equivalent.
The various electrical instruments, in a broad sense, are divided into - Absolute and
secondary instrument.
IRISET 1 ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Absolute Instruments-are those instruments, which give the value of quantity to be

measured in terms of the constants of the instrument and their deflection only.
No previous calibration or comparison is necessary in this case. The example of such an

instrument is Tangent Galvanometer that gives the value of current in terms of the
tangent of deflection produced by the current and of the radius and number of turns of
wire used and the horizontal component of earth’s field. If a current (I) passes through
the coil and θ be the angle of deflection, then the strength of current will be found to be
proportional to tan θ. Earth’s magnetic field will try to bring the needle back in the
magnetic meridian. If H be the horizontal intensity at that place, then the force acting on
each pole will be mH.
H
∴ I = --------- tan θ emu
πn/r
2π
Where, n = number of turns of coil and r = radius of the coil and

π n / r = G = constant for a particular galvanometer.
2π
∴ I = (H/G) tan θ emu
Again by putting H/G =K; We get I = K tan θ emu
Where, θ = Angle of deflection,
K = Reduction factor of the galvanometer and is constant for a particular
Galvanometer of a particular place (this depends on horizontal component of the Earth’s
magnetic field, radius of the coil and number of turns of the coil) and I = the current to
be measured.
If the current is expressed in Amps, it should first of all be converted to electromagnetic

unit, i.e., 1 Amp =1/10 emu.
∴ I = 10K tan θ Amps.
The tangent galvanometer is a suspended magnet type, consists of a circular coil of

insulated wire. At the centre of the wooden frame, there is short magnetic needle. A
fairly long but light aluminium pointer is rigidly attached at right angle to the needle. The
magnetic needle is deflected due to current flowing through the coil. And the earth’s
magnetic field tries to bring the needle back to the magnetic meridian.

Secondary instruments are those in which the value of electrical quantity to be

measured can be determined from the deflection of the instrument only when they have
been pre-calibrated by comparison with an absolute instrument. Without calibration, the
deflections of such instruments are meaningless. It is the secondary instrument that is
most generally used in everyday work, the use of the absolute instruments being merely
confined within laboratories as standardising instrument.
1.2.1 Types of Measuring Instruments
Measuring instruments are grouped as below

1) Indicating. 2) Recording. 3) Integrating.
Indicating instruments are those, which indicate the magnitude of a quantity, being
measured by an arc of a dial and a pointer, such as voltmeter and am-meter.
Recording instruments give a continuous record of the quantity being measured, on

paper roll extending over selected period of time. Example: weather recording,
cardiograph.
Integrating instruments give the total amount of energy over a period of time. The
summation is the product of time and an electrical quantity. Examples are Ampere-hour
and watt hour meter.
1.2.2 Essentials of indicating instrument
a) Deflecting torque. b) Controlling torque. c) Damping torque.
A deflecting torque: It deflects the moving mechanism of an indicating instrument due

to the physical effects of an electrical current.
A controlling torque: It opposes the deflecting torque and increases with the deflection
of the moving system. Two devises are widely used to make controlling torque.
a) Spring control. b) Gravity control.
A damping force is one, which acts on moving system of the instrument only when it is
moving and always opposes its motion to bring the pointer to rest quickly. Damping
forces are: - Air friction, Fluid friction and Eddy current damping.

1.3 ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF A GOOD METER
1. SENSITIVITY: Refers to the smallest value of the physical property that is

detectable.
2. RES0LUTION: Smallest change in a physical property that causes a change in the
sensory output. For example, human can detect loudness variations of about 1dB,
while a sound level meter may detect changes as small as 0.001dB.
3. RANGE: Refers to span from smallest to the largest value of detectable stimuli. For
example, human ear cannot detect beyond the frequency range 20Hz to 20KHz.
4. LINEARITY: Specifies how sensitivity varies range. For example, although we can
usually here frequencies between 20Hz and 20KHz., our hearing is most sensitivity
to loudness variation at frequencies from 0.3KHz to 5KHz.
5. PRECISION: Refers to the reproducibility or repeatability of an observation.
6. LAG AND SETTING TIME: Refers to the amount of time that lapses between the
initiation of an observation and the final output of in formation.
1.3.1 PRECAUTION TO BE TAKEN DURING MEASUREMENT
1) Use high input impedance meter

2) Do not over load the meter. At start select the meter at a higher range then reduce
the range to see the reading.
3) Always disconnect the circuit under test before attaching probe while changing the
function.
4) If by mistake the voltage is measured on resistance or current range, the meter will
get damage.
5) Do not use-discharged battery that gives wrong reading
6) Use proper range of fuse to save the meter from over current.
7) Do not touch the circuit with hand while measuring .It may change value of reading
to be measured
8) Discharge the capacitor before testing the capacitor.
9) After turning on power, allow a preheating period of 5 to 10 minutes before use.
10) Under idle condition, leave the meter in high voltage range. Allow the meter for
sudden vibration.

BASIC METER PRINCIPLES
CHAPTER 2

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The two fundamental properties of current flow--Electro-magnetism and heat are used
for operating meters.
The current flowing through a coil produces a magnetic field that will depend upon the
amount of current. The strength of this field is used in different ways to indicate the
amount of current passing through the coil. Three types of meter that use
electromagnetic principle are as follows: -
♦ Moving Coil Meters
♦ Moving Iron Meters
♦ Dynamometers.
When current flows through a wire, the amount of heat produced will depend upon the
flow of current. This amount of heat is used to indicate the amount of current. Meters
operating on this principle are called Thermal Meters. The two main types are: -
♦ Hot wire ammeters
♦ Thermocouple meters
2.2 Moving Coil Instrument.
Fig. 2.1 Moving coil
The basic constructional details of De Arsonval type meter are shown in the Fig. 2.1 and
2.2 The current to be measured is passed through a coil of fine wire wound on a light -
aluminium frame. This coil surrounds a cylindrically shaped fixed iron core and is
supported at the top and bottom by hard steel pivots that rotate in jewel bearings. The

coil has a pointer affixed to it to indicate the deflection on a faceplate. Two special
springs wounds in opposite directions, for self-compensation with temperature change
holds the pointer to the zero position in the absence of current through the coil.
Fig. 2.2 Moving coil basic construction details
The current flows into the coil through the spiral springs. When a current is passed
through the coil, a magnetic field proportional to the current is produced. This field reacts
with the permanent magnetic field and causes the coil to rotate against the tension of the
spiral springs. When the tension of the springs is equals to the torque due to magnetic
field, the pointer stops. The movement of the coil and hence the movement of the pointer
depends upon the amount of current in the coil. Thus the force that rotates the moving
coil is directly proportional to the coil current and also the resistance torque of the
springs is directly proportional to the angle of rotation. Therefore, the displacement of the
pointer along the meter scale is directly proportional to the current. The scale is,
therefore, linear, i.e.; the divisions are equally paced over entire scale.
The movement of the pointer must be damped; otherwise the pointer will not move
directly to a given position but will swing to it’s deflecting position and coming to rest only
after a considerable time. For damping the movement, the coil is wound on a light
aluminium frame and when it moves in the magnetic field, a voltage will be induced in it
and the resulting current will be in such a direction as to oppose the movement. Because
of this, the pointer will swing more slowly to the final position without any oscillating
action. The retardation force due to current in the frame will only exist when the frame
moves and hence the sensitivity of the meter will not be affected
The steady magnetic field in which the moving coil operates is due to permanent
magnet. This field is constant and in one direction. For this reason, the current in the coil
must be in one direction only for the pointer to deflect normally. Hence, in these types of
meters, the polarities of the terminals are required to be observed. They cannot be used
to measure alternating or rapidly varying currents without external circuits. This meter
movement can be made very sensitive so that a few microamperes of current swing the
pointer across the entire scale. The pointer must always start from zero position and this
position is determined by the control springs. These springs do not normally remain
perfectly balanced. For adjusting this balance, meters have a “Zero" adjustment screw.
This screw protrudes through the front panel of the meter and by turning this screw, the
pointer can be brought to zero.
2.2.1 The main advantages of this type of instrument are:
a. Uniform Scale
b. Low Power consumption
c. Easily extendable
d. Efficient damping.
This type of instrument is, however, costlier than the moving iron type and likely to give
error due to ageing of the control spring. Further, these are suitable only for D.C. When
A.C. is applied, the deflecting torque will change its direction according to the frequency
and hence, the resultant torque is zero. This property is efficiently used to find the
frequency of the signalling current on the train traffic lines with the help of a centre zero
instruments. These instruments have terminals marked, ‘ + ’ and ‘ – ’ and while using
the polarity should be strictly observed.
2.3 Moving iron ammeter and voltmeters.
Attraction and Repulsion – these are the two types of moving iron ammeter and
voltmeter.
Here the electromagnetic field is fixed. The oval shaped soft iron is pivoted within the
field. In attraction type, one soft iron is required but for repulsion type two soft irons are

required. Of the repulsion type, one soft iron is fixed and the other one is pivoted on
which a needle is attached to move on the scale. Both the soft irons are magnetized of
same polarity due to electromagnetic field in the vicinity. Hence they repulsed each other
and deflecting torque is produced. In case of attraction type the electromagnetic filed
pulls the pivoted soft iron towards its field to deflect the needle. These meters are useful
both for AC and DC measurements. The scale is not uniform.
2.4Electro dynamic or Dynamometer type
An electrodynamics instrument is a moving coil instrument in which the operating field is

produced not by permanent magnet, but by another fixed coil. It can use as ammeter or
voltmeter but generally used as a wattmeter. This instrument can be used both for AC and
DC but most suitable for AC.

ANALOG AMP, VOLT, OHM AND MULTIMETER
CHAPTER 3
ANALOG AMP, VOLT, OHM AND MULTI METER
3.1. AMMETER
Every meter coil has a definite amount of D.C. internal resistance that depends on the
size of wire used and the number of turns. When the number of turns on the coil is more,
a small amount of current will produce sufficient magnetic field to deflect the pointer to
full scale. This small amount of current required to give full-scale deflection is known as
the sensitivity of a meter.
3.1.1 Meter sensitivity is defined in two ways

(1) As current sensitivity.
The minimum current that is necessary for full-scale deflection of the meter is a
measure of the sensitivity of the meter. The sensitivity may vary from 5 µA to about 50
ma. The smaller the current that required for full-scale deflection the greater is the
sensitivity of the meter.
(2) As Ohms per volt.
The sensitivity in Ohms per volt is given by the amount of resistance that must be placed
in series with the meter to cause full-scale deflection when 1 volt is applied to the meter.
The greater the resistance placed in series the greater is the sensitivity in
Ohms/volt. (Internal resistance of the meter is usually small and can, therefore, be
neglected).
When a permanent magnet moving coil type meter is used as an ammeter the coil is
placed in series with the other circuit components to measure the current flow. But since
the coil is wound with fine wire its current carrying capacity is limited and it is equal to
the meter sensitivity i.e., current required for full-scale deflection the second
characteristic of a meter is the internal resistance. This value increases with the meter
sensitivity. Common values are 27 Ω or 105 Ω for 1 mA meter and 1.5k to 2 K Ω for 50
µA meters.
In practice the value of current is required to be measured is much higher than the full-
scale deflection current of the meter movement. To measure these values, a resistance
is placed across the meter movement to divert the excess current around the coil. The

value of this shunt resistance depends upon the internal resistance of the coil and the
amount of the current that is to be diverted. For example, the 1 ma, meter shown in the
figure (Fig. 3.1) is to be used to measure a current of 10 mA.
Fig. 3.1 Shunt resistance across meter to measure current
The shunt now must pass 9mA when the meter reads full scale. For half-scale deflection
the shunt will pass 4.5mA and the meter, coil 0.5ma. In each case the current in the
shunt is exactly 9 times, the current in the coil and therefore, the resistance of the shunt
must be 1/9th that of the coil.
The ammeter shunt can be calculated as shown below:
The voltage across AB is Im x Rm = Ish X Rsh.
Fig. 3.2 Shunt resistances for multi range ammeter
Where,
Rsh=(Im x Rm) ÷ (Ish), Rsh= Resistance of shunt, Rm= Resistance of the meter coil, Im=
Current of meter coil and Ish= Current to be passed through the shunt.

In multi-range ammeters switching arrangements are used to provide a number of

ranges for the basic movement. The switch connects a different shunt across the meter
coil for each range. By using a 27Ω, 1 mA meter and calibrating the scale for the
required ranges, we find that no shunt is required for 0 - 1 ma. For 0 - 10 ma the shunt
is 3 ohms; for 0 - 100 ma the shunt is 0.27Ω and for 0-1A, the shunt is 0.027Ω, as shown
in the Fig 3.2
R1 = (Im / Ish) Rm. = (1m.A/9m.A) (27) = 3 Ω.

R2 = (1/ 99) 27 = 0.27Ω.
R3 = (1/ 999) 27 = 0.027Ω
Commercial multi-range meters provide as many as a dozen different ranges for

measuring current. The meter movement is generally 50µA. A common circuit employed
in the switching is known as the tapped shunt or ring shunt. Instead of using separate
shunts, some resistances are placed in series with the meter movement and some are in
parallel. The advantage of this system is that the parallel resistances need not be of
too low a value.
Fig. 3.3 Tapped shunt resistance in a multi range ammeter
As the resistance of the tapped shunt is decreased, the resistance in series with the
meter coil is increased thus more current being diverted around the meter as the higher
ranges are selected. In the Fig 3.3 arrangements for the following ranges is shown:
0 – 100µa, 0 - 10 ma, 0 - 100 ma, 0 - 500 ma & 0 - 10 amps.
In some multi-meters universal shunts are used. These shunts can be used with meters
of any internal resistance. As universal shunt consists of a tapped resistance, the
current range multiplier factor is the function of the ratio R/R1 is independent of the
meter resistance. If R/R1 is made equal to 1,30, 100, 300 and 1000 at the switch
positions 1,2,3,4 and 5 the current scale is increased by the same amount when the
switch is in the respective positions. The initial requirement is that R should be of such a
value so that when the switch is in position 1 the meter reads full scale. This can be
accomplished by providing a variable resistance across the meter. This will not disturb
the ratios but the sensitivity of the meter will be affected, as the full-scale deflection
current will be more.
To increase the range of basic meter movement its internal resistance must be known.
The internal resistance should not be measured with an ohmmeter as the internal battery
may supply sufficient current to damage the meter movement. If manufacturer's data is
not available, the internal resistance can be calculated as shown below. Refer. Figure
(Fig. 3.4)
FIG. 3.4 Method to calculate internal resistance of a meter
1. Adjust R1 to a value such that if the meter resistance shows zero, the circuit current
will be less than fsd of the meter movement.
2. Close switch S1 and reduce R1 until meter reads full-scale value.
3. Close switch S2 and using a decade resistance box or a variable resistance adjust
R2 for meter to read half scale. The meter resistance now is equal to R2.
As an ammeter is connected in series in a circuit, it must have zero ohms ideally, in

order to have no effect on the current flow. But practically, the meter has a resistance
equal to parallel combination of the meter resistance and the shunt resistance. The
accuracy of the ammeter reading depends on the value of the meter resistance
compared, to the circuit resistance.

If a voltage of 10V is applied to a load of 1000 ohms, then the circuit current is (10/1000)
= 10 mA. If a meter of 1000 ohms internal resistance is used to measure the current, then
the circuit resistance now will be 2000 ohms and the meter will read 5mA.
This is an error of 50%. If the 1000Ω meter is replaced by a meter of 0.025Ωthe current
will be (10)/(1000.025) = 9.99 mA. For all practical purposes, this reading is correct.
Therefore, it is apparent that for a given circuit, the am-meter reading will be more
accurate when the meter resistance is much less than the circuit resistance.
3.1.2 The following precautions should be observed when using ammeters:
(1) Never connect an ammeter across a battery or across a component.

(2) An ammeter should always be connected in series, i.e., the circuit must be
broken and the ammeter introduced.
(3) Always observe the meter polarity on D.C. measurements.
(4) When measuring an unknown quantity with a multi-meter always start from the
highest range.
3.2 VOLTMETERS
A meter movement presents a resistance of some value to the current flow and
therefore, a voltage will develop across the meter coil. Since this resistance is constant,
for a particular meter, the current through the coil will be proportional to the applied
voltage. The value of this resistance depends on the sensitivity of the meter movement.
If a meter movement has an internal resistance of 105 ohms and full-scale deflection
current of 1 mA, then the voltage V required to cause full-scale deflection is equal to 105
X .001 = 0.105V. Thus, this meter movement can be used to measure the voltage up to
105 mille volts. By adding resistance in series with the meter coil, we can apply a higher
voltage and still limit the current in the meter movement to its rated value.
The multiplier resistance in series with the meter movement is given by the formula:
Rt. = V/ Im
Rt. = Rx + Rm.
Where Rt is a total resistance of the circuit; V is the voltage range required. In full-scale
deflection of the current movement, Rx is the resistance required to be added in series
with the movement and Rm is the internal resistance of the meter coil.

A meter movement of 1 mA and 105 ohms meter resistance that required to be changed
to read 2 volts. Therefore, Rt = (2/0.001)=2000Ω; Rx = (Rt – Rm) = (2000 – 105) =
1895Ω. Thus, the series resistance required to be added to convert this meter
movement to read 2 volts is an 1895Ω.
The sensitivity of the voltmeter is based on the loading caused by the meter to the circuit
and is expressed in ohms per volt. In the above para, the voltmeter sensitivity is equal to
Rt ÷ V i.e., (2000 ohms ÷ 2) volts = 1000 ohms per volt.
A switching arrangement may be used to provide a number of ranges. This is achieved

either by inserting different multiplier resistance for each range or by using tapped series
multiplier as shown in the figure (Fig. 3.5).
Fig. 3.5 Tapped Series multiplier
As the voltage range of the meter is increased more resistance is placed in series with
the meter movement. Note that the sensitivity of this meter movement is 20,000 ohms
per volt on all ranges
The advantage of using 20,000Ohms/volt sensitivity compared to 1000 Ohms/volt can

be seen from the following examples. Total load = 20000ohms(asR1=10000ohms and
R2= 10000ohms). Input voltage to the load =20V. Without a voltmeter the circuit current
(20÷20,000) = 1ma. As R1 = R2 the voltage across R1 or R2=10V. A voltmeter of 1000
ohms/volt sensitivity to read 10V will have a resistance equal to 10K. Thus the combined
resistance of R2 and voltmeter is 5K. The circuit current now is (20 ÷ 15K) = 1.33mA and

voltage drop across R2 is 6.7V. Thus the meter reads 6.7 volts instead of 10V due to
high current drawn by the voltmeter.
By using a 20,000-ohms/volt meter across 10V(R2) the meter resistance should be

200K(20K x 10) and combined resistance of R2 and voltmeter will be 9.55K.Total circuit
resistance =(10K+9.55) ohms. The circuit current = (20/19.55) A. Therefore, voltage
drop across R2 will be 9.8V. The difference between 9.8V and 10V is very small and it
may be neglected for practical purpose, but a value of 6.7 volts will give wrong
indications.
When using multi-range meters the highest range will introduce less loading effect on
the circuits and therefore, the readings will be more accurate and the higher ranges may
be used to check 'the value read on the lower range.
3.3 Ohm Meter
There are two types of ohmmeter to measure the value of a Resistor: -

1) Series type.
2) Shunt type.
Series type Ohm’s meter is for field use and shunt type for laboratory use
In Series type Ohm’s meter, the meter coils, the series resistance, zero adjusting
resistance and internal battery source are in series.
If the meter sensitivity is 1 mA and internal power source is 4.5V, when the meter probes
are shorted out and zero adjusting pot is adjusted for zero reading (full scale deflection)
on the meter dial, then the total value of circuit resistance is given by –
Rc= 4.5v/1mA = 4500Ω,

Percentage of deflection = Rc/Rc+Rx) x 100,
Where Rx = unknown resistance
Rc = circuit resistance

3.4 VOLT - OHM – MILLI-AMMETER (Type SIMPSON – 260)
Volt-Ohm-Mille-ammeter is multi-range instruments with multi functions, in that they

measure voltages, currents and resistances. A multi-range meter is a meter movement
extended to include two or more ranges. Two methods are used for changing from one
range to another. One method is to have separate terminals for each range, with one
terminal common to all. The second method is to use a selector switch to select a
particular range. See Fig. 3.6
Fig. 3.6 Volt - Ohm – milli - ammeter (type Simpson – 260)
A V.O.M uses 50µA to 1 mA meter movements. A 50µ A meter movement is used to

achieve D.C. Sensitivities of 20,000 ohms per volt as this sensitivity are adequate for
most D.C. measurements since circuit operation is not much affected. Less sensitive
meter provides 2000 ohms or 5000 ohms per volt sensitivities but these should be used
only in circuits where- the internal resistances are low.
The arrangement of panel switches and jacks on V.O.M are standardized. The - DC +
DC and AC switch is to select different functions. The zero Ohms variable resistance is
for adjusting zero when ohms are being measured. The range switch is for choosing
different ranges and jacks are for connections to test leads.

A circuit diagram of a typical multi-meter is shown in the Fig. 3.6
i) D.C voltage sensitivity 20000 ohms per volt.

Ranges: 0.250mv. 0-2.5V. 0-10V, 0-50V, 0-1000V.
ii) A.C. Voltages sensitivity 5000 ohms per volt.

Ranges: 0.2-5V 0-10V, 0-50V, 0-250V, 0-1000V, and 0-5000V.
iii) D.C circuit.

Ranges: 0-50µA, 0 - 1ma, 0 -10ma, 0-100ma, 0 - 500 ma and 0 - 10A.
iv) D.C. Resistance.

Ranges: Rx1 0 - 2KΩ (12 Ω centre of scale)
Rx100 0-200KΩ (1.2 KΩ centre of scale)
Rx10, 000 0-20MΩ (120KΩ centre of scale)
v) A.F. voltage
Ranges: 0-2.5V, 0-10V, 0-50V & 0-250V.
vi) Levels in dBs: - 0dB = 1 mw across 600 ohms

Ranges: -20 to +10dB, -8 to +22dB, +6 to +36 dB and +20 to
+50dB.
Frequency range is 20 c/s to 50,000 c/s.

Battery voltages = 7.5V(5 X 1.5V cells).
Four cells are used for the range Rx 10K and 1 cell for the range RX1 and
RX100).
Before any measurements are made, make sure that the pointer is indicating zero, if it is
not indicating zero, it should be adjusted by means of screw on the case below the
centre of the meter scale
3.4.1 Measuring D.C. Voltages / Currents (Refer Fig. 3.8)
a) For Range 0-250 mV and 0 - 50 µA.

Set function switch to + DC and connect black test lead to common-jack and red test
lead to 50µA -jack and set range switch to 50µA/50V switch.

Read the voltage and DC range 0 - 250V in mille volts and current 0 - 50V in micro
Amps.
b) For Range 0 - 1000V

Set function switch to + D.C. plug black test lead in common jack and red test lead in +
jack. Now set range switch to the desired range and observe the reading. If the pointer
deflects to left set the function switch to - DC.
c) For Range 0 - 5000V.

Set function switch to + DC and range switch to 5000V. Connect Black test lead to
common and Red test lead to 5000V jack. Connect the leads to -ve and +ve sides with
power off and then switch on the power. If reading is reverse turn off power and set
function switch to - DC and take reading on 0 - 50V figures. Multiply the reading by 100.
3.4.2 Measuring DC Currents (Refer Fig. 3.9)
a) Range 0 - 500 mA.
Set function switch to + DC connect common test lead to common jack and red
test lead to + jack. Set the range switch to the desired range. Open the circuit to
be measured and connect the meter in series with Red test lead towards + side
1. Turn on power and if pointer moves to left set the function switch to - DC.
Read on D.C. ranges for 1 ma and 100 ma on 0-10 figures and on 500 ma on
0-50 figures.
b) Range 0-10A
Connect black test lead to - 10A lead and red test lead to +10A. Set range switch
to 10A/10 ma. Connect the meter in series with circuit and read value on 0-10
figures in amps.
3.4.3 Measuring A.C. voltages. (Refer Fig. 3,7)
a) Ranges 0 - 1000V.
Set functions switch at A.C and keep the range selectors switch on any of the
five positions, i.e., 2.5V, 10V, 50V and 1000V. Plug the leads in common and
+ve jacks and connect them to the circuit. Switch on the power and read the
values as follows:

On 0 - 2.5V range, read the value directly on 2.5V AC. On 10,50V and 250V read
on the red marked A.C. On 100OV read on the red marked AC using 0 - 10
figures.
b) Range 0 - 5000V.
Set the function switch at A.C., range selector at 5000V; connect black test lead
to common jack and red test lead to 5000V A.C. jack. Connect the leads to the
circuit and switch on the power. Read on red marked AC using 0 -50 figures.
3.4.4 Measurement of output voltages.
Ranges 0 - 250V
Set the function switch at A.C. the range selector on the desired range (0-2.5V, 0 -10V,
0-50V or 0-250V). Connect black test lead to common jack and red test lead to output
jack. Connect the black test lead to each end of circuit and red test lead to live end. Turn
on the power and read the values as in cast of A.C. voltages.
3.4.5 Measurement of levels in decibels

Zero dB is equal to 1 mille watt across 600 ohms. To read absolute values in dBs across
600 ohms on 0 – 10V range, read value on dB arc and add + 12dBs, on 0 –50V add +
26 dBs on 0 - 250V range add+40 dBs. If the reference is 6 mille watts across 500 ohms
subtract 7 dBs to obtain absolute reading.
3.4.6 Measurement of Resistances (Refer Fig, 3.10)
Set the function switch on - DC or + DC and connect Black test lead to common and the
Red test lead to the + jack. Short the two test leads, the meter should read 0 ohms on
right hand side. If it does not read adjust it by zero ohm knob1. Now set the range switch
either to Rx1 or Rx100 or Rx10, 000 to read 0 - 200, 200 to 20K and above 20K
respectively.

R9=750KΩ R13=200KΩ R7=40KΩ R6=7500KΩ R23 D2

50µA,
2000Ω
250V 50V 10V
R24 M
D1
2.5V
1000V
AC VOLTAGE IN
Fig 3.7 AC voltmeter
15MΩ 4KMΩ 800KΩ 150KΩ 40KΩ
250V 50V 10V
M 50µA,
2000Ω
1000V 2.5V
-VE
80MΩ +VE
DC VOLTAGE IN
Fig 3.8 DC voltmeter
50µA,
2000Ω
+VE
M
3000Ω 22.5Ω 2Ω 0.475Ω 0.025Ω
10mA
100mA 500mA +10A -10A
NEGATIVE
POSITIVE
Fig. 3.9 AMMETER
50µA,
+VE 2000Ω
M
11.5Ω 1138Ω 21850Ω 10KΩ
-VE -VE Zero adjustment

Rx1 Rx100
POSITIVE 117700Ω
NEGATIVE
POSITIVE
Rx10000
Fig. 3.10 OHMMETER

ANALOG AND DIGITAL ELECTRONIC METERS
CHAPTER 4
ANALOGUE AND DIGITAL ELECTRONIC METERS
4.1 The volt-Ohm millimeter (VOM)

VOM is a rugged and accurate instrument but suffers from certain disadvantages. The
main problem is that it lacks both sensitivity and input impedance.
The sensitivity of a VOM is given in units Ohms per volt and has been described earlier
as the reciprocal of the meter movement's full-scale current. A meter of 50 micro amps
full-scale movement is used with a multiplier resistor to make a voltmeter that has a
sensitivity of (1/50) X106or 20000 ohms/volt. On low voltage ranges the impedance of
such an instrument tends to be low. On 0 - 0.5 V range the input impedance is 10 Kilo
Ohms only.
4.1.1 The Electronic Voltmeter

(EVM) on the other hand can have input impedance as low as 10 Meg Ohms or as high
as 100 Meg Ohms and the input impedance is constant over all ranges instead of being
different on each range as in the VOM. The loading of the circuit under test tends to be
less with EVM than with the VOM.
On the negative side however many EVM cannot be used in the presence of strong
electric or electromagnetic field such as those in the RE areas, Radio transmitter, T.V. fly
back transmitters etc. The field will tend to bias the transistor or an integrated circuit
used in EVM to a point where they will not operate properly. The VOM on the other hand
is practically immune to such effects except on the AC scales current. Original Electronic
Voltmeters used vacuum tubes, so they were called vacuum tube Voltmeters while solid-
state model with JFET input stages were known as transistor voltmeter (TVM) on FET
voltmeters. The basic circuit operates on the same principle, regardless of the
technology employed.
The circuit in figure uses a differential amplifier consisting of transistors Q2 and Q3 to

form a balanced bridge circuit FET Q1 serves as a source follower and is used to
provide impedance transformation between the input and the base of Q2. Current (I)
generated by a constant current source which, may be a higher value resistor to the
voltage source or one of the electronic constant current generator circuits.

4.1.2 The Basic Electronic Multimeter.
An electronic Multimeter may use any of the several technologies including vacuum
tubes, transistors, integrated circuits or digital circuitry. Some meter use an input
amplifier to increase the amplitude of weak signals while others use an attenuator to
reduce the amplitude of the signals that are above the meter basic range. All electronic
multi-meters use active device such as transistor or ICs so they require a power supply.
Electronic voltmeter that uses an analog meter movement almost invariably uses
electronic balance circuit such as shown in Fig. 4.1 to drive the meter. The different type
of electronic voltmeters (EVM) go by a variety of names that tend to reflect the
technology used in the balance current sources that are known since current (I) is held
constant we know that the following relationship holds true.
I1 = 12 + 13 = K
The bias on Q2 and Q3 is such that I2 =I3 when Ex is Zero. Under that condition Ea. =
Eb. So the current through DC meter M1 is Zero i.e. I4 = 0. The bias on Q3 is fixed by a
stable reference supply but the bias on Q2 is a function of voltage drop across resistor
R2 which in turn controlled by Ex. When an unknown voltage Ex is applied the bias on
Q2 increases and that causes voltage Ea also to increase. Now Ea is greater than Eb.
So current I4 is no longer Zero. The current Of I4 flowing in M1, hence the deflection of
the M1 pointer is proportional to Ex.
The value of Ex that causes maximum deflection of M1 is the basic range of the
instrument and is usually the lower range on the selector switch in ordinary type
voltmeters. Higher ranges can be accommodated through the use of input attenuation
such as that shown in Fig. 4.2, while a pre amplifier can accommodate lower ranges.
The attenuator in Fig 4.2 is a resistance voltage divider. The full-scale voltage from
the probe appears across the divider. So voltage at each step is progressively lower
fraction of the full input voltage. The basic range of the balance circuit is 50mv. Then
1000V input potential will be reduced to 50 mv when the selector switch is connected to
the bottom tap. Precision resistors are used for R1 through R10 and most of these are of
the wire wound variety.

+ve
R3
Q1
FIXED
EX BIAS
Q2 Q3
R4 M
R1 R2
B
A
I3
R5
R6
I1 I2
I
CCS
- VE
Fig. 4.1 Electronic meter
50mV
DC
BALANCE
EX CIRCUIT
C1 R1
100mV
C2
R2
300mV
C3
R3
1V
R4
C4 1000V
Fig. 4.2: Resistance-Voltage divider
Such resistors have significant inductance so if the meter is to be used on AC some sort
of compensation required takes the form of capacitors C1 through C10. Several of these
capacitors are made variable and these capacitors are adjusted with a square wave
applied to the input for best "sequences" as viewed on an oscilloscope.

4.1.3 AC ELECTRONIC MULTIMETERS

Most basic EVM circuits are for use in the DC potentials only.
Fig. 4.3: Full wave Rectifier

To accommodate AC potential, some sort of converter is used.
In the similar case shown in Fig. 4.3, full wave rectifier is used to drive the meter circuit.
These types of AC to DC converter suffer from the same fault as passive AC voltmeters
have. Some time it is essentially made a peak reading type by including capacitor C1.
4.1.4 Precision Rectifier

A somewhat superior rectifier/average circuit is shown in Fig. 4.4. In this case an
operational amplifier circuit called and “ideal rectifier or precision rectifier” provides the
rectification. A normal PN junction is non-linear at low forward voltage. Silicon diodes do
not become linear until the applied forward voltage exceeds approximately 0.6 to 0.7 volt
while germanium diodes require 0.2 to 0.3 volts of forward bias. In the circuit of Fig.4,
this non-linearity is "served out" by the operational amplifier and its negative feed back
loop. Although most AC Voltmeters are calibrated in term of volts rms most will not
actually read the rms value unless the input signal has pure sine wave shape.
D1
I2 R2
Vd
R3
I1 D2
R1
- Va
Vin
+
R4
Op-Amp
Fig.4.4: Precision Rectifier
Vd = I2*R2 + 0*R3 = I2*R2

Vd= 0*R2+I2*R3 = I2*R3
I2*R2 = I2R3 Or Vd/Vin =R2\R1 Or Vd =R2/R1*Vin
Vd is linear function of Vin.
4.1.5 ELECTRONIC OHM METERS
Ohm's law tells us that resistance can be computed from the current in amperes and the
voltage, namely R= E/I. If the current through the unknown resistor is held constant and
then the value of the voltage drop across the resistance, will give the data needed for
calculation. The Resistance value if the current is power of ten and sub-multiple of 1
ampere i.e. 1 m. A, 100 µ A etc., then the voltage drop will be numerically equal to the
resistance. Only repositioning of the decimal point is then needed to read out directly in
Ohms and Kilo Ohms. Fig. 4.5 shows such an Ohmmeter circuit. The constant current
source holds the current through Rx at a constant value of 1 milli-ampere (i.e., 0.001A).
By Ohm's law then we get R and E values as shown in Table 4.1below.
R (Ohms) E(Volts)
100 0.1
1000 1.0
10,000 10.0
Table-4.1
Fig. 4.5: Ohm meter circuit

The gain of the DC Amplifier and the output current of constant current source are set by
the range selector switch so that full-scale resistance from milliohms to Meg ohms can
be accommodated.
The low current levels used in this type of ohmmeter circuit confer both advantages and
disadvantages in practical situation. Ordinary Ohmmeters using passive DC components
and meter movement use a 1.5 Volts DC battery or higher and these produce a relatively
high current in low resistances. That type of Ohmmeter will forward bias the PN
Junctions of a cct. under test. It will give a large errors result, when it is used in solid-
state circuits. But the Low Voltage level used in the circuit, will not usually forward bias
the PN Junction. So it may be used in solid-state circuits.
The inability to forward bias a PN Junction is also a disadvantage, because forward and
reverse resistance readings across the junctions often serve as a quick test for diodes
and transistors. Some EVM manufacturers include a higher power Ohmmeter scale so
that such tests can be made. Generally high and low power Ohmmeters are provided at
different settings of the function switch. Where as in other products a push-button switch
is provided and marked "diode" or with diode Symbol.
4.2 DIGITAL VOLT METER
A Digital voltmeter uses an analog to digital converter (ADC) to convert the DC input or
an output of an AC converter circuit to a binary coded decimal (BCD) digital word that is
used to drive a digital display device. Most digital or digital multi-meters use an ADC
circuit either in single slope integrator or dual scope integrator that will be discussed in
detail.
4.2.1 SINGLE SLOPE INTEGRATOR.
The fundamental concept of single slope converter is to convert an unknown voltage to

time. Time is chosen because simple digital counting circuit or an oscillator of known
frequency may be used to display this time in digital format. To make a single slope
converter to work it is necessarily not only to convert the unknown voltage to time but
also to do it linearly.
To convert voltage to time is relatively easy if a voltage is used to charge a capacitor

through a resistor the voltage across the capacitor increases in time and approaches the
changing voltage. The time required for the voltage across the capacitor to reach a

particular value depend on the value of the voltage source, the capacitance and the
resistance. Unfortunately the changing rate is not linear but exponential.
A capacitor may be charged linearly however, if a constant current is used instead of

more common constant voltage with series resistance Fig. 4.6 the figure shows three
curves across a capacitor versus time Fig. 4.6(a) shows the familiar exponential charge
obtained from a constant voltage with a series resistance. Fig. 4.6(b) shows the linear
charge obtained from a constant current source Fig. 4.6(c) shows a capacitor being
discharged from some initial voltage by a constant current source. Fig. 4.7 is a block
diagram of simple single slope integrator.
Fig. 4.6: Voltage versus Time across a charging capacitor
φ OSCILLATO
Ec
Counting
C
Storage &
Ex Decoding
S1 +
S2
Voltage
Comparat
1 0
Fig. 4.7 Block diagram of single slope integrator
The voltage EC across the capacitor generated by charging the capacitor from the
constant current source and the unknown voltage Ex are applied to the separate input of
a voltage comparator. If a voltage at the + input of the comparator is greater than the
voltage at the - input the output will be a logic 1. But if the voltage on the + input is less
than the voltage on the (-) input the out put will be logic 0. The output of the comparator

is connected to one input of a gate the other input is connected to an oscillator of known
frequency. When the output of the comparator is logic 1, and the switch S2 is at logic 1
oscillator signal passes from the gate to the counting circuit. If the output of the
comparator is logic 0 or switch S2 is logic 0 no signal is passed to the counters.
Initial condition of operation requires the counter to be reset to zero; S1 closed and S2 at
logic “0”(keeping the charge on the capacitor zero and blocking any oscillator signal from
passing through the gate), and that an unknown voltage be placed on the + input of the
comparator.
The measurement cycle' is initiated by simultaneously opening S1 and switching S2 to

logic 1. When S2 is switched to logic 1 both control inputs of the gate becomes logic 1
as the unknown voltage at the + input of the comparator is greater than the initial voltage
across the capacitor with both the control input at logic 1, the oscillator signal passes to
the counters which begin to accumulate counts. Simultaneously the voltage across the
capacitor becomes equal to the unknown voltage at the (+) input of the comparator. An
instant the + input is less than the voltage at – input; the output voltage of the
comparator is therefore switches from a logic 1 to a logic 0. This change on the output of
the comparator causes the oscillator signal to stop flowing through the gate to the
counters, closing the gate, terminates the measurement.
The counts now accumulated in the counter represent the time the gate was open which
directly and linearly proportional to the unknown voltage. Therefore the count in the
counter represents the unknown voltage. The final step is either to modify the charge
rate of the constant current source or to adjust the oscillator frequency so the
accumulated value in the counter is not only proportional to the unknown voltage but
also a voltage of 1.000 produces 1000 counts. There are of course limits, to such simple
converter it measure only voltage in single polarity. Second, circuiting must be added to
detect input voltage greater than the maximum charging voltage of the capacitor. This is
known as over ranging condition.
Long-term errors tend to creep into the single slope integrator. First it is very susceptible
to oscillator frequency drift. Second it is susceptible to drifts in the value of the output
current of the constant current source. Third, the Accuracy depends on the stability of
the capacitor. Fourth, accuracy depends on the stability of the differential voltage
required to trip the comparator. Fifth, the integrator is highly susceptible to any noise on
the unknown voltage. In spite of all the above disadvantages since simplicity of the
circuit makes it very appealing and very popular among low cost DMMs. To overcome all

the above problems a dual slope integrator though complicated and costly preferred for
most of the measurements.
4.2.2 DUAL SLOPE INTEGRATION
The block diagram of dual slope integrator is shown in Fig.4.8 while the associated
waveform are shown in Fig.4.9
The heart of the circuit is the operational amplifier A1, plus R1 and C1, plus a voltage
comparator (A2), the output of the comparator will remain low if the integrator output is
zero and high if the integrator output is more than few mille-volts above the ground
potential.
C1 Clock
Analog Input φ
Voltage A Integrator
S1
B
-
R1 A1 - Counter
+ A2
+ Main Gate
S2
EA VRef
Reference
Voltage
Over Range
Control Carry
Logic
Section
Fig. 4.8 Block diagram of dual slope integrator
Fig. 4.9 Dual slope integrator associated wave form
At the beginning of the conversion cycle the control logic section momentarily closes
electronic switch S2 so that the charge on capacitor goes to zero and also ensures that
S1 is set to position "A". If S1 is in position 'A' the integrator input is connected to the
input voltage 'source, causing the voltage at the integrator output to begin rising. As
soon as EA raises a few mille volts the comparator snaps "HIGH" enabling the AND gate
to pass clock pulse to the digital counter section. The counter is allowed to overflow and
the output carry pulse from the counter is used to tell the control logic section to switch
SI to position "B" this action connects the integrator input to a precision reference
voltage source. The polarity of the input current created by the reference is such that it
begins to discharge the integrator capacitor of a constant rate. The counter meanwhile
has continued to increment passing through 0000 at time t1 and continuing to
accumulate clock pulse until EA is basic down to Zero.
The value of EA at time t1 was proportional to the value of Ein. At the same instant the
count was 0000. Since the counter continues to increment as the integrator discharges t1
to t2 the count at the instant logic gate is closed (when EA = 0) is also proportional to Ein.
By correct scaling the count will be numerically the same as the potential applied to the
input to recapitulate.
1. At the time the switch S2 is closed briefly to dump the residual charge in C1 and S1 is
set to position "A".
2. The integrator begins to charge due to current Ein/R1 so EA begins rising from Zero.
3. As soon as EA is greater than zero the output of the comparator goes. HIGH, enabling
the main gate to pass clock pulses in to the counter.
4. The counter increments until it, over flows at time t1 and the overflow a pulse causes S1
to switch to position 'B' applying the reference voltage to the input of integrator. At this
instant is 0000.
5. From time t1 to t2 the integrator discharges under the influence of current -Eref/R1
meanwhile the counter continues to increment.
6. At time t2 the comparator shuts off the flow of clock pulses through the gate the count
accumulated between t1 and t2 represents the input voltage.
7. The control logic section uses a strobe pulse of time t2 to update the counter digital
display.

4.2.3 What does the Dual slope DVM Measure?
A DC digital voltmeter tends to read the average input voltage over a period of
integration. This feature makes the DVM particularly useful for measuring noisy signals.
It also tends to average the pulsation from a rectifier type AC to DC converter provided
that t2 – t0 is greater than about 18 ms. The accuracy of a digital voltmeter or DMM can
be quite good. In fact it can exceed the accuracy of the analog multimeters. You will
come across the terms like "2 1/2 digit”, "3 1/2 digit” and "4 1/2 digit” in the
advertisement for DVM/DMM products and will wonder what is meant by 1/2 digit. The
term refers to the fact that the most significant digit can be only a '0' or '1' while all other
digits can be any thing between "0" and "9". Such terminology indicates that the meter
can read 100 percent over range from its basic range for example a "3 1/2 digit" DVM
will read from 0 to 1999 mV while its basic range is only 0 - 999 mv. If this range is
exceeded then the "1” lights up otherwise in some cases the whole display will be
blanked.
4.3 DIGITAL MULTIMETER
The basic circuit is shown in the figure. 4.10 (a), (b) & (c) Always in a DC Voltmeter
current is converted to voltage by passing it through a precision low shunt resistance,
while alternating current is converted into DC by employing rectifier and filter. For
resistance measurement, the meter includes a precision low current source that is
applied across the unknown resistance; again this gives a DC. Voltage, which is,
digitised readout as Ohms.
AC AC Digital BCD
Attenuator Converter Display output
High AC
DC A Interface
DC Attenuator D
Ohms
Input
Shunt Ohms Precision

Converter Reference
Low
Fig. 4.10(a) Digital multi meter block diagram

4.3.1 AUTOMATIC RANGING
0 – 180 Units
2v
> 1999 Units
Down 20v
Up/Dow Decoder 200v
Up n
Clock 1000v
& Counter
Overload
2V down ≥ 1
Overload
Fig. 4.10(b) Block Diagram of Automatic Ranging System
The information contained in the counter of the ADC. Yields a control pulse for down ranging
when the count is less than 180 and one for up ranging when the count exceeds 1999units. The
UP/DN counter of the automatic ranging circuits reacts to this information at the moment that a
clock pulse (a pulse at the end of the measuring period, also used to transfer new data to
memory) is applied and new information is used to set the range relays via decoder. At the
same time the decimal point in the display is adapted to the new range when more than one
range set-up has to be made, several measuring periods are needed to reach the final result.
Clock pulse, and so automatic ranging, can be inhibited, for example, by manual range hold
command, by a signal that exceeds the maximum range, but only for down count. See Fig.8b
4.3.2 AUTOMATIC ZEROING
Before the real measurement is made, switch S3, S4, S5 are closed, say for 50ms, thus
grounding the input, giving the integrator a short RC time, and connecting the output of the
capacitor C. This capacitor is now charged by the off set voltages to the amplifier, the
integrator and the capacitor. When switches S3, S4 and S5 are opened again to start the real
measurement, the total offset voltage of the circuit (equal to zero error) is stored in this
capacitor, and the real input voltages is measured correctly. See Fig8c
V1
S1
V REF
C1
S2 R3
Comparator
S3
S4 O/P
Amplifier R1
Integrator
R4
R2
S5 R6
C2
R5
Fig. 4.10(c) Simplified Diagram of Automatic Zeroing Circuit

OSCILLOSCOPE
CAPTER 5
OSCILLOSCOPE
5.1 INTRODUCTION
An Oscilloscope to an Engineer, is what a stethoscope is to a physician. As a diagnostic
test instrument, it yet has no parallel. Even today it is the most widely used instrument
for investigating both Analogue as well as digital circuits. Unlike many other common
test instruments, including Multi-meters, an oscilloscope is capable of gaining access to
the dynamic performance of any circuit under test. It's ultra fast response combined 'with
clear and bright display of any electrical signal, makes the Oscilloscope a unique testing
tool.
5.2 WHAT IS AN OSCILLOSCOPE?

Quite simply, it is an analogue measuring instrument which displays rapidly changing or
high frequency voltages against 'time' in the form of a graph seen as a bright trace on
the face of a Cathode Ray Tube, in short CRT. The CRT is the heart of any
Oscilloscope. It is, in fact, a type of vacuum tube in which a beam of electrons from a
cathode are focused and accelerated to produce a bright illuminated spot, due to
phosphor coating on the inside of the screen. Two pairs of additional electrodes inside
the CRT are located as to deflect the electron beam as also the bright spot on the
screen whenever an electrostatic field is created between each pair of deflection
electrodes. These are termed as horizontal and vertical deflection plates. Because of the
persistence of the fluorescent screen and the combined effect of the voltages applied to
the deflection plates, a bright trace is created on the CRT screen. There are a wide
variety of CRT's used in the scopes. Besides their size and shape, CRT's also have
other characteristics such as-mono accelerator CRT's used in low frequency, or post
deflection Accelerator CRT's, used for high frequency oscilloscopes, short or long
persistence fluorescent material etc.
For enabling the use of this unique component, which basically has remained
unchanged in principle for over 50 years, as an Oscilloscope one has to have other
circuit blocks to 'drive' the CRT and achieve the various 'terminal' specifications claimed
by the makers. Fig. 5.1 shows the block diagram of a typical simple Oscilloscope with
the main circuit (sections) and their inter connections.

OSCILLOSCOPE
Fig. 5.1 Block diagram of a Oscilloscope
The test signal is applied to the input of the vertical amplifier (Y) through an attenuator
and thence to the vertical deflection plates of the Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). At the
same time the test signal is fed from the pre-amplifier stage of the vertical system to the
trigger circuit that process the signal and supplies a pulse that initiates the time base
circuit. The time base generates a very accurate and linear ramp waveform, as accuracy
is essential, this ramp is a low voltage signal and is therefore fed into an amplifier (X
amp) which applies the amplified ramp to the horizontal (X) deflection plates of the CRT.
It can now be seen that with the test signal being applied to the Y-axis and an internally
signal varying with time being applied to the X-axis, the scope is indeed plotting a graph
of voltage against time. To enable measurements to be made, the CRT display area is
divided into equal divisions on both the X & Y-axis like normal graph paper.
Oscilloscope terminology: - Let us define the terms, normally used in specifying an
Oscilloscope.
5.2.1 VERTICAL AMPLIFIER SENSITIVITY
Sensitivity and Deflection-Factor are synonymous. The terms actually mean, "how
sensitive the amplifier is". The vertical amplifier is a fixed gain system consisting of a
high sensitivity pre-amplifier section, feeding an output amplifier, connected to the Y
plates of the CRT. However, as the Oscilloscope will undoubtedly be required to
investigate signals, varying greatly in voltage (Amplitude). The test signal is initially
connected to an attenuator, which reduces the sensitivity and controlled from the front
panel of the instrument, which is calibrated, with deflection factors of 5mv/Div to 20V/Div
(See Fig. 5.2). For example, an Oscilloscope has a basic sensitivity of 5mv/Div and can
go up to 20V/Division. So, it can be seen that the combination of attenuator and Y

OSCILLOSCOPE
amplifier set the first parameter of the Oscilloscope, "the sensitivity Range" for voltage
measurement
Fig. 5.2 Front panel of Oscilloscope
5.2.2 BANDWIDTH
The next parameter that is always quoted is the bandwidth of the vertical amplifier;
normally this is given for the -3dB point. So what is a Bandwidth? All amplifiers have
what is called a response curve and the deflection amplitude at various frequencies for
constant input amplitude. Because of the amplifiers reduced response at high
frequencies, the amplitude of the displayed trace will decrease, and the frequency at
which the amplitude has decreased to 0.707 (-3dB) of the original low frequency
amplitude (say at 50KHz) is denoted as the Bandwidth. The bandwidth of the
Oscilloscope needs to be greater than the fundamental frequency of the test signal for
instance a 10MHz scope would enable the 9th harmonic of a 1 MHz sine wave to be
displayed and accurately measured.
5.2.3 RISE TIME
When the majority of applications involve the analysis square waves or pulses, the rise
time of the vertical amplifier is a far better guide to the suitability of the instrument. The
rise time of the Oscilloscope is defined as the time taken for the voltage to rise from 10%
to 90% of its, maximum amplitude. The rise time of the Oscilloscope should be less than
the test signal, ideally around five times less, so that the displayed error will be less than
2% and for most practical purposes, can therefore, be ignored. This is useful in helping
to select the Oscilloscope with the correct rise time. A scope with a rise time of the same
order as the test signal can be selected for low cost reason.

OSCILLOSCOPE
5.2.4 INPUT COUPLING
The coupling selector is a three-way switch, to select either DC or AC coupling or

Ground. In DC coupling, the input signal is fed directly into the amplifier while AC
coupling enables blocking of the DC component of the input signal and passes only the
AC component of the signal to the Y amplifier. In the Ground position, the input of the, Y
amplifier is grounded. It is important to know here that the input signal is not grounded in
the Ground position and only the input point of the Y amplifier in the Oscilloscope is
grounded.
5.2.5 INPUT IMPEDANCE
This is the impedance at the Y input point and is normally specified as 1M ohms shunted
by 25pf. It is actually the effective resistance and capacitance across the Y - input. All
the Oscilloscope Models in the range have the standard input of 1M Ohm paralleled
approximately by 25pf.
5.2.6 MAXIMUM INPUT VOLTAGE
It is the maximum voltage that can be safely applied to the Y - input of the Oscilloscope.
For example, if an oscilloscope specification states that the maximum input voltage to be
400V(DC + peak AC). This means that the voltage of the signal to the input cannot
exceed 400V, which includes both the DC voltage and the peak AC voltage of the signal.
5.2.7 DISPLAY MODES
This term is normally given, while specifying a Dual Trace Oscilloscope. In a dual Trace
Oscilloscope, there are two vertical channels namely CH1 and CH2, each having a
separate but identical Y - amplifier. The Display mode refers to the different possibilities
of switching on the signals from the two channels. In CH1 or CH2 Mode, only signals fed
into the CH1 or CH2 input sockets will be displayed on the screen. In the ALTERNATE
mode, the signals from the two channels are displayed alternatively on the screen. But in
the CHOP mode the two signals are displayed simultaneously at a chopped frequency of
about 250KHz. In the ADDITION mode, the two signals are algebraically added, while in
the subtraction (INVERT) mode, the difference of the signals fed to the two channels
(CH1 and CH2), is displayed. In the X-Y mode, the Oscilloscope is used as an X - Y
plotter, wherein CH1 = y-axis and CH2 = x-axis.

OSCILLOSCOPE
5.2.8 TIME BASE

This circuit provides an accurate signal varying directly with time, which is applied to the
horizontal deflection plates of the CRT. The ramp generator is designed to be
compatible with the bandwidth of the vertical amplifier, so that the fastest sweep several
cycles of the bandwidth frequency can be displayed. The sweep speed is selected on
time base control, which is marked in seconds/div., in a 1,2,3 sequence. This sequence
has been selected as it gives a very good degree of overlap between ranges and thus a
test signal can normally be displayed on more than one sweep speed. A variable control
is also incorporated which increases the sweep speed on any setting and enables the
waveform to be expanded so that a particular point can be investigated in more detail.
Most of the scopes incorporates an X 5-expansion control that enables the complete
trace to be expanded, on any sweep speed, and again facilitates more detailed
investigation of the waveform.
TIMEBASE CIRCUIT
When a ramp voltage saw tooth waveform, such as shown in.Fig.3a is applied to the
horizontal deflection plates of the CRT. The beam will move across the screen at
constant velocity, because the deflection voltage increases linearly with time for the
duration of the sweep.
Ed
Ts Tr
t
Fig. 5.3(a) Saw tooth wave form
Time interval Ts (sweep time) in fig. 5.3(a) & 5.3(b) shows how rises linearly ramp
voltage. When the ramp voltage terminates, the beam moves back rapidly to its original
position. This takes place in the time interval Tr. (retrace time) of saw tooth waveform.
The beam will move again only when another ramp voltage is applied to the horizontal
OSCILLOSCOPE
deflection plate .The beam therefore traces out a straight-line across the CRT screen
from left to right.
If the frequency of the horizontal ramp voltage known, the frequency of the signal
applied to the vertical deflection plates can easily be calculated.
Assume, for example, that the time - base generator produces a ramp voltage with a
repetition rate of 20, beam will sweep across the screen twenty times per second. One
sweep of the beam takes place in 1/20 s or 0.05 s. The waveform portrayed on the screen
contains two complete cycles as in fig. These two cycles must have occurred in a time of
0.05-sec. Therefore, the frequency of the vertical deflection system equal to 2/0.05 or
40Hz. To know frequency of the signal, the time base frequency should known and the
vertical deflection signal has a frequency, which is an even multiple of the time base
frequency.
B F
I A
A C G B
horizontal
Sow tooth sweep
E
C
D
D H
E
F
G
H
to
Fig. 5.3 (b): Input wave from applied to vertical Plates (40HZ)
5.2.8 UJT TIME BASE GENERATOR
A continuous sweep CRO using a UJT as a time base generator is shown in fig.4 The
UJT is used to produce the sweep. When the power is first applied, the UJT is off and
the CT is charged exponentially through RT. The UJT emitter voltage VE rises towards
VBB and VE reaches the peak voltage VP as shown in Fig. 5.4. The emitter to base
1(B1) diode becomes forward biased and the UJT triggers on. This provides a low
resistance discharge path and the capacitor discharges rapidly. The emitter voltage VE
reaches the minimum voltage rapidly and the UJT goes off. The capacitor recharges and
the cycle repeats.

OSCILLOSCOPE
+VBB
R2 RT
Sync
Pulse
Input
Saw Tooth
R1 CT Output
Fig. 5.4 UJT as a time base generator
To improve sweep linearity, two separate voltage supplies are used; a low voltage
supply for UJT and a high voltage supply for the R1CT circuit. RT. is used for continues
control of the frequency within a range and CT is varied or changed in steps for range
changing. They are some times called as timing resistor and timing capacitor
respectively. The sync pulse enables the sweep frequency to be exactly equal to the
input signal frequency, so that the signal is locked on the screen and does not drift.
5.2.9 TRIGGERING
As mentioned earlier the trigger circuit initiates the time base so that the horizontal
deflection sweeps in synchronism with the vertical test signal. An oscilloscope with the
combination of trigger circuit and time base is normally referred to as a triggered sweep
oscilloscope. The trigger modes called Auto and Trigger level are incorporated in each
instrument. This method is completely reliable on repetitive sine or square wave signals
at frequencies above 50Hz and in the absence of an input it will give a bright base line or
free running trace. The trigger source on all modes can be derived internally, from either
channel in Dual Trace models, or from an external source, which should be in
synchronism, with the displayed waveform.
5.2.10 Low Frequency Rejection
This is a method of coupling the trigger signal to the trigger circuit. Trigger signal is fed
to the Trigger circuit via a high pass filter, where the low frequency component (less than
10KHz) is eliminated and thus triggering is effected only by the high frequency
component. As shown in Fig. 5.5 , when the trigger signal contains low frequency noise
(particularly hum), it is eliminated so that triggering is stabilised.
OSCILLOSCOPE
Fig. 5.5 Wave form – low frequency rejection
5.2.11 High Frequency Rejection
In contrast with LF rejection, the trigger signal is fed via a low pass filter where the high
frequency component (more than 30KHz) is eliminated and thus triggering is effected only by
the low frequency component. Fig.5.6 shows that the high frequency noise contained in the
waveform is eliminated so that triggering is stabilised
Fig. 5.6 Wave form – High frequency rejection
5.3 MEASUREMENTS
Having seen at the way the various "blocks" of an oscilloscope build into a complete
instrument, and before we look at particular applications, we should spend a little time in
gaining an understanding of how basic measurements can be made. Adjust the CH1 and
CH2 gain controls for a suitable display size. Some typical results are shown in Fig. 5.7).
If the two signals are in phase, the oscilloscope trace is a straight line. If the vertical
Phase shift of less (or more) than 900 produces an elliptical Lissajous pattern.

OSCILLOSCOPE
The amount of phase shift can be calculated by the method shown in Fig. 5.8.
Sin Ø = A/B, Ø = Phase angle.
Fig. 5.7 Lissajous pattern
Fig. 5.8: Lissajous waveforms for frequency measurements

OSCILLOSCOPE
5.3.1 FREQUENCY MEASUREMENT
1. Connect a sine wave of known frequency to the CH2 input of the oscilloscope
and set the MODE to X - Y.
2. Connect the CH1 probe to the signal to be measured.
3. Adjust the CH1 and CH2 for a suitable display size.
4. The resulting Lissajous pattern shows the ratio between the two frequencies (see
fig. 5.8).
5.3.2 AUDIO AMPLIFIER SQUARE WAVE TEST
A square wave generator and the oscilloscope can be used to display various types of
distortion present in electric circuits. A square wave of a given frequency as already
mentioned contains a large number of harmonics. If a 500Hz square wave is injected
into a circuit, frequency components of 1.5 kHz, 2.5KHz and 3.5KHz are also provided.
Since vacuum tubes and transistors are non-linear, it is difficult to amplify and reproduce
a square wave, which is identical to the input signal. Inter-electrode capacitance,
junction capacitance, stray capacitance as well as narrow band devices and transformer
responses are the factors, which prevent faithful response of a square wave signal. A
well-designed amplifier can minimise the distortion caused by these limitations. Poorly
designed or defective amplifiers can introduce distortion to the point where their
performance is unsatisfactory.
If we assume that a time base speed of 2µ s/div. is selected then the pulse width is 2Div.
X 2µs = 4µs and the repetition rate, the time between the first rising edge and the
second rising edge, is:

5Div. X 2µs = 10µs
If it is required to express the repetition rate in terms of frequency, the same calculation
for sine wave frequency can be used. F= (1/10µ s)=100KHz

OSCILLOSCOPE
5.4 EXTERNAL TRIGGERING
This facility offers advantages over internal triggering under certain conditions. For
example a master signal, such as the clock frequency in a digital circuit, can be applied
to the external trigger. Then this leaves the vertical trace, or traces in a Dual Trace
instrument, free to be placed at various parts of the test circuit without the need to
re-adjust the trigger.
External triggering has also a distinct advantage when a signal contains both high and
lbw frequency components. This is so in amplitude modulated signal (Fig. 5.9). On
internal triggering difficulty will be experienced, as the trigger circuit will try to lock on
both the HF carrier and the LF modulating signal at the same time. Under low
modulation depth conditions, the scope will trigger on the HF signal and the display will
be free running. Therefore, the amplitude modulating low frequency signal should be
applied to the external trigger socket. It will be found that reliable triggering can then be
achieved under wide variations in both the carrier and modulating signal.
Fig. 5.9: Amplitude modulated signal
If a 30MHz oscilloscope is used it may then also is possible to apply the RF carrier signal
to the 'external' socket, so that this signal can be investigated.
5.5 TEST LEADS AND PASSIVE PROBES
The input resistance of an oscilloscope is usually, 1 MegΩ and its input capacitance would
normally be in the order of 25pF. On all professional oscilloscopes the connection is made
by a coaxial socket e.g. BNC socket, so many operators use a length of coaxial cable. On
low frequency applications it is generally satisfactory, but a 1 metre of coaxial cable will

OSCILLOSCOPE
probably have a capacitance in the order of 100 pF, and this increased capacitance
completely defeats the oscilloscope designers endeavours to give the lowest possible
input capacitance to the scope. As the total input capacitance will now be in the order of
125pF.
The best way is to use a PASSIVE VOLTAGE PROBE, which are normally available in the
following types: X1, X10, X100 and a switchable probe, which contains both XI and X10
operation. The XI probe consist of a low capacitance coaxial cable which sometimes has
the centre wire made of resistance alloy so as to reduce possible reflections, and these
probes produce no attenuation of the test signal. They are quite often available with
several lead lengths. The most popular is normally one with a lead length of 1 metre,
which has a capacitance of around 40pF. When used with an oscilloscope having an input
capacitance of 25pF the combined input capacitance becomes 65pF, which is still
appreciable but less than with normal coaxial cable.
The type of probe that most commonly used gives attenuation ten times of signal voltage
is known as X10 probe. This probe may be used for two reasons:
a) To increase the voltage that can be applied to the oscilloscope

b) To reduce the effect that connecting the oscilloscope has on the circuit under test.
Oscilloscopes tend to vary in the minimum sensitivity i.e., the maximum volts/division and
today with the emphasis on high sensitivity the minimum sensitivity is normally 10V/div. So
if we assume an 8 V/div maximum trace this would mean a maximum ac input of 80Vp-p.
With an X10 probe this is increased to 800Vp-p or 400V peak, or 283 Vrms. So with this
type of probe the 240V supply may be displayed without over scan. If the test voltage to
be measured exceeds 400V peak then it would be recommended to use either an X100,
which attenuates by a factor of 100 and would normally work up to around 1KV. Or of
course got an X1000 or X2000 who would normally work up to 20KV and 40KV
respectively.
All probes, with the exception of the x1 type, have a trimmer capacitor so that the probe
can be compensated to match the input impedance of the oscilloscope. Compensation of
the probe is achieved by connecting it to the calibration output of the oscilloscope that is
normally a 0.2V square wave, with a fast rise time. By adjusting the capacitance trimmer
in the probe correct compensation is achieved,

OSCILLOSCOPE
An x10 switch able, and x100 probe, is normally supplied with a number of different
connections, such as a clip on probe, IC adapter, a BNC adapter, an insulating tip, and a
plastic trimmer tool. It is important to note that compensation adjustments should be made
with a plastic trimmer tool as the capacitance effect introduced by a metal screw driver
can make compensation extremely difficult to achieve.
5.6 Storage Oscilloscope
As we have seen in the earlier chapter that the input signal must be periodic, and it must
repeat itself at fixed intervals, and the pattern must remain stable long enough to be
analysed.
But single events often pass too rapidly to be viewed on an oscilloscope unless it is
equipped with a storage feature.
There are now two basic types of storage oscilloscope. One type uses a special type
CRT and the other uses digital memory techniques. Fig. 5.10(a) shows the block
diagram of the type that requires a special storage CRT. A storage oscilloscope retains
the image of the waveform on the screen for a period of time before it fades out. In the
class of using instruments using special CRT designs there are several sub-classes that
operate on slightly different principle.
Fig. 5.10 (a): Block diagram of storage Oscilloscope

OSCILLOSCOPE
The two types of figures shown in Fig. 5.10(a) and 5.10(b) depend on operation on a
phosphor screen in which individual particles are insulated from each other. In the case
of Fig. 5.10(b) the phosphor lie in the same plane to form target dots while the other
type uses layers of scattered particles increasing weights. A special flood gun emits
high-energy electrons that excite the phosphors. The phosphor particles are stricken by
these electrons and take in a charge of 150 to 200 volts. But non-energised particles
remain at zero volts. When the electrons from the main electron gun have pre energised
certain phosphor forming an image on the CRT screen these phosphor attract more
flood gun electrons. The image is thereby retained by the continuous bombardment of
flood gun electrons. Erasure of the screen is accomplished by grounding phosphor
screen thus returning all phosphor particles to a zero volts potential.
Fig. 5.10(b) Block diagram of storage Oscilloscope
The other type of special CRT is the wire mesh variety. The flood gun charges one
mesh, so that no further electrons can pass through although the write of main gun
electron will pass through, if sufficient energetic.
A split screen storage oscilloscope allows the operator to, store wave forms in either top
or bottom half of the screen if both halves are turned on then the device will store traces
appearing any where on the screen.
Some storage oscilloscope has a feature called variable persistence, which allows the
operator to vary the length of time that the image will remain ON in the screen.

OSCILLOSCOPE
Input To CRT
Vert. A to D D to A Vert.
Pre-Amp Memory Amp
Conv. Conv.
Trigge
r
Fig. 5.11 Digital Storage Oscilloscope
5.7 Digital Storage
A digital storage oscilloscope (Fig. 5.11) uses an analogue to digital converter to

digitalise the input waveform. That means it will sample the waveform at many points
and then convert the instantaneous amplitude at each point to a binary number value
proportional to the amplitude. These binary numbers are then stored in the memory. A
digital to analogue converter at the output of the memory circuit reconverts the binary
word to analogue voltage capable of energising the vertical amplifier during the CRT
vertical deflection system. The memory is scanned many times per second so the CRT
Screen is constantly being "refreshed" by the data stored in memory before it can fade
out.
The digital storage technique in some high frequency oscilloscope designed as

"transient- catchers" but the technique is very expensive for this frequency range. There
is a sampling rule called Nyquist’s theorem that requires a sampling rate for any given
wave form of twice the higher frequency Fourier series component making up the
waveform Consider a show irregularly shaped pulse. It may contain Fourier series
component up to 7-10 MHz or so. To actually sample the pulse would require 2 X 10
mega samples per second. Even if the pulse is very short a lot of memory is used and
memory is expensive. The cost of ADC and DAC circuits working of their speed will be
high.
The digital storage technique does however; find extensive use in medical and
physiological oscilloscopes. Because of the digital storage capability the waveform on
the screen is refreshed continuously until a new waveform overwrites the old data. Many
of these models have a freeze control that turns the ADC so that no new data are written
with memory. This action leaves the old waveform on the screen to be refreshed
indefinitely.
OSCILLOSCOPE
5.8 TEST PROBES
The input impedance of the oscilloscope is relatively high and varies with different make
and models ranging from 1 meg Ohm to several meg Ohms shunted by an inherent
capacity of 20 to 50 Pico farads The exact value of a particular oscilloscope will be given
in the manufacturer's specification.
Test cables are also important. Signal voltages to be observed are usually applied to
vertical input terminals by shielded cables and some time it is necessary to use a special
probe.
Test probe usually fall into four categories they are:

Direct
Isolation
Low capacity and
Demodulator probes
5.9 Direct Probe
Direct Probe is a shield cable used for checking low impedance, low frequency circuits.
See Fig. 5.12(a)
Fig. 5.12(a) Direct probe

Isolation Probe:
Isolation Probe is used to isolate the circuit being tested from the input impedance it
contains a 4.7 Kilo Ohms carbon resistor in series into the vertical input lead. Higher
value up to 10 Kilo Ohms can be used. However, higher values can cause some
distortion of waveform. See Fig. 5.12 (b)
Fig. 5.12b: Isolation probe

OSCILLOSCOPE
5.10 Low Capacity Probe
Low Capacity Probe is necessary for testing higher impedance, high frequency or wide
band amplifier circuits. This probe has a series resistor of 1 Meg Ohms and is frequency
compensated by a small trimmer condenser connected in parallel. This compensating
pad reduces the overall input capacity and at the same time attenuates the input signal.
However, the probe is designed for particular oscilloscope to give an attenuation of 10 to
1 for calibration purposes. See Fig.13a and 13b.
Fig. 5.13(a) Low capacity probe
Fig. 5.13(b) Wave form

For accurate pulse and transient measurements, a small condenser in the probe housing
adjusts the probe. Applying a 10KHz square wave to the probe and adjusting the
trimmer to provide a trimmer near perfect square wave accomplish this. Since this has a
10 to 1 attenuation for the measured amplitude must be multiplied. In some tests it may
be necessary to simulate on the input impedance equal to that seen by the equipment in
actual operation for example voltage waveform observed off load may change shape
when on load. Especially when reactive components are present.
5.11 Demodulator Probes

Houses a detector circuit for checking or tracing modulated RF IF signals. There are
several circuit arrangements and one such is shown in Figure 14
Fig. 14: Demodulator probe

MEGGER
CHAPTER 6
MEGGER
6.1 Working principle of Megger
The Megger is a portable insulation - resistance test set for measuring large values of
electrical resistance. It consists of a high-range ohmmeter and a hand operated D.C.
Generator mounted on the same case (or a dry cell source with converter). The
resistance range of the Megger usually extends from 0 to 1000 mega ohms or more and
the ohmmeter is of special design. The generator may deliver a potential of 500, 1000
volt at test terminals. The face of the indicating meter is at the top of the test set and the
hand crank for the D.C. Generator is at the right.
Fig. 6.1 shows the schematic diagram of a Megger. The moving element of the
ohmmeter consists essentially of two coils, the control coil and the deflecting coil both
connected in parallel across the D.C. Generator, as shown in the figure that is located in
the magnetic field of permanent magnet and arranged so as to oppose one another. The
control coil is in series with a fixed resistance of high value whereas the deflecting coil is
in series with a current limiting resistance and while testing; it comes in series with
unknown resistance under test. There is no control spring and the position of the pointer
is determined by the ratio of the currents in the two coils, which varies with the value of
resistance under test and the applied voltage affect both the coils in the same
proportion. As such, the instrument is directly calibrated in ohms and mega ohms and
acts as a true “Ohmmeter”.
When the crank of the Megger is operated, the D.C. generator produces D.C. Potential
with the polarity indicated. Electric current flows from the negative terminal of the
generator, through the potential coil, which forms part of ohmmeter movement through
the large resistor R2, and back to the positive terminal of the generator. The magnetic
field set up by the potential coil reacts with the field set up by the permanent magnet in
such a way that the coil and pointer assembly move in a counter clockwise direction.
With nothing connected to the test set, the only current flowing is the current just
described and the pointer indicates infinite resistance on the scale. Placing an unknown
resistance between the line and ground terminals provides another path for current flow.
This path is from the negative terminal of the generator through the deflecting coil
(current coil), resistor R1, the line terminal, the unknown resistance and the ground
terminal to the positive side of generator. The magnetic field set up by the current coil
tends to move the coil and the pointer moves close to 0 of the scale.
MEGGER
If the value of the unknown resistance is increased, less current flows through the
deflecting coil with respect to the fixed amount of current in the potential coil and pointer
moves from 0 towards infinity on the scale.
A guard circuit is used for measurement over 100 mega ohms. The guard circuit shown
in light lines in the figure consists of a metal ring, which surrounds the “line terminal”
metal plates on which resistors R1 and R2 are mounted, and a metal shield cable which
connects the ring and plates to the guard terminal. This circuit prevents leakage currents
along the surface of the insulating instrument case between the line terminal and
ground, which can affect the reading. These surface leakage currents can flow between
the guard circuit and the ground terminal without going through the meter movement.
The d.c generator is operated by a crank handle through a gear train and clutch
assembly. The clutch mechanism slips when a certain speed of hand crank rotation is
reached keeping the generator at a level and operating speed. Therefore, the output
voltage will be fairly constant as long as the crank is rotated above the speed at which
the clutch slips.
GROUND
(G)
HAND DRIVEN
GENERATOR
R2
R INF
N
+
C S
LINE(L) N
D
R1
ZERO _
GUARD S _
GUARD
MEGGER
Fig. 6.1 Megger
6.1.1 Measurement of insulation resistance:
(a) Insulation resistance of an overhead line - (for example a Control Circuit), all office
equipment to be disconnected before the test is taken.
The line terminal is connected to one line and the ground terminal to a ground
earth. Hand crank is rotated till it slips and the reading is noted. The reading is the
insulation resistance between line L1 and Earth.
The line terminal is then connected to the second line and the test repeated. The
reading is the insulation resistance between L2 and Earth.
MEGGER
The Megger is then connected across the line, one line terminal to the line and the
ground terminal to another and process repeated. If there is no shorting of the line,
the reading should be sum of the previous two readings. If it reads zero, it is
evident that the line is shorted, somewhere and there is no insulation between the
lines. This is known as the “cross insulation” or the insulation resistance between
L1 and L2.
Instead of generating the voltage by hand generator, Megger are made to work on dry cells.
It works on the principle of converting direct voltage from dry cells into alternating voltage
making use of the transistor converter, stepping it up by means of a transformer and rectifying
the stepped up voltage into direct voltage using silicon rectifiers. Thus the stable test voltage of
500V D.C. or any voltage required is obtained as shown in Fig. 6.2. The insulation resistance is
measured by applying the test voltage to the specimen to be tested and the resulting current is
metered by means of micro ammeter, which is calibrated in mega ohms. Neon indicator is
provided to indicate the correct test voltages as well as the condition of the cell. Switching off
the converter can also test continuity and resistance and the battery voltage constitutes the
source for the continuity or the resistance test on ohmmeter principle.
D1
TX1 R
C R5
P1
D2
R3
+
S1
D3
C
TX2 +
R4 S2
D4
R
C
N
R
7 R9
+ R
6
M R8
R10
P2
Fig. 6.2 Battery operated Megger model-52
6.1.2 Bridge Megger (Hand-driven set): This instrument comprises of a hand driven
generator to produce the testing voltage, a changeover switch to change from insulation
to Wheat stone Bridge tests, a ratio switch and a moving coil ohmmeter which measures
directly the value of the insulation resistance. This ohmmeter serves also as the
galvanometer for the bridge tests. A direct reading adjustable resistance computes the
bridge total value in circuit being shown on four dials as a row of figures.

MEGGER
6.1.3 Testing Procedure of insulation
1) Set the changeover switch to the position marked "Megger" or Insulation.
2) Without making any connections, turn the crank and the pointer will promptly
deflect over the scale and stand over the infinity mark.
3) Connect suitable leads to the "Line" and "earth" terminals. Taking care that the
other end of the leads are not in contact with anything, turn the crank again which
shows the pointer once more stand over the infinity mark.
4) Connect to the circuit to be tested. Turn the crank at such a speed that the clutch
slips and while doing so read the insulation value in mega ohms or kilo ohms on
the scale.
6.1.4 Bridge Test:
The instrument may be transformed into a Wheat stone Bridge by setting the
changeover switch to "Bridge". The deflecting coil then serves as the galvanometer coil
and the control coil acts as a control spring. When no current passes through the
deflecting coil, the force exerted by the control coil brings the moving system into the
position in which the pointer reads "Infinity", so that the "Infinity" reading corresponds to
a balanced condition of the bridge.
6.1.5 Measurement of resistance by Bridge Megger
(1) Set the changeover switch to "Bridge" and the ratio switch to "1" and the four resistance
dials to "0". Connect the instrument as shown in Fig. 6.3(a) and Fig. 6.3(b) diagram.
2) Turn the handle slowly while raising the value of the adjustable resistance step by step
until the pointer rest in the "infinity" mark.
3) Increase the handle speed until the clutch slips to obtain the maximum sensitivity and
see that the resistance knobs are correctly set for balance under these conditions.
4) The value of the resistance under test is read from the dials in thousands, hundreds,
tens and units and then multiplied or divided by the final setting of the ratio switch.
5) Maximum accuracy is obtained when the reading on the resistance dial is as high as
possible. Therefore set the ratio switch as far as possible to 100Th position.

MEGGER
Fig. 6.3(a) External connection of bridge megger for wheatstone bridge measuremnets
Fig. 6.3(b) Schematic diagram of the tester showing connection for Wheatstone bridge
measurements
Bridge Megger are used for measuring the conductor resistance of overhead lines or UG
cables. The only precaution to be taken is the voltage of the instrument used. The O/H
lines are looped at the other end and the "line" and "earth" terminals are connected to
the two lines. The resistance is measured as detailed in Para 6.9.
6.1.6 Fault Location:
Low insulation resistance is the cause of the majority of faults, which eventually lead to
breakdown. The Wheat Stone Bridge principle can be applied to determine the position
of fault. The two tests that are commonly used are the Varley and Murray loop tests.
To locate a fault on a conductor or line, a second conductor must be available and also
preferably of the same resistance per unit length and without fault. Both lines are
assumed to have uniform resistance throughout their length and no high resistance
joints are present and no change of wire gauge occurs in either line.

MEGGER
Procedure:
1) Loop the lines i.e., join the faulty conductor at the distant end to a good
conductor. Make a connection having negligible resistance.
2) Joint the faulty line to "Earth" terminal and the good line to the "Line" terminal.
The Varley "earth" terminal must be connected to a good earth.
The adjustable resistance coils operated on these testers are variable from 1
to 9999 ohms in 1-ohm steps. By use of ratio switch the permissible range of
measurement is from 1 ohm to 999900 ohms.
3) With the changeover switch set at "Bridge" measure the resistance of the
looped lines. Let this be L ohm.
4) The external connections remain the same. Set the changeover switch to the
"Varley" position.
5) Obtain a balance by varying the adjustable resistance and the ratio dial as in a
bridge test. Let this be “R” ohms.
The distance ‘d’ in ohms between the fault and the instrument is given by:
d = (L-R)/2 ohms.
6) Knowing the gauge of the wire, and hence the resistance per unit length of the
wire, the distance can be calculated in metres.
6.1.6.1 Explanation of Fig. 6.4(a) and 6.4(b) for detection of earth fault in cable by Bridge
Megger
The Fig.2c and 2d are given to detect the earth fault as explained bellow in addition to
explained in Fig 2a and 2b. Loop the good and faulty line at the far end. At near end
connect good line to the meter terminal marked as good, faulty line to the terminal
marked as faulty, cable sheath to the terminal marked as “G” and the equipment’s earth
to the terminal marked as Earth. Keep the function switch at bridge to get loop
resistance of good and faulty lines. Set the ratio switch at x1. Operate the decade dial
switches, which varies ‘y’ to get the null reading in the Galvano meter. Record the
reading in the decade dials. Now change the position of the function switch from bridge
to Varley.
Operate the decade dial switches to get the null reading in the Galvano meter. Record
the reading of decade dial. Let ‘r’Ω is the bridge reading and ‘z’Ω is the Varley reading.
Then the distance ‘x’ from the measuring point to faulty point is given by (r-z)/2 Ω.
If the ratio switch is in divided by 10, then ‘X’= (r-z)/11 Ω. if ‘x’ is expressed in km.,
divide it by the value of resistance /km. of a conductor.

MEGGER
To identify the distance of contact fault between two conductors of a cable, identify the
faulty conductors and connect the fluty conductors as shown in Figure 2d.Procedure
follows as stated in detection of low insulation fault.
LOCALIZATION OF LOW INSULATION FAULT
G
A GOOD LINE
LOOPING WIRE
GL FAR END
B FAULTY LINE
F
Y X
DC
GRD
m (BRIDGE )
n (VARELY)
GRD (CABLE SHEATH
CONNECTING TERMINALS
GOOD FAULTY GROUND EARTH

LINE LINE (CABLE SHEATH) (EQUIPMENT BODY)
Fig. 6.4(a) Varley loop test to detect low insulation fault
LOCALIZATION OF CONTACT FAULT
R
G
GOOD LINE
A
LOOPING WIRE
GL FAR END
B FAULTY LINE
F
R X
DC
m (BRIDGE)
n (VARLEYEY)
CONDUCTOR SHORTED WITH FAULTY LINE

GRD
CONNECTING TERMINALS
G F GR E
D
GOOED LINE FAULTY LINE WIRE CONNECTED EARTH CONNECTED

TO FAULTY LINE TO EQUIPMENT
Fig. 6.4(b) Varley loop test to detect of contact fault

MEGGER
6.1.7 General Information on Earth
1. To maintain the potential of any part of the system at a definite value with respect
to the earth.
2. To allow current to flow in the event of a fault to earth, so that the protective gear
will operate and the faulty circuit will be isolated.
3. To ensure in the event of a fault that apparatus shall not attain a dangerous
potential above or below earth.
In order that an earth electrode may perform satisfactorily the above functions, it is
necessary that it should have a low resistance to earth and be capable of carrying a
large current without deterioration. It is a comparatively difficult matter to test the
current-carrying capacity of an earth electrode, but the resistance value is quite a good
indication of its condition, and measurements of this are generally accepted as sufficient.
The resistance of earth electrodes is by no means constant; it alters with the amount of
moisture in the soil and is therefore, subject to seasonal and other variations. It is
desirable therefore, that periodical test should be made of the resistance to earth of all
earth electrodes at power stations, sub-stations and else where.
6.1.8 Components of an Earth Resistance:
The earthing of electrical systems and apparatus depends on two factors:
1. The continuity of the metallic earth circuit is up to the electrode. This includes the
resistance of the metal sheathing, conduit or earth continuity conductor and the
earthing lead to the electrode.
2. The resistance of the body of earth surrounding the electrode. The measurements
of this resistance form the subject of subsequent Para.
Strictly speaking, there is yet one other factor, namely the contact resistance between the
electrode and the soil. Careful experiments have however shown that this resistance for
all practical purposes is negligible.
Before describing the actual method of test it is necessary to gain a conception of the
characteristics of an earth resistance.

MEGGER
6.1.9 Back E.M.F. and stray currents:
It must be realised that an earth resistance is not a simple resistance in the same sense
as a coil of wire. The resistance is electrolytic in character, so that the effect of back
E.M.F. has to be taken into account when testing. Stray currents moreover are very often
present in the soil, these currents being returned currents from electrical traction systems
or leakage currents from distribution system.
The effect of back EMF can be eliminated by using alternating current, the results
obtained are liable to be upset by stray currents. Special instruments such as the Megger
Earth Testers are therefore, recommended for making such tests.
6.2 The Measurement of an Earth Resistance
The "Megger" Earth Tester
There are two types of Megger Earth Tester: - The Series 1, shown in Fig. 6.5 and
Null-Balance in Fig. 6.6
They have been designed so that under most practical conditions, the effects of
electrolytic back E.M.F. and stray currents in the soil may be neglected. These
instruments operate on the fall of potential method just described, and require temporary
current and potential electrodes. They are moreover, extremely simple to use, contain
their own testing supply and give directly the value of an earth resistance in ohms
without any calculations.
6.2.1 Universal Series 1- Megger Earth Tester:
Each instrument contains a direct reading ohmmeter and a hand driven generator, which
supplies the testing current.
The ohmmeter embodies two coils mounted at a fixed angle to one another on a
common axle (see Fig. 6.5). One coil (the current coil) carries a current proportional to
that flowing in the testing circuit while the other coil (the potential coil) carries a current
proportional to the potential drop across the resistance under test. The two coils
correspondingly equal, to the ammeter and voltmeter in the fall of potential method. As
the deflection of the ohmmeter movement depends only on the ratio of these currents
(this being independent of the applied voltage) the instrument gives directly in ohms the
resistance under test.

MEGGER
N S
G
100M Ω
S N
POTENTIAL COIL
CURRENT COIL
C1 P1 P2
C2
EARTH
Fig. 6.5 Universal Earth testing Megger
The generators in the Series 1 instruments produce direct current, which passes through
the current coil of the ohmmeter and then through a current reverser, so that the current
through the soil is periodically reversed. A potential therefore exists between the earth
under test and the potential electrode and the consequent current, after being rectified
by the rotary rectifier, passes through the potential coil of the ohmmeter.
6.2.2 The Megger Earth Tester (Null-Balance)
Fig. 6.6 is a simple diagram showing the principle of operation of this instrument. For
simplicity, the range corrections have been omitted. In the diagram, a.c. from the hand
generator passes through the primary of the current transformer to the electrode under
test (E), returning through the soil to terminal C2. The current from the secondary of the
transformer, produces a potential difference between A and B, which is adjusted by the
resistance (R) until it is equal and opposite to the a.c. potential between (P1) and (P2).
Balance is shown by a null reading of the D.C. micro-ammeter (M), the current to the
latter being rectified by the rotary rectifier on the generator shaft.
The adjustable, resistance (R) consists of three decoder resistances, the total value in
the circuit being indicated by a row of figures. The actual resistance measured is the
value multiplied by the range factor in use. Thus, if balance is obtained with the digits
reading (3) (7) (6) and the range switch at 9 (X 0.01), then the electrode resistance
measured is a 3.76 ohms.
MEGGER
It will be appreciated that this digital system of recording a measurement has a practical
advantage over the deflection method, in that the measurement is not subject to reading
errors but remains available until the next test is made.
An additional advantage of the null-balance method is that, at the point of balance no

current flows through the potential electrode (P2), so that its resistance does not affect
the reading.
The Guard circuit (G) is a refinement to eliminate effects due to possible insulation or
capacitance leaks in the instrument. With all these instruments, the effect of stray
alternating currents in the soil will cause the pointer to waver at certain handle speeds.
In such cases, it is only necessaries to increase or decrease the speed of the generator
handle to obtain a steady reading.
Resistance of current and potential electrodes: Provided the spacing of these electrodes
is such that the distortion of the resistance area of the electrode under test is not very
great, their actual Resistance to earth has but little effect on the readings.
E P2 G C2
C2
C1 P1 P2
G
B
R
Fig. 6.6 Megger – Earth tester Null balance type
Alteration, for instance, in the resistance of the current electrode merely alters the value
of the testing current and hence the potential drop across the resistance in the same
proportion, thus the resistance reading is unaffected. As regards the resistance of the
potential electrode no correction is necessary with the Null-Balance instrument and with
the Universal Earth Tester, means are provided for adjusting the potential circuit
resistance to the value used in calibration.

MEGGER
6.2.3 Normal method of test:
The normal method of test and the one for which the instruments are expressly intended
is as follows:
Two spikes acting as current and potential electrodes are driven into the ground at
suitable distances from the earth electrode under test and connected. C1 (Testing
electrode and P1 (potential electrode). These two Terminals of the meter are shorted
together to connect with the testing electrode. P2 terminal of the meter is connected to
the P2 electrode driven in the ground.
The generator handle is then turned and the measurement is made as follows:
1. With the Universal Earth Tester Series 1, a preliminary adjustment is made to

bring the resistance of the potential circuit to the calibration value. The
resistance in ohms is then given directly on the scale.
2. With the Null-Balance Earth Tester, the range switch and the three knobs of
the adjustable resistor are manipulated until the galvanometer pointer is
central. The resistance measured is then the dial reading multiplied by the
range factor.
If stray currents in the soil cause pointer fluctuation, the generator speed should be
increased until the reading is steady.
As previously explained the spacing of the temporary electrodes is of the utmost

importance.
Drive the current electrode into the ground at a distance from the earth electrode under
test, which is considered sufficient. Take three readings with the potential electrode
driven in at three points in turn (One) mid-way between the earth electrode under test
and the current electrode (second) 10 feet nearer to the earth electrode under test, and
(a third) 10 feet nearer the current electrode. If these three readings agree with one
another within the required accuracy of measurement, the mean value can be taken as
the value of the resistance under test. If they do not agree, remove the current electrode
and drive it into the ground at a greater distance from the electrode under test and
repeat the above procedure. Repeat again if necessary until the three readings taken as
indicated agree with one another.

MEGGER
The value so obtained may still be slightly lower than the true resistance, and to keep
this error as low as possible the distance to the current electrode should be as large as
practicable.
Note: The potential electrode must be placed in a direct line between the current
electrode and the electrode under test. Any departure from this may introduce unknown
and undetectable errors.
6.2.3 Some practical testing points:
Earth electrodes should be disconnected from the system before testing, to ensure that
measurement is made of the particular earth in question, not of the whole earth system
to which it is connected.
Where the supply cannot be cut off to enable tests to be made, electrodes should be
duplicated so that when one electrode is disconnected for testing the other may give
protection to the circuit.
If on a high-tension system the insulation resistance happens to be low and the earth
resistance high, considerable differences in potential may exist in the ground. Under
these conditions great care is necessary and it is recommended, therefore, that rubber
gloves be worn.
Spacing of electrodes: As roughs guide the following figures may be of assistance.

When testing an earth electrode consisting of a single driven pipe or a single earth plate,
the current electrode should be about 100 feet from the electrode under test, the
potential electrode being about 60 feet away. If the earth electrode is large or consists of
several pipes or plates in parallel, these distances should be increased to say 150 and
75 feet respectively. An alternative method, which can be used, for these simple
electrodes is based on the fact that it can be shown that the true resistance is obtained if
the potential electrode is placed at a distance from the earth electrode equal to 61.8% of
the distance to the current electrode. Thus if the current electrode is at 100 feet, the
potential electrode should be at 61.8 feet and so on. If two or three tests are made using
this rule with different current electrode spacing and the results agree, then this value is
the true resistance to earth. Much greater distances than these must be used for
complex earth consisting of say, a large number of pipes or plates and other metallic
structures all bonded together.

MEGGER
Type of temporary electrode recommended:
For carrying out the tests just described, certain accessories in the way of spikes, for
making temporary earth connections, are required.
For this purpose 1/2-inch diameter solid-mild-steel spikes, 18 inches in length, are
recommended. These should be driven into the soil to a depth of about 12 inches, by a
quick succession of sharp blows from a 2 1/2-lb. hammer.
Lead resistance:
In the general method of test described, the resistance of the lead from the instrument to
the earth electrode under test is included in the measurement and it should therefore be
kept as short as possible. The resistance of this lead can, if desired, be measured on the
instrument by removing the further end from the earth electrode just tested and
connecting it to terminals P2 and C2 joined together as shown in Fig. 6.7(a).
Measurements can however, be made in which the lead resistance is not included. To
do this, separate lead is run from terminals P1 and C1 to the earth electrode under test,
the link connecting these two terminals being open as shown in Fig. 6.7(b)
Fig. 6.7(a) Method of measuring the lead resistance
Fig. 6.7(b) Alternate method of test when a dead earth is available

MEGGER
6.2.5 Measuring the specific resistance or resistivity of the soil
As previously pointed out, the resistance to earth of an earth electrode is influenced by

the specific resistance of the surrounding soil. This depends on the nature of the soil and
the moisture content and may vary from a few ohms-cm to several millions of ohm-cm.
Moreover, the specific resistance may change suddenly from place to place, depending
on the structure of the soil.
Before sinking an electrode, therefore, it is often advantageous to make a preliminary

survey of the surrounding soil so as to select the best position for the electrode and also
to decide whether any advantage is likely to be gained by driving rods to greater depths.
Such a survey may result inconsiderable saving in the cost of the electrode installation
necessary to give a required resistance.
Measurement of specific resistance or resistivity:
The following method of measurement is based on that described by Dr.F.Wenner in the

United States Bureau of Standards, Bulletin No.258.
The method consists of driving four electrodes into the ground in a straight line at equal
intervals “a”. The depths of insertion of the electrodes should not exceed 1/20th of “a”.
The outer two current electrodes are connected to terminals C1 and C2 and the inner
two potential electrodes to the terminals P1 & P2.
With the series 1 Tester, the link between P1 and C1 is open and with the Null-Balance
Tester, the guard terminal is used and connected to a fifth spike inserted mid-way
between C2 and P2. See Fig. 6.8
Fig. 6.8 Connection of series-1 and null balance type earth test Megger

MEGGER
Measuring soil resistivity
Assuming the soil to be homogeneous, the resistivity is given by the formula: ρ = 2πaR,
where R is the resistance measured in ohms and (a) is the electrode spacing in
centimetres, and (ρ) is the resistivity in ohms-cm. For non-homogeneous ground this
formula will give an apparent resistivity that is very approximately the average value to a
depth equal to the electrode spacing "a".
By keeping the electrode spacing the same, a series of measurements can be taken at
different points in the area in order to ascertain the most advantageous position for the
earth electrode. Further by increasing the electrode spacing “a”, the specific resistance
to greater depths can be explored with a view to deciding whether any advantage is to
be gained by the driving electrode rods to a great depth.

TRANSMISSION MEASUREMENTS
CHAPTER 7
7.1 Introduction
The purpose of transmission measurements taken during installation and periodical tests
is to ensure that the equipment installed confines to certain pre-determined performance
limits and may thus be expected to give satisfactory service over a reasonable length of
time.
The purpose of routine tests is:
(i) To ensure that the equipment does not deteriorate in performance at a faster rate
than is justified by normal operational wear & tear and
(ii) To take adequate and timely preventive action, so that a fault free service is
given to the users.
The unit of measurement occurring in transmission work is the decibel. The decibel is
defined as 10 times the common logarithm of the ratio of two quantities of powers. If P1
and P2 are two powers, they are said to differ by a decibel where:
A= 10 log (P1/P2)
While making measurements of the power at various points along a transmission circuit, it
becomes convenient to have a common reference power with which the observed powers
could be compared, thereby enabling the power measurements to be made directly in
decibels. The power used as a reference standard in transmission work is one milli-watt.
A point in a circuit is said to be at power level of zero dB, if the actual power in the circuit
at the point of measurement is 1 mw. The unit of measurement is referred to as dBm (0
dBm is referred to one mw).
Through or level measurement is taken across the transmission line at any point in a
circuit without disconnecting the through circuit. For such a measurement, the switch
position of the measuring instrument that marked as “Level” or “Through”, is selected.
Trans or loss measurement is taken across the transmission line at any point by
disconnecting the circuit and terminated by impedance that equal to the characteristic
impedance of the transmission line. The switch position that marked as "Loss" or "Trans"
on the measuring instrument is selected. These two types of measurement viz.,

measuring through and terminated levels, are commonly referred to as "Level" and “Loss”
measurements.
Level meters are merely high impedance voltmeters calibrated to read directly in decibels,
the instrument is commonly known as a decibel meter. Measurements in a circuit
are taken at points having a standard value of impedance and the voltage measured will
give an indication of the power level 1. When carrying out measurements at point having
different impedance, care is to be taken to use the decibel meter set for the correct
impedance.
Taking the most common standard impedance of 600 ohms and zero dB level of 1 mw,
the voltage across this impedance for zero dB is, V2/600 = 1/1000 or V = 0.775volts. All
other power levels across 600 Ω impedance will be given by, Power level = 20log10
(E/0.775) Where E is the voltage existing across the impedance. These are calculated
and marked accurately on the scale.
7.1.1 Measurement of transmission loss with a meter that is not matching to the
characteristic impedance of the transmission line.
Characteristic Impedance, Z0
Z0= √ (Z/ Y) = √ (R+jωL)/(G+jωC); Where L= Inductance; C= Capacitance;
G= Conductance, R= Resistance
For a given frequency the sending end impedance of an infinitely long line is a constant
and this is known as the characteristic impedance of the line. When a line is of infinite
length and the primary constants have the same uniform values throughout, voltage and
current diminish uniformly with the length of the line till they become zero at infinite
distance and so no energy is reflected back. So when its characteristic impedance
terminates a finite line, no energy is reflected back from the terminated end.
When a transmission loss-measuring instrument of characteristic impedance different

from the characteristic impedance of transmission line, terminates an infinitely long
transmission line, there will be miss match of power, and eventually the exact power
cannot be measured. The mismatch power which should be added to the meter reading
on a particular point of the transmission line to get the actual power of that particular
point.
The mismatch power ratio in dB can be derived from the following equation:

Case-1: - Transmission lines characteristic Impedance and level meter Impedance is

same.
Let, E = Source power.
Zo = Characteristic Impedance of the transmission line.
Zo = the meter impedance which terminates the transmission line is equal to the
characteristic impedance of transmission line.
Vo = Voltage drop across the characteristic impedance of transmission line
V1 = Voltage drop across the meter impedance
Vo = E.Zo/ (Zo+Zo)=E/2 V,
Po = (E/2) 2 /Zo = E2 / 4.Zo W,
Where, Po = Power drop in transmission line.
V1 = E.Zo/2Zo = E/2 V; P1 =(E/2) 2 / Zo =E2 / 4Zo W,
Where, P1 = Power drop across meter when terminated by characteristic

impedance.
Case-2: - When meter impedance is different from the characteristic impedance of

transmission line and the transmission line is not terminated by characteristic
impedance.
Z1 = Zo.X, where, Zo = characteristic impedance of the transmission line and X
=multiplication factor. Z1 = meter impedance to terminate the line.
Voltage across meter impedance,

V2 = (E.Zo.X)/ (Zo+Zo.X) = E.X/(1+X) V
Power drop across meter, when it is terminated by other than characteristic impedance,
is P2 = (V2) 2 / Z1W
0r P2 = (E.X) 2/(1+X) 2(Z0.X) W;

Where, Mismatch of power = 10Log 10P2/ P1
= 10Log10 (E.X) 2. 4Z0/(1+X) 2. (Z0.X). E2
=10Log10 4X/(1+X) 2
Therefore, actual powers at a measuring point when terminated by meter impedance =
Meter reading in mismatch condition + mismatch power.

For example a level meter whose scale is calibrated for use in the 600 ohms impedance
only, it is required to be used to measure the level, say at a 150 ohms point. In such a
case the true level “L” is given by:
L = L1 + 10 log10 4X/(1+X) 2 Or L = L1 +(-18.062), Where X = 1 / 4 and L1 is the meter

reading in the miss match condition between meter impedance and transmission line
impedance.
Measurement of transmission loss in Level and loss modes:
For level or through measurement the meter is bridged across the circuit as shown in
Fig. 7.1(a). The meter should have high impedance so that the bridging loss will be less.
Fig. 7.1(a) Through Level measurements
For loss measurement, the meter is connected as shown in Fig. 7.1(b). The meter itself
provides the necessary termination (600Ω, in the example given) when switched to loss
position.
Fig. 7.1(b) Terminated level measurement
Most decibel meters give both the facilities i.e., for taking level and loss measurements.
A high impedance meter is used and the terminating impedance of 600Ω is brought into
the circuit internally by a switch for taking appropriate loss measurement as shown in
Fig. 7.2

Fig.7.2 High impedence meter for appropriate loss measurements
If “level” measurement is taken with the switch in the “loss” position, the reading will be
lower than the true value by 3.52 dB. (Since the 600Ω resistors are in parallel with the
meter, the voltage across the measuring point would be E/3. Had the meter been in the
level position, the reading would have corresponded to a voltage difference of E/2
across the points. The discrepancy is 20 log 2/3 = -3.52 dB).
7.2 Transmission Measuring Set (TYPE – 368 B)
7.2.1 Introduction
The transmission Measuring set is designed to fulfil all types of requirements for
determination of the following parameters in cable circuit in Telephony.
1. Signal Levels.
2. Insertion Losses.
3. Transmission Losses
4. Return Losses.
5. The Instrument is battery operated.
6. The level meter is with a digital display.
7. Decibel scale is uniformly readable and is far superior to log scale as in analog
meter.
8. The set is having under / over range and LO battery indication are provided.

Technical Specifications:
1. Generator Frequency: 12 pre-calibrated switches selectable.

200, 400, 800, 1000, 1200, 1600, 1800, 2400, 3000,
3500, 4000 & 5000 Hz.
2. Output Impedance: 600, 1120 ohms ± 2%.
3. Distortion: less than 2%.
4. Transmission Level: + 10 dB to –50 dB in 10 dB steps and
+ 1 to –10 dB continuous variable.
7.2.2 Level Meter
Input Impedance: 600, 1120 ohms ± 2% and Hi ‘Z’ (100k)

Display: Digital Panel meters 3 1/2 digit (LCD)
Measuring Range: + 20 to – 60 dB.
Ref. Frequency: 800 Hz.
Resolution: 0.1 dB.
Accuracy: 200 Hz. – 5 KHz ± 0.2 dB.
5 KHz – 20 KHz within 1 dB.
Power Source: Rechargeable tests (sealed battery / or 230 V, 50 Hz) mains.

Dimensions: W 320 mm x H 105 mm x D25 mm.
Weight: 2.5kg approx.
7.2.3 Power Supply Requirement
The instrument can be operated by AC power with rechargeable batteries fitted inside
the instrument, which are sufficient to run the instrument for 6-8 hrs without charging if
they are fully charged before starting.
To check the battery condition,

• Switch ON the instrument and wait 5-10 minutes to ensure that there should not
be LOW BAT condition.
• Initial Function / Calibration Check
• Switch ‘ON’ the instrument and wait for 5 minutes.
• Connect out of generator to the input of level meter with the patch cord.
• Select measuring frequency of 800 Hz with input & output Z 600 Ω
• Select + 20 to – 20 dB range.
• Set ‘0dB’ level with the help of Trans level pot.

• Now, change fixed attenuator + 20 to – 20 dB, the digital panel meter shows
corresponding reading.
• Now select – 20 to – 60-dB range & change attenuator –20 to –50 dB. The panel
meter shows the corresponding reading.
If the Digital Panel shows reading as per attenuator setting then the instrument is OK
and ready to use.
Controls and their Functions
• Test “FREQUENCY IN Hz” switch - is a 12 way rotary switch for setting AF generator
output frequency, which can be set for 200, 400, 800, 1000, 1200, 1600, 1800, 2400,
3000, 3500, 4000, 5000 Hz.
• “OUTPUT” terminals – These are for generator output of balanced type.
• “OUTPUT Z” – These are two push button switches for selecting Trans output
impedance 600 Ω & 1200 Ω.
• “TRANS LEVEL” dBm consist of a seven way rotary switch & one adjustable pot for
setting generator output from + 10 dB to – 60 dB.
• “RANGE IN dBm/mV” (+20 to –20 & 20 to –60).
• These are three push button switches for selecting appropriate range. There are two
ranges + 20 dBm to –20 dBm & - 20 dBm to –60 dBm & one range for mV.
• “INPUT Z” – There are three push button switches for selecting level detector input
impedance of 600 or 1120 or HI ‘Z’.
• “INPUT TERMINALS” These are for level detector input of balanced type for 600/1120 Ω
& unbalanced type – H1 ‘Z’ (100 K).
• “ON/OFF switch – This is a switch for turning instrument ON/OFF.
Mains / Charger “On” Switch

• This is a toggle switch, which switches ON the mains and internal battery charging.
• “BAT CHD LED” The glowing of LED indicates the charging of internal batteries or
instrument in running on mains. This stops glowing / flashing when the battery is fully
charged.
• A 3 1/2digit LCD display unit market “dBm” & mv is used for dBm/mV indication, this unit
also gives indication for OVER and UNDER the selected range.
• “RETURN LOSS” – This is the arrangement for return loss measurement.

7.2.4 Transmission Loss Measurement
The line resistance and electrostatic or electromagnetic couplings cause transmission

loss occurring in telephone circuits.
Transmission measuring set (Type 368-B) can measure transmission loss at the near
and far end in telephone circuits in range of +20 dB to –60 dB. The standard circuit
impedance is 600 Ω. It can measure return loss in range of 0 to 50 dB.
7.2.5 Measurement of Transmission Loss Near End.
TMS
(TYPE 368-B)
OUTPUT INPUT
Device
Under
Test
Fig. 7.3: Measurement of transmission loss - near end
• Connect the output of generator to the input of level meter with the supplied patch
cord.
• Select the measuring frequency of 800 Hz. By pressing the frequency selection
switch.
• Select the measuring range from + 20 to – 20 dB.
• Select ‘0’ dB level.
• Switch ON the instrument and give 3 minutes warm up time.
• Adjust the level 00.0 dB with the help of Trans level pot.
• Check 0 dB for all 12 spot frequencies & readjust the pot if required.
• Now instrument is ready to measure the transmission loss & connect the terminal
with circuit as shown in Fig. 7.3
• If the panel meter shows under or over range, then select next range. The panel
meter wills directly gives the value of loss in the conductor pair under test.

7.2.6 Measurement Of Transmission Loss Far End
For far end transmission loss, perform counter test at both ends facing telephone circuits.
Therefore two instruments are required. The setting procedure of the instrument is same
as in near end (step 1 to 8) Connect the instrument terminals to the circuit as shown in
Fig. 7.4
TMS TMS
(TYPE 368-B) (TYPE 368-B)
OUTPUT INPUT OUTPUT INPUT
Device
Under
Test
Fig. 7.4 Measuring transmission loss - far end
7.2.7 Measurement Of Return Loss
Return loss is the ratio expressed in decibel of the fractional energy reflection caused
due to impedance mismatch.
Return loss = 20 log10 (Z1 + Z2) /(Z1 – Z2)
If Z1 = Z2; the return loss will be zero. The numerical value of return loss as given by
the formula is measured by the transmission measuring set. See Fig. 7.5
The procedure for this measurement is as follows:
• The line or system whose return loss is to be measured is connected to the terminals
marked UNKNOWN at the rear panel of the TMs.
• The switch in the rear panel is switched to the corresponding position 600 Ω or 1120 Ω
• Switch on the instrument and select input and output impedance on line characteristic
impedance (600Ω & 1120 Ω).
• Connect a patch cord to short input and output terminal at front panel.

TMS FRONT PANEL

(TYPE 368-B)
OUTPUT INPUT
Unknown 600Ω
or GUARD
Device REAR PANEL
Under 1120Ω
Test UNKNOWN OUTPUT INPUT
Fig. 7.5 Test setup of TMS kit
• Adjust 0.0dB reading with the help of Trans level. The frequency of measurement should be
adjusted to 800 Hz. for normal measurements.
• Remove the patch cord & select H1 ‘Z’ at input side.
• Connect output terminals of front panel to output terminals of rear panel with the help of
patch cord.
• Also connect INPUT terminals of front panel to input terminals of rear panel as shown in
• Note the reading on the panel meter after setting switch at proper range. If it is 600 Ωlines
for system measurement, add +6 dB to the panel meter reading to get the absolute value
after addition in the return loss of the system.
• Ex. If panel meter reads – 47 dB, then return loss = - 47 + 6 = - 41 dB.
• If it is 1120 Ω line for system measurement, convert panel meter reading dB to dBm by
adding –2.71 dB first & then add + 6 dB in it.
Ex: - If panel meter reading is obtained – 43 dB, then return loss is:
-43 dB – 2.71 + 6 dB = - 45.71 dB + 6 dB. = - 39.71 dB.

7.2.8 Measurement Of Insertion Loss

• Select INPUT & OUTPUT impedance as required but should be it both sides.
• Connect the output to the input.
• Select measuring range + 20 to – 20 dBm.
• Set 0-dBm levels.
• Insert device under test to close switch ‘S’ as shown in Fig. 7.6
TMS
(TYPE 368-B)
OUTPUT INPUT
Device
Under
Test
Fig. 7.6 Measurement of insertion loss
7.3 Explanation Of Units of Measurement of various signal power for voice

communication
7.3.1 Decibel
a) The relationship between any two power values can be expressed in decibels as follows:
Decibels (dB) =10log10 P1/P2, Where P2 is the reference power.
It is also used to express voltage and current ratios:
Voltage Ratio in dB = 20log10 (V1/V2)
Current Ratio in dB = 20 log10 (I1/I2)
It is important to note that the decibel is a unit of power ratio, and does not represent a
particular power level; i.e. decibels are not absolute units like dBm. Or dBW, but are a
measure of a relative level between two absolute units. If the value in decibel is
negative, it represents an attenuation figure, which is the number of decibels bellow,
some absolute power level to where another absolute power level is to be found. The

rules of thumb for quick calculations are: If the power doubles add 3dB; and if halves
subtract 3dB to the power Amplifier/attenuator
In Out dB
1W 10W 10dB
500micro watts 1m w 3dB
1micro watt 1nano watt -30dB
Table 7.1 Relation between Watt and dB
7.3.2 Explanation of dBm, dBr, dBmo and 0TLP
Almost all telecommunication systems are built by interconnecting a chain of various modules
starting from the sender’s end till the receiver end.
For example:
A person calling from New Delhi to his friend at Calcutta, his speech will start from his hand set
reach to nearest Telephone Exchange then to Calcutta Exchange then to his friend’s hand set.
The Delhi Exchange and Calcutta Exchange are interconnected through Trunk lines. These
trunk lines may have Microwave or OFC links or any combinations of these two.
While carrying the speech signal from sender’s end till receiver’s end, some amount of Noise
will get introduced (by each of the equipment coming in the chain). The listener will eventually
here the speech contaminated by Noise, introduced by the complete chain of equipments and
also the propagation paths between the two cities.
In fact, the talker from his starting point definitely does not insert this Noise. But gradually got
added up from contribution from each individual elements and paths. In view of the above it
becomes necessary to ascertain noise performance of each noise contributing equipment in the
chain. It may also be necessary to compare Noise performances of the various contributors.
For this purpose, it is very convenient to convert the True Noise Power measured at a point of
interest anywhere in the path of signal flow, in terms of an imaginary Noise Power, got
contaminated at a suitable point close to the talker’s end which is preferably a common point

TX
RX
2W TERMINATION
POINT CLOSE TO
TERMINAL EQUIPMENT
Fig. 7.7 2W Termination point
irrespective of type and make of transmission equipments. This contaminated imaginary

noise power finally reaches to the listener and all the equipments are not producing any
noise. In the telephony industry this point is the 2W Termination point just before the
Transmission Equipment. Refer to Fig. 7.7
This point is universally accepted by all concerned (Manufacturers, users, networking

integrator and etc.) and this is known as “0” Transmission level point. Generally the
test signal level at this point (OTLP) is taken as 1mW(0dBm) and the frequency of the
Test Signal is 1KHz or 800Hz. The performance of a circuit (Connecting from one point
to another) is determined by measuring this test signal level at various points of interest
down the signal flow path.
If the point under test shows the signal level lower than the input level at 0TLP then the
test point is said to have a loss; similarly if the point under test shows the signal level
higher than the input level at 0TLP then the test point is said to have a gain.
TEST TONE
SIGNAL
A B C
0dBm
- 10 dBm
+3dBm
0TLP TESTING POINT
Fig 7.8 Absolute values of test tone at dBr points
In this case (Example above Fig. 7.8), the test point is at a loss of 10dB with respect to
0TLP, which is written as (-) 10dBr. Here the suffix small “r” indicates that, it is
measured relative to 0TLP.
In this way one can express any point in the signal flow path having a relative
level with respect to 0TLP. It may so happen that a point may show same level (neither
gain nor loss) with respect to 0TLP. All such points will have a relative level of

0dBr.Please note that all these points are not so called 0TLPs but they are simply 0dBr
points.
While measuring the test signal level at any point down the signal path, some amount of
noise (as explained earlier) will be noticed. Sometimes signalling tones, between
equipments to equipments (like Exchange to Exchange, Mux to Mux and etc) are also
required to be inserted. This signalling tone will also be present at every point between
such equipments pair along with test signal. Thus, noises and signalling tones both
may present at those test points along with test tone signal.
To compare the noise level or the signalling tone level (i.e. anything other than the test
signal) at any point including last end of the chain where the listener is situated, these
values are referred back to the 0TLP. Any ingress of noise or insertion of signalling tone
can now be considered as if those are inserted at 0TLP at “Appropriate Level” along
with the standard test tone level. This “Appropriate Level” is shown as dBmo.
- 20dBm0
3.825Khz.
Sig. Tone
Sig. Tone
(-) 65dBm
2W
TERMINATION
RADIO
HYBRID CHANNEL
EQPT.
VFT MODEM
(-) 3.5dBr (-) 16dBr (-) 45dBr

0TLP
Test Tone Test Tone Test Tone
Test Tone
(-) 3.5dBm (-) 16dBm (-) 45dBm
0dBm (0dBm0)
A B C
Fig. 7.9 Test tone, signalling tone and noise levels at testing points
In the example (Fig. 7.9) the noise and signalling tone level referred to 0TLP are
shown at each test point A, B, C. please note that these referred levels (dBmo) are
absolute level (dBm) minus relative level (dBr) at the respective point.
dBmo = dBm – dBr

Test tone Signalling tone Noise
level
Referred at 0TLP
Measurement.
Referred at 0TLP
Referred at 0TLP
Points of
Level dBm
Level dBm
Level dBm
Absolute.
Absolute
Absolute
dBm0
Relative
dBm0
SNR
DBm0
dB
0TLP 0dBr 0dBm 0dBm0 --- --- --- --- ---
(-) 3.5 (-) 60 -56.5 56.5
A (-)3.5dBr 0dBm0 --- -- -
dBm dBm dbm0 dB
(-) 16 (-) 20 (-) 70 -54 54
B (-)16 dBr 0dBm0 ---
dBm dBm0 dBm dBm0 dB
(-) 45 (-) 20 (-) 80 -35 35
C (-)45 dBr 0dBm0 -65dBm
dBm dBm0 dBm dBm0 dB
Table 7.2
In the above example the absolute noise levels and correspondingly the referred levels
at 0TLP, A, B and C are shown in the Table 7.2. It is also noted that the components at
A and B add the noises. Due to gradual contribution of noise by each section, the SNR
Progressively worsens.
The SNRs at A, B and C are as follows: -

• 0TLP to A = 56.5 dB
• A to B = 2.5 dB
• B to C = 19 dB
If the Test Tone at 0TLP is not 0dBm(0dBmo) but (-) 10dBm (-10dBmo), then all of the
dBm levels as measured at the dBr points (Ex. A, B, C points) Or relative points through
out the system, also have been dropped by this amount.
0 TLP A B C D
4W TX
CNTROL Loss Gain Loss Gain
20dB 20dB 10dB 10dB
OFFICE
Rel Lvl 0TLP -20dBr 0dBr -10dBr 0dBr

Test tone(-)10dBm0 -30dBm - 0dBm -20dBm -10dBm
Sig tone (-)17dBm0 -37dBm - 7dBm -27dBr -17dBm
Fig. 7.10 4W Control with test tone and signalling tone levels

Point of
Relative Test signal Signalling tone
measurement
level Referred Absolute Referred
Absolute
Value Value Value
value
@0TLP @0TLP
0TLP 0dBr -10dBm -10dBm0 -17dBm -17 dBm0
A -20dBr -30dBm -10 dBm0 -37dBm -17 dBm0
B 0dBr -10dBm -10 dBm0 -17dBm -17 dBm0
C -10dBr -20dBm -10 dBm0 -27dBm -17 dBm0
D 0dBr -10dBm -10 dBm0 -17dBm -17 dBm0
Table
Pl notes that the Sig. tones at all the points of measurements are of same level of –17dBm0
when referred to the 0TLP. Circuit loss: 5dB.
Table 7.3 Relative levels, plus levels of absolute and referred power, for a 2-Wire and 4W
circuit
Sending point
Receiving point
Relative levels or transmission levels 0 dBr -5dBr
(2-Wire)
Milliwatt test tone 0 dBr -5dBm absolute power
At any point 0 dBm0 0 dBm0 referred power
Signaling tone -10dBm -15dBm0 absolute power
Relative level, or transmission level -3.5dBr -8.5dBr
(4-Wire)
At any point -10dBm0 -10dBm0 referred power
Circuit noise, picked up along circuit -65 dBmp absolute power
Circuit noise, referred to 0dBr -60dBm0p referred power
dBrn
This is used in referring to noise. A 1000Hz tone at -90Bm is the reference power and
any other noise is expressed in dB above this reference noise. Since the reference noise
is having negligible interfering effect, this power level is always expressed as + ve.

dBa
When the reference in above becomes –85 dBm, for a 1000Hz Tone, it is expressed as
dBa decibels adjusted.
dBrnc
Where c-message weighting is used for the line and measurements are made and the
reference level is –90 dBm, the unit becomes dBrnc (decibel reference noise c-message
weighted.
Psophometric weighting
This unit is linear and not logarithmic and used by CCITT. The reference level is 1 pwp
(Pico watt psophometrically weighted) and is the equivalent of an 800Hz tone with a
power of a-90dBm or a1000Hz tone with a power of –91dBmor a 3000Hz band of white
noise with a power of approximately –88dBm.The shape of psophometric curve is similar
to that of c-message weighted curve and the approximate conversions are:
dBrnc =10log10 pwp.
dBa = -6 + 10log 10 pwp.
7.3.1 dBao, dBrnco and pwpo
They are expressed to relate the measurement to 0 TLP to express S/N ratio in terms of
dBrnco, and pwpo. For flat noise channels, the formulae for S/N ratio are:
S/N = 88dBrnco
S/N = 88L0g10pwpo
dBx
Cross-talk coupling is indicated in dBx, and the reference coupling is the difference
between 90dB, loss and the amount of actual coupling.
If the actual coupling between circuits is –30dB, the two circuits have a coupling of 60dBx.
dBw and dBk
dBw and dBk have reference powers as 1 watt and 1 kilowatt respectively.

dBV: The reference is 1 volt.

dBu and dBj
They are with reference to one microvolt and 1000 microvolts respectively. They are
normally used for signal intensity or receiver sensitivity.
dBrap:
The intensity level of a speaker’s voice measured one metre from his mouth is
expressed in dBrap, where the standard reference acoustical power (0dBrap) is 10-16
watt/cm2
Psophometric voltage and emf
The value obtained by psophometer (as recommended by (CCITT) is psophometric

voltage. The psophometric emf, (equivalent noise generator emf) is given by the
following formula by considering the circuit source and load impedance referred to
600ohms resistive:
Psophometric emf = 2x9psophometric voltage) for 600 ohms resistive
7.4 Cross talk
Types
The cross talk can be either Far end cross talk or near end cross talk or both.
Disturbing and disturbed pairs
The signal in one pair produces cross talk in another pair .The first pair is called
disturbing pair and the other pair is called disturbed pair.
Contributing factors
The cross talk is dependent on such factors as line length, transposition scheme used,
the frequencies involved and the level differences on the particular pairs.
Near end cross talk
Cross talk that is propagated in disturbed channel in the direction opposite to the
direction of propagation of the current in the disturbing channel. The near end of the
disturbed circuit is that end which is near the generator end of the perturbing circuit.
Hence the cross talk appearing at this end is termed as near end cross talk.

Far End Cross Talk
Cross talk that is propagated in a disturbed circuit in the same direction as the direction
of propagation of the current in the disturbing circuit. Far end cross talk is usually
measured by comparison of voltages at the receiving terminals of disturbing and
disturbed circuits.
Near end cross talk is much stronger than the far end cross talk due to following
reasons:
1. The inductive and capacitive couplings are additive in case of near end cross talk but
subtractive in case of far end cross talk.
2. The inducing current in the disturbing circuit is attenuated to a large value after it has
travelled to the far end. Obviously then, the resulting induced current will also be
weaker than those at the near end.
One more circuit, called the tertiary circuit, caused the cross talk, which is known as
indirect, or interaction cross talk. This additional tertiary circuit may either be a physical
circuit or a phantom derived from the primary and secondary circuits acting as side
circuit.
7.4.1 Measurement of cross talk attenuation
a) Since the noise is present on the pair (disturbed pair) on which the cross talk
measurements are made. The measurements must be taken both with the signal On and
Off on the disturbing pair. The difference between these two readings on a power basis
is indicative of the cross talk level.
b) To measure the far end cross talk between two pairs, a signal with the normal transmit
level shall be fed on the first pair (disturbing pair) and the resulting cross talk may be
measured on the other pair (disturbed pair) at the far end.
c) Characteristic impedance shall terminate the receiving end of the first pair and the
signal-feeding end of the second pair. Far end cross talk coupling loss is the difference
between the levels of the disturbing signal as received on the disturbing pair and the
level of the same signal received on the disturbed pair.

d) To measure the near end cross talk between two pairs, a signal with the normal transmit
level shall be fed on the first pair (disturbing pair) and the cross talk on the other pair
(disturbed pair) is measured at the same station. Near end cross talk coupling loss is the
difference between the level of the disturbing signal at the input end of the disturbing pair
and the level of the same signal received on the disturbed pair at the same station.
Cross talk attenuation between two circuits is determined by the logarithmic ratio of
power P1 sent into disturbing circuit to the power P2 measured at the tested point of the
disturbed one.
Near end
E1 Z2
α n = Log e ---- + ½ Log e --- Neper
E2 Z1
Far end
P1 E1 Z2
αf = ½ Loge --- = Log --- + ½ Log e --- Neper
P3 E3 Z1
1 Neper = 8.686 decibel, 1 decibel = 0.11513 Neper.
The disturbing line (the line to which the tone is fed from signal generator) far end and
disturbed line at both ends should be terminated in their nominal impedance. At
measured end the termination of the disturbed line can be eliminated in order to have an
increased out put voltage.
7.5 CROSS TALK MEASURING SET (TYPE: 378 – A)
7.5.1 Introduction
Cross Talk Measuring set type 378-A is capable of measuring CROSS TALK in Audio
Frequency Range. A.F generator and measuring detector are built in.
As the measuring range starts from zero dB the instrument can conveniently be used for
measuring transmission losses in cables thus doing work of transmission measuring set.

Technical specifications
GENERATOR
Transmitting Frequency (Hz) : 300, 800, 1000, 1600, 2400, 3000
& 3400 selectable through push button Switch.
Frequency Error : ± 1 %.
Transmitting Level : 0 dB ± 0.5 dB level control provided.
Output Impedance (BAL) : 600 / 1120 / 470 Ω ± 2% selectable through a switch.
Selective detector:
Frequency : Tuned to the generator frequency selectable.

Measuring Range : 0-100 dB resolution 1 dB.
Measuring Accuracy : ± 1 dB.
Input Impedance : Terminating 600/1120/470 Ω ± 2 % through 100 KΩ.
Display : Digital Panel meter 3 ½ digit reads dB/millivolts.
Power Source : Sealed rechargeable battery.
Control and their functions
Test Frequency In Hz Switches:

There are seven push button switches for setting AF generator
output frequency and detector selection frequency, which can set
the frequency of 300 hz, 800 hz, 1000, 2400, 3000 & 3400 Hz.
“OUTPUT” Terminals: These are for generator output of balanced type.
“SET LEVEL”: This is a adjustable pot for setting generator output 1058 mV ±
100 mV in 1120 Ω / 1120 Ω, 775 mv ± 75 mV in 600 Ω / 600 V and
686 ± 70 mV in 470 Ω / 470 Ω in output / input impedance.
“OUTPUT Z”: These are push button switches for setting AF generator output
impedance, any 1120 Ω can be selected.
“INPUT TERMINALS”: There are for level detector input for balanced type.
“INPUT Z” : These are push button switches for setting level detector input
impedance. Any one of four inputs of 470 Ω, 600 Ω 1120 Ω & HIZ
can be selected.

“RANGE in dB/mV”: These are push button switches for selecting dB & mV range.
There are three ranges 0 to -40, -40 to –80 & -80 to –110 to read
dB levels. There are ranges to read up to 2000 mV. Signal display
unit marked “ dB mv”. 3½-digit LCD unit used for dB and mV. Low
battery indication is also displayed in this unit. It shows over
range /under range when reading exceeds + 2 to – 1dB of the
selected range.
When the battery is under charge the RED LED will be glowing
and stop glowing/ flashing when the battery is fully charged.
7.5.2 Near end cross talk measurements:
Type 378-A Cross Talk set can measure cross talk at the near and far end of telephone
circuits in the range of 0 to –100 dB. The standard circuit impedance is 470 Ω, 600 Ω &
1120 Ω. For near end cross talk measurement following settings is required:
1. Set the impedance switches corresponding to a measured circuit.

2. Link the output of generator to input of the level meter with patch cord.
3. Select the measuring frequency 1000 Hz by setting the frequency switch.
4. Select measuring range 0 to 40 dB.
5. Turn ON of the Battery switch & give five minutes warm up time to take better results.
6. Adjust the level ‘0’ dB with SET LEVEL Pot.
7. Check 0 dB for all 7 spot frequencies, if required & readjust the set level pot.
CROSS TALK SET

(TYPE 378-A)
OUTPUT INPUT
Terminating Terminating
Resistance Resistance
Fig. 7.11 Near end cross talk measurement

Now the instrument is ready to measure the cross talk as shown in Fig. 7.11.
If the digital panel meter shows under range, set next range –40 to –80 dB, now if DPM
shows under range again then shift to –80 to 110 dB range. DPM shows direct the value
of the cross talk in the conductor pair under test.
7.5.3 Far end cross talk measurement
For Far End Cross talk measurement, perform counter test at both ends facing
telephone circuits. Therefore, the two instruments are required. One instrument is
connected to a cross talk circuit to transmit a test signal and the other is connected to a
cross talk circuit to measure cross talk respectively. The setting procedure of the
instrument is same as in near end (from step 1 to 7). Equipment set up is as in Fig. 7.12
CROSS TALK SET CROSS TALK SET

(TYPE 378-A) (TYPE 378-A)
VFT VFT
Fig. 7.12 Far End Cross Talk Measurement
CROSS TALK SET

(TYPE 378-A)
OUTPUT INPUT
VFT
Fig. 7.13 Near End Transmission Loss Measurement

The setting procedures are same as in cross talk measurement except the “FAR ENDS”
of the conductor pairs are Electro-magnetically coupled with a coupling transformer and
signal level is measured at the ‘NEAR END’.
This value shall be for two lengths of conductor plus loss of coupling transformer and
needs to be HALVED for point to point transmission loss after adjusting the termination
coupling transformer loss as shown in Fig. 7.13
7.5.4 Measurement of transmission loss far end
The instrument setting procedures is same as in Cross Talk measurement for FAR END
transmission loss two instruments are required.
Connect the terminals of the instrument with the circuits as shown in Fig. 7.14
CROSS TALK SET CROSS TALK SET

(TYPE 378-A) (TYPE 378-A)
Fig. 7.14 Far End Transmission Loss Measurement

CABLE ROUTE AND FAULT LOCATOR
CHAPTER – 8
CABLE ROUTE AND FAULT LOCATOR (TYPE 400 ITI MAKE) AND
PULSE ECHO TYPE
8.1 INTRODUCTION
This instrument is used in conjunction with a 1600 Hz Oscillator, interrupted at 5 to 6 Hz

for
(1) Tracing the route of an underground telephone cable.
(2) Identification of a specific cable from a bunch of cables or a required pair in a
multi pair cable.
(3) Localizing contact and low insulation faults on telephone cables.
8.2.1 Oscillator
The oscillator used with this equipment is shown as block diagram of Fig. 8.1. A low
level 1600 Hz tone is generated by using a transistor OC170 (TX1) connected as a
Clapp’s Oscillator circuit. The circuit is slightly modified for self-keying facility. The self-
keying is achieved by the diode OA85 (GRI) in the emitter circuit and the R.C. circuit
connected to the base. C7 and L2 control the output frequency, while the keying rate is
controlled by condensers in the base circuit. For getting a continuous note, the diode
is replaced by a 2K resistor and the charging circuit is disconnected from the base. The
output is taken from the emitter and fed to the power amplifying stages. TX2 and TX3
are conventional class A transformer coupled stages. TX3 drives TX4 and TX5
connected in class AB push pull. Local feedback is given to both the output transistors to
get low output impedance. The output transformer T3 has a number of taps in the
secondary. These have been provided to cater for different cable impedance, which are
encountered in practice. Taps corresponding to 20, 30, 100, 300, 600ohms-cable
impedance has been provided. The oscillator has its own power pack working on 230V,
50 Hz A.C. supply. The rectifier circuit has a full wave bridge rectifier followed by a
condenser filter. The oscillator has 3 controls.
(1) Tone Control: This is a 3-position switch and provides a fast keyed, slow keyed
or continuous tone as per the settin
(2) Output Control: This is a potentiometer P1 connected between TX1 and TX2.
When properly terminated the oscillator gives an output of +39 dBm in the fully
clockwise position of Pl.
(3) Impedance Switch: This permits the selection of proper tap for obtaining max.
Power. The optimum loads are 10, 30, 100, 300 and 600ohms.
230 AC
IN
Power
supply unit
-
VE
OUTPUT
(Max 39
Tx1 (OC170) & Tx2 dBm)
(OC 72) Tx3 (OC 26), Tx 4 &
Tx5 (OC24)
OSCILLATOR Push pull amplifier
1600 HZ and driver amplifier
Fig. 8.1 Block diagram of Oscillator

4.5V DC EAR PHONE T

UNIT L
-VE
Tx1, Tx2, Tx3, Tx5

(L4 coil with Filter Coils (L1, (OC75) & Tx4 (OC 74)
ferrite core) L2 & L3)
FILTER UNIT AMPLIFIER UNIT

SEARCH UNIT
Fig. 8.2 Block diagram of cable fault locator (search unit)

8.2 Cable fault locator type 400
Fig. 8.2 is the block diagram for the cable fault locator type 400 with all the attachments
to the main unit. The equipment is transistorised. It has four attachments, which can be
fitted to it as a plug-in unit according to the different applications.
The attachments are:

(1) Search Unit No. 1 and 2 (same unit)
(2) Search Unit No.3
(3) Earphone (miniature type)
(4) Dry Battery (Housing) Unit
The set derives its power supply from Dry Battery Unit, which contains 3 dry cells of
medium size of the commercial “Torch Cells".
(i) The search Unit No.1: This is a coil on a ferrite rod and gives the first inductance in
the 1600 Hz band pass filter.
(ii) Search Unit No.2: This is the same coil of search unit No.1, but the ferrite rod
inside the cover of the rod is removed by removing the two end covers and the coil
is now having the air core. This can be used when a reduced sensitivity is
required.
(iii) Search Unit No.3: This is a probe type and is provided with a coaxial lead
terminated by 47000 ohms.
(iv) Ear Phone: This is a high impedance miniature type plug ended so that it can be
carried in the pocket.
(v) 1600 Hz. B.P.Filter: This is a narrow band pass filter. The loss is 20 dB at 200 Hz
on either side of 1600 Hz. The sockets meant for plugging in the search units are
the input points to this 1600 Hz filter and the induced tone of the cable route enters
this filter through the plug in the search unit. This filter stops all extraneous noise
picked up by the sensitive search units and enables the required signal tone alone
being allowed to pass to the transistors amplifier unit.
(vi) Amplifier: It is a 5 stages transistor amplifier. This has a gain of 100 dB at 1600 Hz
and is made selective for this frequency by introducing a bridge “T” networks in the
feedback path. The input impedance of the amplifier unit is 600ohms. A
transformer so as to match with the impedance of the earphones raises the output
impedance.

8.2.1 Procedure of route location
A current at 1600 Hz is sent through one or more of the conductors in the cable
concerned. The magnetic field set up by this current is picked up by the highly sensitive
search unit and is fed to the narrow band pass filter to the 5 stage transistor amplifier
and the output of the amplifier is fed to the high impedance earphones through the
output transformer. The signal level should be such as to give a current of about 5-10
mA in the case of unarmoured cables and about 20-30 mA for armoured cables. If the
depth of the cable below the ground level is more than 4 ft., the current will have to be
increased.
Route Location
The pick up by the search unit will be maximum when the axis of the search coil is kept
at right angles to the cable length and minimum when it is parallel to the cable.
Maximum pick up will be obtained when the search coil is right above the cable and it
will be reduced in intensity as it is taken away from the cable. Search Coil No. 1 is to be
used for the purpose. With the help of this search unit, a path is traced on the ground
where maximum tone is heard in the earphones that would be the route of the cable
concerned.
Tone is fed to any pair of the cable, the route of which is required to be traced as shown
in Fig. 8.3 The cable fault locator with search unit No.1 is moved over the ground. The
path along which maximum tone is heard is the route of the cable.
Fig. 8.3 Test setup for route tracing
Identification of a cable in a bunch of cables: Set up as shown the Fig. 8.4 Search Unit
No.2, i.e., with the ferrite rod removed from the search Unit No.1 may be used for this
purpose. Tone is fed on one of the pairs in the cable to be identified. The other end of
the pair should be centred. The search unit should be made to touch each cable in turn.
When the unit is in contact with the cable carrying the signal, the pick-up will be the
maximum indicating the required cable.

Fig. 8.4 Test setup for route tracing
8.2.2 Identification of a pair in a cable
Tone is fed to the pair of cable to be identified as shown in Fig. 8.5 the other end of the
pair is kept open.
CABLE
OSC 600Ω
PAIR TO BE IDENTIFIED
Fig. 8.5
Search Unit No.3 (Probe type) to be used. The search unit is touched with each pair in
turn. When it is in Contact with the pair carrying the signal, the pick up will be maximum
that indicates the required pair in the cable.
Location of a contact fault search unit No.1 is used. The position of the fault is first
localised with a bridge and two pits are made 20 yards on either side of the rough
localisation. The tone is fed on to the faulty pair. The search unit is moved at right angles
to the cable length. The tone falls at the point of contact. Practically no tone will be heard
after the fault. See Fig.No.8.6
CABLE
OSC 600Ω
FAULTY PAIR
Fig. 8.6 Test setup for location of faulty pair
Localisation of low insulation region: Set up as shown in Fig. 8.7. The route of the cable
is traced as mentioned in 10.6. The region, beyond which no tone or low tone is heard, is
the low insulation region.

OSC
ANY PAIR IN CABLE
Fig. 8.7 Test seup for localisation of low insulation region
8.2.3 FAULT LOCALIZATION BY PULSE ECHO TECHNIQUE:
Cable repair work, localisation of faults must be simple and accurate. In most of the
techniques adopted for cable fault localisation, the procedure adopted is very much
laborious. Varley loop test for example, is time consuming. It is essentially a D.C.
test whose accuracy can be altered with the presence of a foreign potential in the
cable pair under test.
For accurate and speedy fault localization, the techniques using pulse reflection
method is found to be quite useful. It is essentially a high frequency AC test signal
generator and useful for localizing those faults that do not upset any DC condition
but affect the propagation of the A.C. high frequency energy. The nature of faults
that include open circuits, open sheaths, high resistance joints, and water logged
cable section etc.
Testing Procedure:
There is no need for a good pair or limb for conducting the tests. However if a good
pair is available in the same cable it can be used as a reference pair. It is advisable
that the cable pair to be tested is free from voltage. The reflection of pulse will
depend on the impedance irregularity of the pair under test.
In the case of open or break fault the reflection pulse will be indicated by upward
kink or positive reflection. For short or low resistance faults the reflection pulse
will be indicated by downward kink or negative reflection. Whatever energy
reaches the dead short is totally reflected back because the dead short appears as
a mere impedance irregularity and we can see a big reflected pulse corresponding
to the dead short. Poorer the insulation at the fault greater is the magnitude of the
impedance irregularity and bigger the reflected pulse. The presence of water in a
particular section alters transmission characteristics of that section. It is essential to
connect the instrument to one end of the circuit under test and shift it to the other
end and carryout the same test so as to find out the length of overlap.
The accuracy of distance to fault depends upon the accuracy of V/2 values.
D = V/2 X T where T is the time taken for the reflected pulse energy to arrive back at
the instrument, V is the velocity of propagation in a circuit and D is the distance to
fault
For Knowing V/2 value, connect the cable pair to the instrument the reflected pulse
should be aligned accurately with the incident pulse and the thumb wheel switch
should be set such that the display on the digital readout corresponds to the V/2
value for that pair. The V/2 for a typical paper core and PIJF cables are 103 to 105
and 88 respectively.
It should be remembered that alignment of incident and reflected pulses should be

done with reference to the commencement of their leading edges (align the foot of
the reflected pulse with the foot of incident pulse).
8.2.3.2 Types of Faults and their respective Reflection Pulses:
1. Conductor break fault (one limb or both):A positive reflection Will be shown at the
point of break.
2. Contact Fault (Limb to Limb). A negative reflection will be shown at the point of
contact.
3. Earth Fault (Limb to Sheath). It is a very low resistance fault. When pulse is applied
between the conductor (limb) and sheath a negative reflection similar in the above
case is observed.

SELECTIVE LEVEL METER
CHAPTER -9
SELECTIVE METERS (APLAB MAKE)
9.1 Selective level meter

9.1.1 Introduction
The selective level meter (Fig 9.1) designed for a frequency range of 3 to 650 KHz
for 120-channel carrier system with high accuracy and ease of operation.
Fig. 9.1 Front view
A four-digit digital frequency counter is provided to measure accurately the selected

frequency. The level meter has good selectivity because of crystal filter. The meter
scale is calibrated in dBm for 75ohms, 150ohms and 600ohms impedance.

9.1.2 Principle of operation and units description (Please refer to the Block diagram
in Fig. 9.2)
FRQUENC
Y
DISPLAY
FREQ
650.0 LOCAL
FINE
OSC. 998.5
FREQ. 1.003 - 1.650 KHz
OSC.
COUNTE
W/
INPUT 650 MIXER 1MHZ MIXER
INPUT ATT-1
SELECT AMP KHZ 1 X-TAL II
SE
T101 MEAS
CAL
OSC
CA METER
SEL
O / P
AMP ATT. 1.5 ATT METER
II .
40Db KHz CKT.
W/
SE CA
+12V
-12V FOR
W/
CA
+5V -12V 0V
FOR COUNTER
Fig. 9.2 Selective level meter
In selective measurement mode the input signal is applied via the balanced input
transformer and attenuator to the input amplifier. Then the signal passes through a 650
KHz Low-pass filter. The input signal is mixed with the local oscillator output with a
frequency range of 1.003 MHz to 1.650 MHz. The local oscillator frequency is indicated
on the digital counter. (The MSB is eliminated i.e. 1.003 MHz is displayed as 3.0 KHz
and 1.650 MHz is displayed as 650 KHz).
The Mixer Output is passed through 1MHz crystal filter. The crystal filter output of 1 MHz
is mixed with a crystal oscillator output of 998.5 KHz to produce 1.5 KHz intermediate
frequencies. This is amplified and filtered by 1.5 KHz filters. Meter circuit then measures
it. In wide band mode signal from input amplifier is directly passed to meter circuit to give
wide band measurements.
A calibration oscillator of 10 KHz is provided. When in CAL position the meter should
read 0 dBm (For 600 ohms and 0 dB switch position). The power supply provides +12V,
-12V, + 5V to the various circuits.

Input Circuit: The input signal is applied to input transformer T101. The required
impedance of 75, 150, or 600 ohms is selected at the input. In high position the input
impedance is approximately 16K. The “ATT.I” selects dBm range of the meter. “ATT.II” is
in I.F. circuit and ATT.III is for power level switching.
The cal oscillator circuit gives an output of 10 KHz, at -50dBm directly to input amplifier
when function switch is in CAL position. Input signal to input amplifier should be -42dBm
(600 ohms) when meter show 0 dBm.
Input Amplifier and 650 KHz Filter: This is a wide band amplifier with a gain of 22dB.
Negative feedback is given to reduce distortion. The amplifier output from TR 205 goes
directly to meter circuit in wide band mode the output from TR205 also goes to 650 KHz
Low pass filter.
(1.003-1.650) MHz Oscillator and Modulator I: The signal frequency coming from 650
KHz filter is converted to 1 MHz I.F. in MOD I when it is mixed with Oscillator frequency
(1.003 to 1.650) MHz. The Oscillator is turned to the input frequency by gang condenser
C 306 driver by ball drive mechanisms. The Varactor diode D 301 gives fine frequency
control. Oscillator output is also brought out on front panel BNC Socket for
Synchronising with level generator.
CRYSTAL FILTER: The signal from MOD-1 is passed through 1 MHz crystal filter with
±40 Hz bandwidth. The bandwidth and rejection are adjustable by C 401 and R 401.
998.5 kHz OSC, MOD II AND IF AMPLIFIER: The signal from crystal filter is mixed with
998.5 KHz signal from “Osc” in MOD III. The 1.5 KHz IF generated is amplified and goes
to ATT II. ATT provides attenuation for +20, +10, 0 and - 10 dB ranges.
1.5 kHz FILTER AND METER CIRCUITS: The 1.5 KHz IF is filtered in LC tuned filter to
reject other frequencies. The filtered 1.5 KHz signal at -26 dBm is given to meter circuit
to give 0 dBm reading. The meter circuit has two potentiometer P1 & P2 calibration in
"SELECTIVE” and "WIDE BAND" mode respectively. These adjustments are
independent of each other.
FREQUENCY COUNTER: Frequency Counter displays 1.003-1.650 MHz, frequency

without MSB. IC701 is 1MHz crystal oscillator and time base IC 702 is counter and
multiplier circuit. TR 705 is input amplifier.

Power Supply: Power Supply unit provides regulated ±12v and +5V to the circuits. The
mains socket is provided on the front panel.
Putting into operation: Connect mains plug (230V, 50Hz) to the socket on the front
panel. Switch on the instrument with "Power ON” switch LED lamp will light. Allow the
instrument to warm up for 15 minutes.
Selective calibration: Keep impedance switch in 600 ohms position, dBm switch in “0”
and in” SELECTIVE CAL” position. Adjust the frequency to 10 KHz by frequency range
switch and coarse control. Adjust line control to get maximum reading on the meter. The
meter should read 0 dBm if not adjust Pl.
Wideband calibration Switch functions switch to "WIDE BAND CAL" position. Adjust P2
to get 0 dBm reading.
Selective measurement: To measure input signal in selective mode feed signal to

input terminals. Keep function switch in "SELECTIVE MEASURE" position. Select
appropriate input impedance.
Adjust frequency to the required value till deflection is obtained on the meter. Select
proper dB range to get reading within the scale. Adjust frequency, line control, to get
maximum reading. Read the frequency and dBm.
Wide band measurement: For a wide band measurement keeps functions switch in
“WIDEBAND MEASURE” positions and take measurement. It is to be noted that wide
band measurements are possible only up to - 40 dB range. For switch position from -50
to -80 dB position the meter will show zero reading in wide band mode.
9.2 SELECTIVE LEVEL OSCILLATOR
9.2.1 Introduction
APLAB level oscillator Model No.2038A is a signal generator designed for frequency
range of 0.2 to 620 KHz for 120 Channel carrier systems. The level oscillator operates
on 230 V AC 50 Hz mains and is also equipped with internal rechargeable 12 V
batteries. For charging the battery, connect the mains to level oscillator and put the
power switch on “BATT CHG” position. The charging time is approximately 12 to 14
hours. If the battery is not fully charged then the display will be weak and random

frequency readings will keep on appearing. A five-digit digital frequency counter is

provided to measure accurately the selected frequency with 10 Hz resolutions. The level
oscillator gives balanced output from +10dBm to –60 dBm full scale for 0,125,135, 150,
600 ohms and +20dBm to –50dBm unbalanced output for 75 ohms.
The level oscillator can be synchronized with selective level meter model 2037A to form
a complete level measuring system. Both instruments can be tuned simultaneously from
a level meter frequency control. This avoids independent tuning of both level meter and
level oscillator. The block diagram is shown in Fig. 9.3
9.2.2 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS
1. Frequency range : 0.2 to 620 KHz in four ranges namely 0.2 – 160
KHz,160 – 320 KHz, 320 – 480 KHz and 480 – 620
KHz.
2. Frequency display : The selected frequency is displayed on a 5-digit
counter having resolution of 10 Hz.
3. Frequency stability : ± 100Hz / hour after 30 minutes warm-up.
4. Tuning : i) continuous coarse tuning in each range.
ii) Fine-tuning.
iii) ± 5 KHz continuous control.
5. Selectable source : 0, 125, 135, 150 and 600 Ohms for balanced output.
6. Impedance : 75 Ohms unbalanced output.
7. Output level : 60 dBm to +10 dBm for 0.125, 135, 150,600 Ohms.-50
dBm to + 20 dBm for 75 Ohms in 10 dB steps.
8. Harmonic distortion : 40 dB below fundamental.
9. External
Synchronization : The oscillator can be synchronized with Selective Level
Meter 2037 A by connecting ‘SYNC OUT’ socket of
SLM to ‘EXT SYNC’ socket of level oscillator by coaxial
cable.
10. Power supply : Mains - 230 ± 10 % 50 Hz, 6W max.
Batt. - Internal rechargeable battery (12 V) 4 hours
operation.
Provision for external 12 V battery

9.2.3 Description of units
PANEL CONTROLS AND INDICATORS:
FRONT PANEL: -
i) Output Terminal : Balanced output terminals are provided on the front

panel for 0, 125, 135, 150 and 600 Ohms.
ii) Output Impedance Selector : This switch enables output impedance selection for
0, 125, 135, 150 and 600 Ohms in balance mode and
75 Ohms in unbalance mode.
iii)Output level switch : Selects the output level from – 60dB to +10 dB in
balance mode and –50 dB to +20 dB in unbalance
mode.
iv)‘COARSE’ Frequency Tuning : This knob with handle is used to coarsely adjust the
frequency.
v) Frequency range switch : Frequency is selected in four ranges 0.2–160 KHz,
160 – 320 KHz, 320 – 480 KHz and 480 – 620 KHz.
vi) EXT. Sync. Input Socket : This BNC socket accepts the sync. Signal from
external oscillator in Ext. mode in synchronizing with
level meter.
vii) INT/EXT switch : Selects internal oscillat 1.0002 – 1.620 MHz of the
oscillator or the external sync. Signal from level
meter.
viii) Mechanical Zero adjustment : Adjusts the needle to lower end of scale marked-8
before switching on the unit.
ix) Output level control : This potentiometer changes output level
Continuously to full scale (-10 dBm to + 1 dBm).
x) Meter : This is 1 mA, 4½” meter with a scale from –15 dBm
to +2 dBm.
xi) ±5 KHz control : This gang condenser changes output frequency

continuously by ± 5 KHz.
xii) Fine frequency tuning : This changes frequency smoothly over a small
range to facilitate selection of the exact frequency
required.

xiii) Frequency counter : Displays the selected frequency with 10Hz

resolution.
xiv) Power switch : This is a five-position switch having following
positions.
1) OFF 2) MAINS/BATT.CHG. 3) BATT.
4) CHECK BATT.5) BATT. CHG.
When it is in MAINS/BATT.CHG. Position, unit
works on main supply and at the same time battery
is trickle charged. When it is in ‘BATT’, unit works
on battery. Internal battery level is indicated on the
meter in ‘CHECK BATT. ‘ Position. The internal
rechargeable battery can be charged in
‘BATT.CHG’ position. LED indicator supports all
these positions.
xv) Power Indicator : This LED glows green when unit is ON condition
either in ‘Mains’ or in BATT. Mode. It will glow red
when unit is in ‘BATT.CHG.’ position with mains
plugged in. LED remains off in both ‘OFF’ and
CHECK BATT.’ Mode.
REAR PANEL
i) Mains Socke : It is provided on the back panel to accept mains plug.
A fuse is accommodated inside the socket.
ii) Battery Jack Socket : This accepts the battery jack. When the jack is
plugged in the internal battery gets disconnected.
iii) Earth Terminal : For external firm grounding with system.
9.2.4 Working principle
The level oscillator uses one 1 MHz ± 5 KHz oscillator and another oscillator whose
frequency is 1.0002 to 1.620 MHz. These two oscillator signals are mixed in a modulator
and the output frequency signal is passed through a low pass filter of 620 KHz to produce
low frequency signal of 0.2 to 620 KHz. 1 MHz oscillator signal is controlled by an AGC
circuit. The AGC circuit detects output of amplifier and compares with reference. The
output of the low pass filter is fed to an amplifier and buffer. The output of the amplifier
detected by meter circuit and indicated by meter within a range of –10 to + 1 dBm. The
final amplifier is followed by transformer attenuator to give output of + 10dBm to –60dBm.
Digital counter indicates the output frequency. In case of Ext. Sync. Position 1.0002 to

1.620 MHz signal from selective level meter is used. In this condition the output
frequency of level oscillator is synchronized with selective level meter and the frequency
can be changed by frequency ‘Range’ switch of SLM. This meter is generally used to
check the selective channels of the DTL Mux by feeding selective tone of that channel at
termination point of 75 Ohms.
Fig. 9.3 Block diagram of Selective level Oscillator

FREQUENCY COUNTER
CHAPTER 10
FREQUENCY COUNTER
10.1 Introduction
The frequency counters are used to measure low frequency to very high frequency.
Reciprocal counter is used for low frequency. For medium frequency, the direct counting
method is used and for high frequency super heterodyne method is adopted. The
electronic counter is very efficient to count from low to high frequency.
10.1.1 Direct counter: The main sections that constitute the frequency counter are DCA
(Decimal Counting Assembly), main gate, trigger, input amplifier, main gate flip-flop,
time base and a display clock. Block diagram is shown in Fig.10.1. The DCA is a
totalizer counter. The overflow stage is a flip-flop that is set when the MSD carry output
goes high. Overflow F-F turns ON a lamp to make the operator aware of the overflow
condition so that data can be disregarded.
A frequency counter measures events per unit of time (EPUT) i.e., cycle/sec, so the
DCA must be turned on only for a given period of time (i.e. 0.1, 1 or 10 sec). The main
gate, main gate control flips flop (FF) and time base sections are used to allow input
pulses into the DCA for the designated period of time.
Sensitivit Trigger
+
Main
Signal Trigge Decade
Input Counter Overflow
r Indicator
Assembly
Input
Amplifier
Q
t Main
Gate
Display
Divide by Control Strob Control
Reset φ2
φ1 Tens Logic
Display Clock
Main Time Base
Typically 0.1 10
Clock Typically
100KHz to 10MHz
Fig. 10.1 Block diagram of Frequency counter

FREQUENCY COUNTER
The time base sections consists of a crystal oscillator that produces pulses at a precise
rate such as 100 KHz, 1 MHz, 10 MHz. Etc.
A chain of decade dividers such as the 7490 IC divider is used to reduce the crystal
oscillator frequency to a lower frequency. The time base output frequency will be 10 Hz.
for 0.1 sec, 1 Hz. for 1 sec and 0.1 Hz. for 10 sec. measuring periods.
Fig.10.2 Timing diagram for a Frequency counter
The timing diagram for one complete interval is shown in Fig.10.2. Pulses t1, t2 and t3
are output from time base section when pulse t1 goes high, the control logic section
generates a short pulse to reset the DCA to zero, when t1 goes low again, the Q output
of the J-K main gate F-F will go high. The main (AND) gate has one input tied to the Q
output of the F-F, and the other input is tied to the signal being counted. As a result the
main gate passes input pulses to the DCA only when the terminal of the F-F is high.
The F-F remains set until the negative transition of t2 occurs. At that time the Q output of
the F-F drops low, turning off the flow of the pulses into the DCA, and causes the control
logic section to generate a strobe pulse. This Pulse tells the DCU latches to transfer data
from the counter to the decoders. The display then shows only completed count cycles,
and will hold the previous count until the end of the next interval.
The frequency counter of fig. (1) counts frequency i.e., events per unit of time, because
the DCA is enabled only for a specific unit of time. The frequency of the input signal is
the number of counts accumulated on the DCA divided by the time base period in
seconds.
F (Hz.) = counts on DCA / time (in seconds).

FREQUENCY COUNTER
The most common digital display in modern equipment is seven segments read out shown
switching occurs rapidly enough; the operator’s eye persistence causes the display to
appear constant.
Fig.10.3(a) Seven segment display
in Fig.10.3(a). This type of display consists of seven illuminated bars arranged in a

pattern as shown in figure.3a.
Fig. 10.3(b) Display of numbers with Seven segment display
It is possible to form all ten decimal digits by lighting appropriate bars or segments as
shown in Fig. 10.3(b). Some additional features are added to make it easier for the
operator use or conserve battery power.
Ripple blanking is a feature of some DCA in which each DCU issue a signal that tells
whether the count is zero or non-zero. If it is zero, then this ripple blanking output tells
the ripple blanking input of the next least significant DCU. In this way, the counter is
able to blank out i.e., turn OFF, non-significant number V1 zero to the left of the most
significant number. This makes the display less confusing and saves battery power in
portable models.
Another tactic that saves both power and wiring effort is display multiplexing. In this
technique, all the seven-segmented lines (a through g) from all the displays are tied
together to form a seven-line bus. A timing control circuit will output the seven-segment

FREQUENCY COUNTER
code for only one digit at a time, along with a pulse that turns on only that digit. Each
digit receives its code sequentially, so only one display is turned ON at a time. But the
10.1.2 Period Counters: Period is defined as the time elapsing between identical feature on
successive cycles of a wave form, and can be calculated from the frequency. The
period is reciprocal of frequency. Block diagram shown in Fig.10.4(a).
P (sec) = 1/ f (Hz)
Main
T1
Gate Flip
T2 Input Flop
Amplifier
Decade
Counter
Q Main Assembly
Gate
Divide by Tens
φ1 Stages
Main Time Base

Clock Typically
100KHz to
10MHz
Fig. 10.4(a) Block Diagram of a Period Counter
Reversing the roles of the input stage and time base can make period counter. The
input amplifier is connected to the main gate F-F and the time base is connected to the
main gate.
Fig. 10.4(b) Timing Diagram for a Period Counter

FREQUENCY COUNTER
The F.F. is set (i.e., Q goes high) on the negative going transition of t1 and this allows
the gate to pass pulses from the time base to the DCA. The timing diagram is shown in
Fig.10.4b the time base frequency that determines the time interval represented by each
pulse. For example, a time bases frequency of 1000 Hz. Yields a period counter
resolution of 1 / 1000 sec or 1 milli sec. Similarly, 10 KHz time base yields 0.1 ms
resolution. The period is given by the count accumulated by the DCA and the time base
frequency. P (Sec) = DCA / f (Hz)
10.1.3 Trigger Circuits:
The input signal will very rarely be the nice, clean square wave required for proper
operation of the digital logic circuit elements used to make a counter. The signals may
also be too low in amplitude to operate the digital logic circuit or may be too noisy. (A
TTL F-F needs to see fast rise and full times (i.e., good square waves) and amplitudes
greater than 1.4 to 2.0 volts or they may not operate properly. The input signal, then, is
passed through two processing stages, an amplifier and a trigger. The Amplifier is a
wide band voltage amplifier with enough gain to build up the minimum allowable signal
(usually 25 to 100 mV) to a level great enough to drive the trigger stage (i.e., 500 – 100
mV).
The trigger stage is an Schmitt trigger circuit with a built in hysteresis. This type of
circuit is used clean up irregularly shaped signals by making them into square waves.
Fig.10.5 shows the normal operation of trigger circuit. The output snaps high when the
input signal crosses the lower hysteresis limits, and remains high until the signal crosses
the upper limit in a negative going direction. The hysteresis window is the quantity (EU-
ELO). Note that the trigger output possesses the shape and amplitude required by
digital circuits that it drive.
It is the fundamental rule that the input signal must cross both hysteresis limits, or no
count will be entered by the DCA. For crossing the both hysteresis limits, some counter
have a trigger level control that allows the user to adjust the position of the window over
a wide range. Other models use a three position switches (+), preset and (-), this switch
allows the window to be placed in any three locations.

FREQUENCY COUNTER
Fig.10.5. Normal Operation of a Trigger Circuit
A continuously variable trigger level control allows positioning of the window anywhere
within the range. Some counters are equipped with a trigger amplitude control, which
does allow the operator to vary the width of the hysteresis window.
10.1.4 Gate controller- Flip-flop
UNKNOWN SCHMIT
FREQ. TIGGER MAIN
INPUT
GATE
START
GATE
R Y
F / F-2
S Y
PULSE FROM Y S
TIME BASE
SOURCE F / F-1
READ PULSE
Y R
Y R
STOP
GATE
Fig.10.6 GATE CONTROL FLIP FLOP OF FREQUENCY COUNTER
Fig 10.6 Gate control flip flop of frequency counter
Initial Condition: - Main Gate Unable
Y = 0 Of F/F- 2, Y = 1 Of F/F- 1, the stop gate is enabling with the input from the time
base generator at ‘B’
Initialization: - Read pulse = Logic- 1
Reset F/F- 1 and the counter.
Y= 1 Of F/F- 1, Y = 1 Of F/F- 2,

FREQUENCY COUNTER
The stop gate is unable and start gate is enabling with the input at ‘B’ from time base generator.
Main gate is enabling to pass the input frequency to the counter. The counter counts the input
frequency for the duration of gate opening time. At the end of the pulse the set pulse from the
out put of start gate goes to F/F- 1 and disable the start gate and enable the stop gate.
10.1.5 Counter Errors

There are several factors that tend to reduce the accuracy of an Electronic Countern
and thus can be grouped into two groups.
Inherent Errors - Which are the function of quality, age and history of the individual
counter. Little can be done about these, unless their source is a serious need for
recalibration of the time base.
Signal Related Errors – These are often correctable by proper manipulation of
sensitivity, trigger level and trigger amplitude controls.
10.1.6 MICROWAVE FREQUENCY COUNTER (Refer Fig.10.7)
Band - 1: - 10 Hz to 120 MHz

a. Reciprocal counting: - 10 Hz to 10 KHz.
b. Direct counting: - 10KHz to 120 MHz.
Band - 2 : - 120 MHz to 20 GHz down converted to an IF by a Harmonic Heterodyne
down conversion technique.
Time base: - the time base frequency of the counter is derived from either an internal
10mhz oscillator or a external 10mhz frequency standard.
Connect high frequency Microwave signal to the input terminal of frequency counter.
Select Band- II with key marked as Band- I/II. Note down the reading from digital display.
The resolution is 9 and ½ digits. 1Hz signal can be seen at GHz range.
GPIB: GENERA PURPOSE INTEFACE BUS G
DISPLAY/ I/O PROCSSOR GPIB P
KEY BOARD I
LOCAL OSC.
SYNTHESIZER
X IF
BAND 2 GATE &

MIXER COUNT
CICUITS
TRIGGER
BAND 1
Fig. 10.7 Block diagram of microwave frequency counter

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INDIAN RAILWAYS INSTITUTE OF

SIGNAL ENGINEERING & TELECOMMUNICATIONS

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS IN TELECOM

Issued in October 2008

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS IN TELECOM

Chapter Description Page no.

PREPARED BY P.BHATTACHARYA, IMW-2

Name Giga Mega Kilo Milli Micro Nano Pico

Table 1.1 System of units

1.2 Measuring Instruments

IRISET 1 ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Absolute Instruments-are those instruments, which give the value of quantity to be

No previous calibration or comparison is necessary in this case. The example of such an

Where, n = number of turns of coil and r = radius of the coil and

If the current is expressed in Amps, it should first of all be converted to electromagnetic

∴ I = 10K tan θ Amps.

The tangent galvanometer is a suspended magnet type, consists of a circular coil of

IRISET 2 ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Secondary instruments are those in which the value of electrical quantity to be

1.2.1 Types of Measuring Instruments

Measuring instruments are grouped as below

Recording instruments give a continuous record of the quantity being measured, on

1.2.2 Essentials of indicating instrument

a) Deflecting torque. b) Controlling torque. c) Damping torque.

A deflecting torque: It deflects the moving mechanism of an indicating instrument due

a) Spring control. b) Gravity control.

IRISET 3 ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

1.3 ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF A GOOD METER

1. SENSITIVITY: Refers to the smallest value of the physical property that is

1.3.1 PRECAUTION TO BE TAKEN DURING MEASUREMENT

1) Use high input impedance meter

IRISET 4 ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

BASIC METER PRINCIPLES

2.2 Moving Coil Instrument.

Fig. 2.1 Moving coil

IRISET 5 ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Fig. 2.2 Moving coil basic construction details

2.2.1 The main advantages of this type of instrument are:

2.3 Moving iron ammeter and voltmeters.

IRISET 7 ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

2.4Electro dynamic or Dynamometer type

An electrodynamics instrument is a moving coil instrument in which the operating field is

IRISET 8 ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

ANALOG AMP, VOLT, OHM AND MULTI METER

3.1.1 Meter sensitivity is defined in two ways

(2) As Ohms per volt.

IRISET 9 ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Fig. 3.1 Shunt resistance across meter to measure current

Fig. 3.2 Shunt resistances for multi range ammeter

IRISET 10 ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

In multi-range ammeters switching arrangements are used to provide a number of

R1 = (Im / Ish) Rm. = (1m.A/9m.A) (27) = 3 Ω.

Commercial multi-range meters provide as many as a dozen different ranges for

Fig. 3.3 Tapped shunt resistance in a multi range ammeter

FIG. 3.4 Method to calculate internal resistance of a meter

2. Close switch S1 and reduce R1 until meter reads full-scale value.

As an ammeter is connected in series in a circuit, it must have zero ohms ideally, in

IRISET 12 ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

3.1.2 The following precautions should be observed when using ammeters:

(1) Never connect an ammeter across a battery or across a component.

IRISET 13 ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

A switching arrangement may be used to provide a number of ranges. This is achieved

Fig. 3.5 Tapped Series multiplier

The advantage of using 20,000Ohms/volt sensitivity compared to 1000 Ohms/volt can

Vd = I2R2 + 0R3 = I2*R2