1.

English for Special Purposes

DEFINITION

ESP has had a relatively long time to mature and so we would expect the ESP community
to have a clear idea about what ESP means.

ESP can be described as:

• English for any purpose that could be specified

• English used in academic studies or
• English for vocational or professional purposes

Origins of ESP

From the early 1960's English for Specific Purposes (ESP) has grown to become one of
the most prominent areas of EFL

Its development is reflected in the

• increasing number of universities offering an MA in ESP

• the number of ESP courses offered to overseas students in English speaking
countries

There is now a well-established international journal dedicated to ESP discussion

"English for Specific Purposes: An international journal"

Reasons to the emergence of all ESP:

• the economic demands of the New World,
• a revolution in linguistics, and
• focus on the learner’s needs (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987).
- Hutchinson & Waters, 1987: the end of the Second World War brought with it an
= " ... age of enormous and unprecedented expansion in scientific, technical and
economic activity on an international scale · for various reasons, most notably the
 economic power of the United States in the post-war world, the role [of
international language] fell to English" (p. 6).
- the Oil Crisis of the early 1970s resulted in Western money and knowledge
flowing into the oil-rich countries. The language of this knowledge became
English.

General effects:

- A pressure on the language teaching profession to deliver the required goods.

Whereas English had previously decided its own destiny, it now became subject
to the wishes, needs and demands of people other than language teachers
(Hutchinson & Waters, 1987, p.7).
- revolutionary pioneers in linguistics began to focus on the ways in which
language is used in real communication. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) point out
that spoken and written English vary according to the professional and social
environment. In other words, given the particular context in which English is
used, the variant of English will change. This idea was taken one step farther. If
language in different situations varies, then tailoring language instruction to meet
the needs of learners in specific contexts is also possible. Hence, in the late 1960s
and the early 1970s there were many attempts to describe English for Science and
Technology (EST).
- more attention was given to the ways in which learners acquire language and the
differences in the ways language is acquired. Learners employ

o different learning strategies,

o different skills,
o different learning schemata, and
o different needs and interests
Therefore, focus on the learners' needs became equally paramount as the methods
employed to disseminate linguistic knowledge.

The natural extension that followed was the designing of specific courses to better meet
the individual needs.

To this day, the catchword in ESL circles is learner-centered or learning-centered.

English for Specific Purposes (ESP) = a sphere of including

• technical English,
• scientific English,
• English for medical professionals,
• English for waiters, and
• English for Aviation
o English as ESP is taught to pilots, and cadets who are going to use it in
radio communications

ESP can be also considered as an avatar of language for specific purposes.

Avatar: a computer user's representation of himself/herself or alter ego whether in the

form of a three-dimensional model used in computer games or a two-dimensional
(picture) used on and other communities.

Avatar: (Sanskrit: incarnation)

Definition of ESP
Absolute characteristics
1. ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learners
2. ESP makes use of underlying methodology and activities
of the discipline it serves.
3. ESP is centered on the language appropriate to
professional activities in terms of
• grammar,
• lexis,
• register, (a variety of language used in a specific social
setting: speaking in an informal register; writing in a
scientific register.)
• study skills,
• discourse
• genre

o discourse (L. discursus, "running to and from")

means either "written or spoken communication
or debate" or "a formal discussion of debate." The
term is often used in semantics and discourse
analysis.
o written or spoken language, especially when it is
studied in order to understand how people use
language
o is the use of living language, as in conversation.
Some of the more subtle aspects of grammar
cannot be understood by looking just at
sentences, but only by looking at how those
sentences are used in the larger context of
discourse. ...
o the totality of codified linguistic usages attached
to a given type of social practice. Eg: legal
discourse, medical discourse, religious discourse.
o This term describes a coherent piece of spoken
and/or written language in a specific context. A
discourse may be a whole text (for example, a
personal letter or an entire conversation), or it
 may be part of a text that conveys related
meanings (for example, several exchanges, within
a dialogue ...
o [noun] Discourse is a contiguous stretch of
language comprising more than one sentence
(text) or utterance (speech)
 The distinctions between the absolute and
variable characteristics of ESP

Some specialists define ESP by identifying its absolute and variable

characteristics:

I. Absolute characteristics:
ESP consists of English language

 designed to meet specified needs of the learner;

 related in content (i.e. in its themes and topics) to particular disciplines,
occupations and activities;
 centred on the language appropriate to those activities in syntax, lexis,
discourse, semantics, etc., and analysis of this discourse;
 in contrast with General English
 ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of the

discipline it serves;

II. Variable characteristics:

ESP may be, but is not necessarily:

 restricted as to the language skills to be learned (e.g. reading only);

 the development of the ESP skills is not closely connected to any pre-
ordained methodology
 ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines;

 ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from

that of general English;

  ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners in a professional work

situation.

 Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language

system, but it can be also used with beginners (1998, pp. 4-5).

Types of ESP

(David Carter 1983):

• English as a restricted language

• English for Academic and Occupational Purposes

• English with specific topics

Mackay and Mountford (1978) clearly illustrate the difference between

- restricted language and
- language:
... the language of international air-traffic control could be regarded as
'special' in the sense that the repertoire required by the controller is
strictly limited and can be accurately determined situationally

The second type of ESP identified by Carter (1983) is English for

Academic and Occupational Purposes.

In the 'Tree of ELT' (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987), ESP is broken down
into three branches:

a) English for Science and Technology (EST),

b) English for Business and Economics (EBE), and
c) English for Social Studies (ESS)

Abilities Required for Successful Communication in

Occupational Settings

Cummins (1979) theorized a dichotomy between:

1. basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS) and
2. cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP)
The former refers to the language skills used in the everyday
informal language used with friends, family and co-workers.
 The latter refers to a language proficiency required to make sense
of and use academic language.

Situations in which individuals use BICS are characterized by

contexts that provide relatively easy access to meaning. However,
CALP use occurs in contexts that offer fewer contextual clues

Abilities required in order to communicate successfully in occupational

setting:

• the use of particular jargon characteristic of that specific

occupational context
• use a more generalized set of academic skills, such as:
o conducting research and
o responding to memoranda

which are largely related to understanding a new

professional and social culture

• use the language of everyday informal talk to

communicate effectively, regardless of occupational
context (chatting over coffee with a colleague or
responding to an informal email message)

Public relations (PR) definition and history.

Where from?
Definitions:

• Professional field concerned with maintaining public image for businesses,

non-profit organizations or high-profile people, such as celebrities, and
politicians

The first World Assembly of Public Relations Associations (Mexico City – 1978):

• "the art and social science of analyzing trends, predicting their consequences,
counseling organizational leaders, and implementing planned programs of
action, which will serve both the organization and the public interest”
 • the practice of managing communication between an organization and its
publics. Public relations provides an organization or individual exposure to
their audiences using topics of public interest and news items that provide a
third-party endorsement and do not direct payment
o Once common activities include
 speaking at conferences,
 working with the media,
 crisis communications and social media engagement,
 employee communication

The European view:

• a relational form of interactivity there concerned with publics with public

consequences of organizational behavior.
• interactive communication using the internet encompassing social media and
other channels for communication and many platforms for communication
such as personal computers, (PCs), mobile phones, and video-game consoles
with Internet access (Phillips and Young in Online Public Relations, Second
Edition (2009)

Almost any organization that has a stake in how it is portrayed in the public arena
employs some level of public relations

Disciplines of corporate communications

 Analyst relations
 Media relations
 Investor relations
 Internal communications
 Labour relations
 Publicities

Other types of public relations:

• Financial public relations - providing information mainly to business

reporters
• Consumer/lifestyle public relations - gaining publicity for a particular
product or service, rather than using advertising
• Crisis public relations - responding to negative accusations or information
• Industry relations - providing information to trade bodies
• Government relations - engaging government departments to influence
policymaking
History

 Edward Bernays, nephew of Sigmund Freud - widely recognized as the

father of public relations (USA)
 the founder of the profession and practice: Dr Kevin Moloney (UK) used the
first printed news outlets, events management and social gatherings in the
late 18th century
 1912 - the first recognized public-relations firm (Doris Fleischman in 1919
 in 1928, "public relations" was the term used first as a way of shielding the
profession from the ill repute increasingly associated with the word "propaganda"

PUBLIC RELATIONS INDUSTRY

The need for public relations personnel is growing at a fast pace.

The types of clients for whom public relations people work include:

 the government,
 educational institutions,
 nonprofit organizations,
 specific industries,
 corporations, athletic teams,
 entertainment companies

Methods, tools and tactics

Public relations and publicity are not synonymous, but many public relations
campaigns include provisions for publicity.

Publicity is the spreading of information to gain public awareness for a product,

person, service, cause or organization, and can be seen as a result of effective public
relations planning.

Public relations professionals are using technology as their main tool is to get their
messages to target audiences through

 social networks,
 blogs
 Internet radio

Methods used to find out what is appealing to target audiences:

 surveys,
  research on focus groups

Tactics are the ways to attract target audiences by using the information gathered
about that audience and directing a message to them using tools such as

 social mediums or other technology

Another emerging theme is the application of psychological theories of “impression

management”

Tools

 Press release and

 media kits which are sent out to generate positive press on behalf of the
organization.
 brochures,
 fact sheets
 websites
 photographs
 newsletters and
 annual reports
 interactive social media outlets engaging in two-way communication and
receiving immediate feedback from stakeholders and publics (blogs,
twitter and Facebook)
 social media outlets (allow the organization to engage in two-way
communication, and receive immediate feedback)

The public targeting process

 Identifying the target audience and tailoring message to appeal to that audience
 The audience can be
o general,
o nationwide or
o worldwide
o segment of a population
o trending audience

Lobby groups

established to influence

government policy,

corporate policy, or
public opinion

Ex: governments may lobby public relations firms in order to sway public opinion. A
well illustrated example of this is the way civil war in Yugoslavia was portrayed.
Governments of newly succeeded republics of Croatia and Bosnia invested heavily with
American public relations firms, so that they would give them a positive war image in the
USA

Spin (public relations)

Pejorative term = a heavily biased portrayal in specific favour of an event or situation.

While traditional public relations may also rely on creative presentation of the facts, spin
often, though not always, implies disingenuous, deceptive and/or highly manipulative
tactics.

Ex: Politicians are often accused of spin by commentators and political opponents when
they produce a counterargument or position

The techniques of spin:

o cherry picking = selectively presenting facts and quotes that support ideal
positions
o non-denial denial = (in a way presumes unproven truths)
o euphemisms = drawing attention away from items considered distasteful, and
ambiguity in public statement; careful choice of timing in the release of certain
news so it can take advantage of prominent events in the news
o issue versus non-issue (spin particular political viewpoints)

Spin doctors = skilled practitioners of spin; state-run media in many countries also
engage in spin by selectively allowing news stories that are favorable to the
government while censoring anything that could be considered critical. They may
also use propaganda to indoctrinate or actively influence citizens' opinions. the same
techniques to.

PUBLIC RELATION SPIN TECHNIQUES

• Publicity events
• Talk show circuit: a public relations spokesperson, or the client, "does the circuit"
by being interviewed on television and radio talk shows with audiences that the
client wishes to reach
• Books and other writings
• Blogs
• Rolodex (After a public relations practitioner has been working in the field for a
while, he or she accumulates a list of contacts in the media and elsewhere in the
public affairs sphere; a prized asset, and job announcements sometimes even ask
 for candidates with an existing Rolodex, especially those in the media relations
area of public relations
• Direct communication (carrying messages directly to constituents, rather than
through the mass media) with, e.g., newsletters – in print and e-letters
• Collateral literature, traditionally in print and now predominantly as web sites
• Speeches to constituent groups and professional organizations; receptions;
seminars, and other events; personal appearances
• The slang term for a public relations practitioner or publicist is a "flack"
(sometimes spelled "flak")
• A desk visit is where the public relations person literally takes their product to the
desk of the journalist in order to show them emerging promotions
• Astroturfing = the act of public relations agencies placing blogs and online forum
messages for their clients, in the guise of a normal "grassroots" user or comment
(an illegal practice)
• Online social media and Internet mediated public relations practices

Practices of Conveying the message

means by which a message is communicated can be as important as the message itself

o direct mail
o robocalling
o adevertising and
o public speaking
o press realease
o newspapers
o microblogging press conference
o front groups organizations (purport to serve a public cause while actually
serving the interests of a client whose sponsorship may be obscured or
concealed; "concocts and spins the news)

Ex: Instances with the use of front groups as a public relations technique have been
documented in many industries:

1. Coal mining corporations have created "environmental groups" that

contend that increased carbon dioxide emissions and global warming will
contribute to plant growth and will be beneficial,
2. trade groups for bars have created and funded citizens' groups to attack
anti-alcohol groups,
3. tobacco-companies have created and funded citizens' groups to advocate
for tort reform and to attack personal injury lawyers,
4. trial lawyers have created "consumer advocacy" front groups to oppose
tort reform

3. PUBLIC RELATION COMMUNICATION

DEFINITION

COMMUNICATION: Form of communication that is primarily directed toward gaining

public understanding and acceptance.

It tends to deal with issues rather than specifically with products or services.

Public relations uses publicity that does not necessitate payment in a wide variety of
media and is often placed as news or items of public interest.

Public relations communications offer a legitimacy that advertising does not have, since
advertising is publicity that is paid for.

The practice of PR is used to build rapport with the various publics a company,
individual, or organization may have (i.e., employees, customers, stockholders, voters,
competitors, or the general population).

Publicity releases, employee-training seminars, and house organs are examples of

instruments used in public relations.

Financial public relations = a specialized branch of the profession concerned with

• corporate annual reports,

• stockholder communications, and
• the disclosure rules of the Securities and Exchange Commission

METHODS
Public relations describes the various methods a company uses to disseminate messages
about its:

• products,
• services, or
• overall image to its
o customers,
o employees, stockholders,
o suppliers, or
o other interested members of the community.

The point of public relations is to make the public think favorably about the company and
its offerings.
 TOOLS
Commonly used tools of public relations include:

• news releases,
• press conferences,
• speaking engagements, and
• community service programs

GOALS:

Although advertising is closely related to public relations—as it too is concerned with

promoting and gaining public acceptance for the company's products—the goal of
advertising is generating sales, while the goal of public relations is generating

• good will. The effect of good public relations is to lessen the gap between how an
organization sees itself and how others outside the organization perceive it
o employee relations, stockholder and investor relations
o media relations, and community relations
o educate audiences about things relevant to the organization
 business in general,
 new legislation,
 how to use a particular product/service
 overcome misconceptions and prejudices regarding particular
industries/products/practices
• create, maintain, and protect the organization's reputation, enhance its prestige,
and present a favorable image
o consumers often base their purchase decisions on a company's reputation,
so public relations can have a definite impact on sales and revenue. Public
relations can be an effective part of a company's overall marketing
strategy. In the case of a for-profit company, public relations and
marketing should be coordinated to achieve the same objectives

Steps in a Public Relations Campaign

Effective public relations requires knowledge, based on analysis and understanding, of all
the factors that influence public attitudes toward the organization

public relations project

• proactively or
• reactively (to manage some sort of image crisis),
1. involve analysis and research to identify all the relevant factors of the situation.

The organization gains an understanding of its

• various constituencies and

• the key factors that are influencing their perceptions of the organization

2. the organization establishes an overall policy with respect to the campaign in

order to evaluate proposed strategies and tactics as well as the overall success of the
campaign by defining

• goals,
• desired outcomes,

• the constraints

under which the campaign will operate

3. the organization outlines its strategies and tactics: the knowledge of the target
audiences and its own established policies by

• specific programs to achieve the desired objectives

4. actual communication with the targeted public implies employment of

• specific public relations techniques (press conferences; special events, etc)

5. the organization receives feedback from its public

• reaction on the public relations campaign

• unexpected developments?

6. organization assesses the program and makes any necessary adjustments

Areas of Public Relations

1. PRODUCT PUBLIC RELATIONS = close relationship with marketing dpt. for

• promoting a new or existing product or service

• new product introductions by creating awareness,
o differentiating the product from other similar products,
o changing consumer behavior
o introduce new products through staging a variety of special events and
handling sensitive situations
 A

Prince Matchabelli division of Chesebrough-Pond's USA introduced a

new men's cologne that was differentiated by other twenty-one men's
fragrances by creating a National Hero Awards Program honoring
authentic male heroes and enlisted the participation of Big Brothers/Big
Sisters of America to lend credibility to the program

Coleco introduced its Cabbage Patch Kids dolls; their public relations
dpt. helped increase awareness through licensed tie-in products

• trade show exhibits,

• press parties,
• window displays in Cartier jewelry stores

creation or renewing visibility of a product/service

the California Raisins Advisory Board organized a national tour featuring live
performances by the California Dancing Raisins to maintain interest in raisins during a
summer-long advertising hiatus.

The tour generated national and local publicity through:

• media events,
• advance publicity,
• trade promotions, and
• media interviews with performer Ray Charles

D.

stimulation of secondary demand of existing products

Campbell Soup Co. increased overall demand for soup by publishing a

• recipe booklet
• identifying new uses for the product
 Public relations can interest the media in familiar products and services in a number
of ways:

• seminars for journalists,

• staging a special media day, and
• supplying the media with printed materials
o "backgrounders" (in-depth news releases)
o booklets and brochures

An effective public relations campaign can help to properly position a

product and overcome negative perceptions on the part of the general
public.

EMPLOYEE RELATIONS
Employees = audience in a company

The ongoing public relations programs aim to

• maintain the employee good will

• uphold the company's image and reputation among its employees

The essence of a good employee relations program is:

• keeping employees informed and

• providing them with channels of communication to upper levels of management
o publish annual reports for its employees to keep them informed about the
company's operations
o surveys to determine what information employees considered useful
o a range of communication devices to improve employee-management
communications
 monthly tabloids, magazine,
 video magazine,
 local newsletters,
 bulletin boards,
 call-in telephone service,
 "brown bag" lunches where live presentations about the company
 suggestion systems

Other public relations programs focusing on employees include

• training them as company public relations representatives;

• explaining benefits programs to them;
 • offering them educational, volunteer, and citizenship opportunities;
• staging special events such as picnics or open houses for them.

Other programs can improve performance and increase employee pride and
motivation

Public relations can also play a role in:

• recruiting new employees;

• handling reorganizations,
• relocations, and mergers;
• and resolving labor disputes

FINANCIAL RELATIONS
Financial relations involves communicating with

• the company's stockholders,

• the community of financial analysts and potential investors

The effectiveness of an investment plan will increase

• the value of a company's stock and

• make it easier to raise additional capital

In some cases special meetings with financial analysts are necessary to overcome

• adverse publicity,
• negative perceptions about a company,
• investor indifference

Such meetings may take the form of

• full-day briefings,
• formal presentations, or luncheon meetings
• a tour of the company's facilities
• mailings and ongoing communications can help the company achieve
visibility among potential investors and financial analysts
• moving the location of their annual meeting from city to city
TOOLS:
• Annual reports can be complemented by quarterly reports and dividend check
inserts
• regional or quarterly meetings in addition to the usual annual meeting
• newsletter or company magazine
• Personal letters to new stockholders and a quick response to inquiries

COMMUNITY RELATIONS
A comprehensive, ongoing community relations program can help virtually any
organization achieve visibility as a good community citizen and gain the good will of the
community in which it operates

Ongoing programs will include:

• supporting urban renewal,

• performing arts programs,
• social and educational programs,
• children's programs, community organizations, and
• construction projects

On a more limited scale, small businesses may achieve community visibility by:

• sponsoring local sports teams or other events. Support may be financial or take
the form of employee participation.
Organizations have the opportunity to improve good will and demonstrate a commitment
to their communities when they

• open new offices,

• expand facilities, and
• open new factories
• converting a vacant building into a permanent meeting place
• built its new headquarters in an abandoned building

A well-planned public relations campaign, combined with appropriate actions, can

alleviate the tensions that plant closings can cause. Some elements of such a campaign
might include:

• offering special programs to laid-off workers,

• informing employees directly about proposed closings,
• controlling rumors through candid and direct communications to the
community and employees
Special programs can improve community relations through:

• employee volunteers to work on community projects,

• sponsoring educational and literacy programs,
• staging open houses and
• conducting plant tours,
• celebrating anniversaries, and
• mounting special exhibits
• support programs to improve the quality of life in their community:
o crime prevention,
o employment,
o environmental programs,
o clean-up and beautification,
o recycling, and restoration
CRISIS COMMUNICATIONS

Public relations practitioners become heavily involved in crisis communications:

• a major accident or
• natural disaster
• bankruptcy,
• product failures, and
• management wrongdoing

by

• helping potential victims

• rebuilding an organization's image
• planning in advance to deal with potential crises in an honest and forthright
manner

Ex:

After the San Francisco earthquake of 1989, for example, the Bank of America
utilized its public relations department to quickly establish communications with
customers, the financial community, the media, and offices in 45 countries to assure
them the bank was still operating
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL RELATIONS

a wide range of activities:

• staging debates,
• holding seminars for government leaders,
• influencing proposed legislation,
• testifying before a congressional committee

Trade associations and other professional organizations can block unfavorable legislation
and support favorable legislation

Ex. :

The liquor industry in California helped defeat a proposed tax increase by

• taking charge of the debate

• winning endorsements,
• recruiting spokespersons,
• cultivating grassroot support
• trained volunteers to communicate key messages to the public through:
o printed materials
o radio
o television commercials
PUBLIC RELATIONS IN THE PUBLIC INTEREST

Organizations attempt to generate good will and position themselves as responsible

citizens through a variety of programs conducted in the public interest:

Ex.:

• environmental programs (including water and energy conservation)

• antipollution programs
• health and medical programs sponsored by a wide range of
o nonprofit organizations,
o healthcare providers
o other businesses and industries

Ex.

Policies to encourage

• AIDS-in-the-workplace
• smoke out
• political education,
• leadership and self-improvement,
• recreational activities,
• contests, and safety instruction
CONSUMER EDUCATION

• programs to educate consumers,

• building good will and
• helping avoid misunderstandings in the

• sponsoring television and radio programs,

• producing manuals and other printed materials,
• producing materials for classroom use, and
• releasing the results of surveys
• educational programs to inform consumers about economic
matters and business in general
OTHER PUBLIC RELATIONS PROGRAMS

corporate identity programs:

• name changes and

• new trademarks to

Special events may be held to call attention to an organization and focus the public's good
will:

• anniversary celebrations,
• events related to trade shows,
• special exhibits, or
• fairs and festivals

TOOLS:

• Speakers bureaus and celebrity spokespersons

• The face-to-face communication (more effective than printed materials, especially
when the target audience is small and clearly defined)

Public Relations for Small Businesses

relationships with:

• customers,
• employees, investors,
• suppliers, or
• other interested members of the community

Entrepreneurs of small businesses may choose to hire a public relations specialist or

contract with an outside agency

An ideal public relations specialist candidate would be:

• creative and
• enterprising,
 • possess good communication skills and
• solid news judgment,
• thorough knowledge of the business,
• be sincere and considerate in dealing with people, and
• make a good impression as a representative for the company

Some of the skills required in public relations work include

• writing and editing,

• public speaking,
• graphic arts,
• public opinion polling, and
• advertising

The responsibilities of a public relations executive include:

• interpreting public opinion,

• advising management,
• generating opportunities to increase public awareness and acceptance,
• disseminating good publicity, and
• evaluating the results of campaigns

In order to perform these duties effectively, the public relations professional must
know what is going on in the business, which means that he or she requires access to
management

When choosing between several potential agencies, a small business owner should
consider

• agencies that have experience in the industry,

• clients in similar industries,
• financial stability, and
• compatible overall philosophy

Contracting with an outside firm can be costly:

• a monthly retainer,
• straight hourly rates for limited services
Specific public relations activities for small businesses:

• sponsoring a local sports team,

• speaking at a chamber of commerce meeting,
• volunteering at a neighborhood clean-up, etc

BIBLIOGRAPHY

• Bianco, David, ed. PR News Casebook:1000 Public Relations Case Studies. Gale
Research, 1993.
• Kaydo, Chad. "How to Hire a PR Firm." Sales and Marketing Management. April
2000.
• Lesly, Philip, ed. Lesly's Handbook of Public Relations and Communications.
AMACOM, 1991.
• Nucifora, Alf. "Small Businesses Need Positive PR." Dallas Business Journal.
May 19, 2000.
• Young, Davis. Building Your Company's Good Name. AMACOM, 1996

4. Development of Speaking Skills

Objectives:

This unit will deal with aspects of speaking to make the students able speak
competently and creatively to explore, develop and sustain ideas through talk. They
will also learn how to understand, recall and respond to speakers’ implicit and
explicit meanings, and explain or comment on speakers’ use of language, including
vocabulary, grammar and non verbal features.

The development of speaking skills means that the speaker needs to

• to adapt his talk to the listeners;

• use a range of ways to express himself;
• use talk to clarify his ideas and
• sustain his talk to develop thinking and reasoning

Effective speaking means:

 • putting thoughts into words and sharing them in groups;
• taking opportunities to speak at some length to explain ideas in different
situations;
• giving a talk or presentation using gestures, aids and rhetorical specific devices

It is essential that speakers be provided with planned opportunities for speaking in a

range of contexts, including:

• to different audiences, such as professionals, non professionals;

• with different levels of formality such as with peers,
• to unknown people,
• an assembly and for different purposes, such as:

- recounting events and telling stories,

- explaining,
- describing,
- justifying views and
- persuading

Speakers need to know how to make

extended contributions (expanding ideas, using connectives; making connections

between reasoning and predicting; using language to organise and sequence ideas

2.1. Speaking and listening skills in a meeting

The art of effective business-meeting communication is very much a learnable skill.

The skills involved in getting your point across are not different than those of a keynote
speaker giving a speech to a meeting group.

Although they are overlooked, the following critical speaking-listening tips make a
business meeting effective and win-win emphasizing the upside.

1. Focus on the values of your partners

stay focused on what your partner says: the positive remarks at business meetings
genuinely contribute to successful business outcomes. The positive score between
positive comments and those designed more to sting than support will stay solution
focused, offering up twice as many positive comments as you do negative. "When it's
possible, affirm others' ideas by using active and constructive feedback. For example: 'I
really like Bill's idea on how we can use a different approach when responding to
customer complaints.'"

2. Address to the entire group.

When speaking in a group, move your eyes around and talk to anyone who's listening to
what you have to say. "When responding to a question, address the entire group, not just
the person who asked the question and make everyone included.

3. Facilitate and encourage feedback.

Active comment and feedback based on what you have to contribute will broaden,
amplify and substantiate your remarks. Make your point across but also open it up for
discussion. Call on people and make them feel you are interested in what they think. The
point is not just to be a participant, but also a facilitator.

4. Make your communication consistent with the comfortable atmosphere

where everyone feels at ease. If, for instance, most participants are keeping their remarks
short, do the same. If their tone is low and reserved, follow their lead. The point is not to
mindlessly mimic but, rather, to affirm and contribute to the overall tenor of the meeting.
If others are being succinct, try to do the same. That makes productive and efficient give
and take gathering. You can also mirror behaviors of other participants such as leaning
forward, crossing your legs and other.

5. Keep the conversational balance

Any participant in a business meeting wants to make his or her point of view clear. It is a
must not to make it a filibuster. Be thorough, but don't take so much time to get your
message across that you lose others' attention or, even worse, alienate someone who may
be waiting their turn to talk. If need be, keep an eye on your watch when you've got the
floor so a comment meant to be short doesn't turn into a diatribe.

6. Keep away the clichés and rhetoric.

A central tenet of powerful business-meeting communication is being as clear as

possible. Avoid wrapping your message into tired catch phrases or too many rhetorical
questions or negative remarks that do not contribute to the discussion advancement.

7. Make the talking issue one-on-one

If your message warrants a lot more discussion tell the audience that you will give further
details some other time or after the meeting. Don't derail meetings or drag them on
endlessly by going into detail that can be addressed at another time.

8. Be aware of your body language.

The way you express your ideas and message is equally telling in your ability to share
your thoughts with others. Don't limit supportive interaction to just what you say. Show it
by nodding your head, making eye contact, raising your eyebrows and making other
gestures that demonstrate that your interest and involvement in the discussion aren't mere
lip service.

The effectiveness of speaking skills is supported by the development of active,

responsive listening comprehension skills. Speaking should be clear, audible, sometimes
quietly, emphasizing key-words by gesture, facial expression, tone, volume, and eye-
contact. The use of precise words would convey meaning and message and hold the
attention of the audience and respond to others’ contributions by adding or elaborating on
them or by expressing an alternative point of view. The following set of speaking and
listening rules are also to be considered for a formal or informal talk:

RULES FOR TALKING RULES FOR LISTENING

Respect each other’s opinion
One voice at a time
Say what you think
Say why you think it
Build on what talk partners say
Support and include each other
Ask when you don’t understand
Strive to reach agreement
Don’t interrupt
Listen carefully, empathically
Be open to new ideas
Think about what others say
Don’t interrupt your partner’s speech
2.1.1. Overcoming Speaking Anxiety

Mark Twain said: "There are two types of speakers: those that are nervous and those that
are liars". Sweaty palms, accelerated heart rate, memory loss and even difficulty in
breathing are what perfectly normal anxious speaker’s experience. Anxiety can be easily
dealt with the acknowledgement that fear is perfectly normal but it can be reduced by
properly and thoroughly preparation and rehearsal before speaking. The following
overcoming speaking anxiety tips are called the 8 P's and refer to prior proper preparation
of the event.

If the fear of public speaking makes you prepare more, then the fear of speaking serves as
it's own best antidote. An oral presentation/speech /meeting is to become successful when
this is prepared meticulously.

The physical conditions, the type of audience, the awareness of the material to be
presented, relaxing procedures before presentation/speech/meeting, will be the issues to
focus on and acknowledged thoroughly prior to a successful accomplishment of the event
to come. Mind the following prior preparation tips that will help a speaker be successful:

1. Become familiar with the place in which the event will take place. Arrive early
and walk around the room including the speaking area. Stand at the lectern, check
the microphone. Walk around where the audience will be seated. Walk from
where you will be seated to the place where you will be speaking.
2. If possible, greet some of the audience as they arrive and chat with them. Make
yourself feel closer. It is easier to speak to a group of friends than to a group of
strangers.
3. Make yourself familiar with the material content/or meeting subject and feel
comfortable with it. Practice your speech or presentation and revise it until you
can present it with ease.
4. Ease tension by doing relaxation exercises. Sit comfortable with your back
straight. Breathe in slowly, hold your breath for 4 to 5 seconds, then slowly
exhale. To relax your facial muscles, open your mouth and eyes wide, then close
them tightly.
5. Visualize yourself as a successful speech deliverer. Imagine yourself walking to
the lectern and speaking confidently, your voice loud, clear and assured, as the
audience appreciates and applauds.
6. All audiences want speakers to be interesting, stimulating, informative and
entertaining. They want you to succeed - not fail.
7. Don't apologize for being nervous - If you mention your nervousness or apologize
for any problems you think you have with your speech, you'll only be calling
attention to it. Had you remained silent, your listeners may not have noticed at all.
Most of the time your nervousness does not show at all. If you don't say anything
about it, nobody will notice. Focus your attention away from your anxieties and
concentrate on your message and your audience, not on yourself. Your
nervousness will dissipate if you concentrate on your message - not the medium.
 Your speech nervousness can be turned into an asset by harnessing it, and
transforming it into vitality and enthusiasm.
8. Confidence is built by experience, which is the key to effective speaking. Anxiety
to speak in public decreases with experience.

Remember, he who fails to prepare is preparing for failure!

2.1.2. Speaking fluently and accurately

Fluency in English is accuracy with good pronunciation - not speed. In order to imprint
words on your memory and also to feel comfortable about pronouncing them at a
moment's notice, it is necessary to practice vocabulary the number of times you feel
necessary to make your speaking ability fluent and accurate.

1. Decide which constructions and vocabulary items are handy for you to learn.

- -Choose about ten new words per day to practice until you are word-perfect

- -use them in real situations by incorporating them into conversations with as

many people as possible (at least six times each word or construction, but more if

possible). The more you manage to use them in conversation, the more readily

you will be able to say them fluently in the future.

- -Mind the English richness in constructions and vocabulary which convey

similar meanings.

- -Mistakes occur when speakers remember half of one construction and half of

another; ending up with a hotch-potch which is at best "incorrect but

understandable" and at worst "nonsense".

- -Choose only one version to learn accurately for future use.

- To improve your fluency accuracy with the English language you should use an

“English – English” dictionary only.

o It facilitates the understanding of the word meanings and the meaning of the

meaning too.

o It helps you to familiarize your self with the language and also exposes you to

new English words that you should find out the meanings of.

o Use the English-English dictionary every time you come across a new word. It

is not enough to have a dictionary kept on the shelf, but to make use of it! The

must dictionary that you buy should contain example sentences along with every

word. The sample sentence “programs the brain” to use the word properly and

clears all doubts or misunderstandings, it explains how the word can be used in

conjunction with other words and how the different words connect to form a

sentence.

For example:

reaction: Response to an earlier activity, attitude

E.g. Sentence: What was your reaction when you heard the news?

Whenever you are looking up some new word and you come across a sample

sentence, you should read it again and again until you know the sentence by-

heart, to make yourself able to use the word or the phrase in sentences of your

own correctly. Forming correct sentences becomes easy if you learn the

sample sentences after reading them again and again. Now-a-days, many
dictionaries come with a CD providing a convenient software version, easily

accessible by computer, with audio files for the words. There are also many

online dictionaries available. They too allow you to search for any word

conveniently. (Merriam-Webster Online)

2. Avoid the pitfalls of misunderstanding

Adapt your language to the real situation

choose the best English for universal speaking purposes and recognize other
versions of English

It is recommended to avoid, as much as possible:

- idioms,
- phrasal verbs,
- slang

when speaking in normal situations:-

3. Avoid grammatical errors and mispronunciation

Non native English speakers experience difficulties with the use of the present
perfect, because its use does not correspond with a similar-looking tense in their
own language. If it helps avoid the present perfect altogether by using SIMPLE
PAST + SPECIFIC TIME. English is such a rich and versatile language, it is
possible to express what you want in more than one way.

eg: I have been to London. (Time unknown)

I went to London some time ago. (Exact time unknown)

I have left my job. (Recent, but time unknown)

I left my job a short while ago (Recent, but exact time unknown)
2. Speech writing

In developing their speaking skills, public speakers need to learn:

- how to adapt their talk to the listeners;

- use a range of ways to express themselves;
- use talk to make their ideas clear, and sustain their talk by developing
thinking and reasoning.

Speaking opportunities should be planned in a range of contexts:

- different audiences,
- various levels of formality (peers, assemblies for different purposes,
such as
o recounting events and telling stories,
o explaining,
o describing,
o justifying views and
o persuading others

Speakers should extend their contributions, such as ideas using

- connectives;
- making connections between reasoning and predicting;
- using language to organize and sequence ideas

Public speakers are able to shine when they are completely prepared: they understand the
different speeches they're called upon to deliver in public and they know how to organize
various targeted speeches.

All speeches fall into one of three categories:

- speeches that inform,

- speeches that persuade, or
 - speeches that entertain

corresponding to the four types of discourse that

- instructs,
- explains,
- shows, or
- tells

The cause-and-effect relationship:

The cause is why something happens; the effect is result, what happens due to the cause.
Therefore, cause-and-effect speeches establish a relationship between events

Cause and effect usually (but not always) happen in time order:

The cause comes first, creating an effect. The following chart shows this order of events:

Golden rules for speaking Golden rules for listening

• Take turns to talk

• Be quiet while other people are
• Speak quietly talking

• Choose your words carefully, use • Look interested in what is being

appropriate language said

• Think before you speak • Repeat what has been said so

that everyone in the group
• Show respect for each other understands

• Negotiate – try to reach an • Look at people when they are

agreement talking

• Use Standard English • Think about what people say

• Say what you think • Ask questions when you don’t

understand
• Vary your expression to interest
your audience • Be open to new ideas
 • Support and include everyone in • Listen twice as much as you
the group talk

• Explain your ideas and opinions • One voice at a time

clearly and fully

LISTENING SKILLS

Good listening skills are vital to healthy relationships. Whether you're strengthening a
relationship, resolving a conflict, or offering support in a facing a crisis, good listening
skills can be a lifeline to peace. Learn how to be a truly supportive listener, and you may
find yourself surrounded by others who are able to do the same. Here are some important
steps to developing good listening skills:

1. Listen, Listen, Listen. Ask your friend what’s wrong, and really listen to the
answer. Let them vent their fears, frustrations and other important feelings,
maintaining eye contact and showing that you’re interested in what they have to say.
Resist the urge to give advice, and just let them get it out.

2. Reframe What You Hear. Summarize and repeat back your understanding of
what they’re saying so they know you’re hearing them, and focus on the emotions
they might be feeling. For example, if your friend is talking about family problems,
you might find yourself saying, “It looks like things are getting pretty hostile. You
sound like you’re feeling hurt.”

3. Ask About Feelings. Ask them to expand on what they’re feeling. Asking about
their feelings provides a good emotional release and might be more helpful than just
focusing on the facts of their situation

4. Keep The Focus On Them. Rather than delving into a related story of your own,
keep the focus on them until they feel better. You can reference something that
happened to you if you bring the focus back to them quickly. They will appreciate
the focused attention, and this will help them feel genuinely cared for and
understood.

5. Help Brainstorm. Rather than giving advice in the beginning, which cuts off
further exploration of feelings and other communication, wait until they’ve gotten
their feelings out, and then help them brainstorm solutions. If you help them come
up with ideas and look at the pros and cons of each, they’re likely to come up with
a solution they feel good about. Or they might feel better after just being able to
talk and feeling heard.
Tips:

1. Stay Present. Sometimes people feign listening, but they’re really just waiting for
their friend to stop talking so they can say whatever they’ve been mentally
rehearsing while they’ve been pretending to listen. People can usually sense this, and
it doesn’t feel good. Also, they tend to miss what’s being said because they’re not
focused.

2. Don’t Give Advice. It’s common to want to immediately give advice and ‘fix’
your friend’s problem. Unless it's specifically requested, don’t. While you’re trying
to help, what would work for you might not work for your friend; also, advice can
feel condescending. Unless they ask directly for advice, your friend probably just
wants to feel heard and understood, and then can find his or her own solutions.

3. Trust The Process. It might feel a little scary to listen to feelings before diving
into solutions, and hearing your friend talk about upset feelings might even make
you feel helpless. But usually offering a supportive ear and sitting with your
friend in an uncomfortable place is the most helpful thing you can do, and once
the feelings are cleared out, the solutions can start coming.

4. Let Things Even Out Over Time. With all this focus on your friend’s problems,
it might be difficult not to focus equal time on your own. Relax in the knowledge
that, when you need a friend, your friend will likely be a better listener for you. If
you’re consistently doing all the giving, you can re-evaluate the dynamics of the
relationship. But being a good listener can make you a stronger, more caring
person and bring a more supportive angle to your relationships.

PUBLIC RELATIONS PLANNING

A public relations person who has a clear idea of the mission

and goals of an organization and who understands how public
relations fits into that mission can construct a strategic public
relations plan by sequentially answering the ten following
questions. This part of the overall planning process is often
best recorded and reported using a grid format.

Audience and goal identification

The first questions that need to be addressed--e.g.

• With whom does the organization need to have relationships?

 • What does it want these people to think about the
organization?-
o can be answered after a little introspection and
discussion with top management.
o Keep in mind that these are ultimately top
management's decisions, not the public relations
practitioners’. The public relations people should speak
out and try to influence who is included and who is
excluded from this list, but they rarely make the final
decision.

Probably the most effective way of dealing with these first four
questions is for the public relations staff to develop a preliminary
list of target audiences and relationships and then meet with key
managers to review and discuss them.

1. Who are the organization's key target audiences?

Depending upon the nature of the audiences, these listings may be

as short and simple as the names of key people, organizations, and
communities or as long and complex as psycho demographic
profiles of prospective buyers of a particular product. For most
organizations the list will include a mix of short and long
identifications. Long audience identification, if they include unique
characteristics, appears that are particularly effective with this
audience.

2. Why is the audience important to the organization?

No matter how obvious it seems, each audience should be

evaluated in terms of its relevance and importance to the
organization. Data about the audience's abstract or general
importance--e.g.,

• how big it is,

• how politically influential it is, or
 • how rich its members are-
o -is not enough and can, in fact, be very
misleading.

The critical information needed is how and why this audience

affects the organization. What does it, or could it do, to help, or to
hinder the organization in reaching its goals?

Padding an audience list with people or organizations who have

little or no direct bearing on the organization is a waste of time.

It serves little purpose, no matter how prestigious these audiences

may be. It might even interfere with or delay meaningful planning.

3. What view does the organization want this audience to have

of it? / What kind of relationship does the organization want to
have with this audience?

Both of these questions boil down to essentially the same thing: a

reflection of what the organization hopes to accomplish by
interacting with this audience. It may be having them purchase
products or services, or voting for specific political candidates, or
supporting new legislation, or any number of other things,
depending upon the organization and the audience.

The more clearly and concretely this view is expressed, the more
helpful it will be for future planning and relationship building.

Reporting research findings

Once the target audiences and desired relationships have been

nailed down, the next step:

• explore the existing relationship the organization has with

each of those audiences and
 • decide whether it needs any adjustment. This calls for more
than internal discussion. Simply letting the public relations
staff and/or organizational managers speculate will never
yield reliable information.

You need to check with people who actually know--actual

members of the target audiences. Carefully conducted research,
whether it's done by the public relations staff or by hired research
consultants, is the only way to get vital and meaningful
information about the audiences you need to reach. It's critical to
successful planning that such research be done, and that its
findings then be incorporated into the plan as it's being developed.

4. What is this audience's current view of our organization?

Or, what is the organization's current relationship with this

audience? The exact phrasing should correspond to question 3 so
the answers can be juxtaposed, showing where the relationship is
now compared to where the organization wants it to be.

This is not something to be guessed at. This question, more than

any other part of the strategic planning process, requires accurate,
non-ambiguous answers. Virtually all the rest of the planning
process, including the setting of specific objectives and the
measurement of success, is based on the information gathered at
this step.

5. What issues and appeals are important to this audience?

and

6. Which media does this audience use and trust the most?

They are not absolutely essential for properly assessing the

organization's current relationships or for determining what can be
done to improve them, but the information they provide can be
extremely helpful later, during tactical planning and while carrying
out a public relations campaign.

Answering these two questions helps ensure that only the most
effective and efficient media for reaching the target audiences are
used and that the messages the organization sends via these
channels will include the best possible themes and concepts for
garnering a response from the audience.

Responses about preferred media or channels of communication

should not be limited to the major mass media, but should also take
narrower and more selective communication techniques –

• interpersonal conversations
• public speeches
• telephone calls
• direct mail
• the Internet,
o etc
Assessment and plan development

This third stage of the planning process integrates the first two
stages with a series of questions that build upon and further
explore the responses to the earlier questions.

7. How does this audience's current view of the organization

differ from the desired one?/How does the organization's
current relationship with this audience compare with what the
organization wants it to be?

compare what the organization's managers said about the

desired relationship (question 3) with the audience's
responses (question 4).

This comparison lets the organization know which of its

relationships are moving along on track and which are most
in need of adjustment.

A frequent outcome of this planning step is a prioritized list

of relationships which need immediate attention.

8. What message themes will have the greatest impact on this

audience?

In some instances, especially when an organization is closely tied

to an issue that has a strong emotional context for its audiences, the
responses to this question end up being identical to the responses
to question 5.

However, something that has become increasingly common in

recent years as organizations seek more and more ways to establish
additional linkages to their constituents is that the perceived
strength of an audience's feeling about a particular topic will
"inspire" the organization to take a similar public stance on that
issue even though it has no direct bearing on the organization and
would otherwise have gone unnoticed by its management.

9. What are the best ways of reaching this audience?

As with question 8, there are some instances in which responses to

this item are nearly identical to the media preferences identified for
the audience in question 6. At other times, the audience's stated
preferences may not be suitable or affordable for the organization
to use.

The means of reaching the audience which are identified here need
to be appropriate, available, and affordable. In many instances, it
may be most effective to list several different means of
communicating with each audience, specifying which means and
medium is most appropriate for various types of situations.

10. Who will serve as the organization's primary contact for

working with this audience?

Even though public relation is concerned with all of an

organization's relationships, the public relations practitioners
themselves are not always the most appropriate "point persons" for
working with every audience.

• Some prestigious, high-profile audiences - may not be

satisfied dealing with public relations staff members. They
may expect and warrant the personal attention of the CEO or
the chairman of the board.
• Other audiences may be so engrossed with technical issues
that they need to deal with by subject matter specialists and
technical experts.
• Still others may not care who they deal with, just so someone
from the organization pays attention to them.

PUBLIC SPEAKING TIPS

Centuries ago great speakers often spoke two
hours and more. But today when sound bytes on
television news are the norm and serious
problems are solved in an hour on a television
drama, audiences are most interested in
speakers that get their points across in a short
period of time.
Television has helped create an impatient
society, where audiences expect us to make our
point simply and quickly.
Today great speakers are noted for their
brevity.
More work done in less time produces more
power. In the same way, a speaker's message is
most powerful when he [or she] can deliver a lot
of good material in a short amount of time."
Here are guidelines to make brevity a key
foundation in your next speech.
First, keep your stories under two minutes in
length.
In preparing a story, continue to ask the
question,
- "How can I say this in less time and in fewer
words?"
 Script out your story and then seek to
condense it. There is an adage in using
humor: "The longer the story the funnier it had
better be." Connecting this principle to stories
in general, we might say, "The longer the
story, the more impact it had better have." To
make sure your stories stay under two
minutes, include only information that answers
the questions,
 "Who?"
 "What?"
 "When?"
 "Where?" and
 "Why?"
If it doesn't answer one of these questions,
leave it out. Make sure also that you have a
sense of direction in the story. Each part of the
story should move toward the conclusion in
the mind of the listener. The listener should
always feel you are going somewhere in
developing your story.
Second, when possible, follow the proverb,
"Less is better than more."
 - Never use three words when you can say it
in two.
- Leave out clichés, filler words, and
hackneyed words, such as "You know,"
"OK," and "All right."
- Leave out phrases such as "Let me be
honest," or blunt, or frank. Avoid "In other
words - " or "To say it another way - "
- Speak in short sentences, short phrases,
and short words. Word choice should be
instantly clear to an audience. Make it a goal
to make every word have impact in your
speech.
Third, know the length of your speech by
practicing it.

Never be surprised by the length of your speech.

Never say to an audience, "I'm running out of
time, so I must hurry along." You should know
because of your preparation and practice of the
speech. To go one step further, if you know the
time limit on your speech is 20 minutes, stop a
minute short; don't go overtime. Audiences will
appreciate your respect of their time and will
think more highly of you as a speaker because
of that. You should never be surprised by how
long it takes you to deliver a speech
Fourth, learn to divide parts of your speech
into time segments
- Let's use a 20-minute speech as an
example. The introduction should be no
longer than 2½ minutes. You can get the
attention and preview your message easily
in that length of time. Avoid opening with
generalizations about the weather or the
audience. Let the audience know up front
that every word you speak counts.
- Spend the bulk of your time in the body of
the speech. This is where you make your
points and give support or evidence for each
point.
- The final two minutes should be your
summary and move to action statement.
Some speakers have a hard time
concluding. When you say you are going to
conclude, do so. As one wise person stated,
"Don't dawdle at the finish line of the
speech."
One way to keep your speech brief is to have
few points in the body of your speech-no more
than three. With a maximum of three points, you
will have the self-discipline to condense rather
than amplify. In organizing your material, accept
the fact you will always have more material than
you can cover and that you will only include
material that relates to one of the two or three
points you plan to make. Trying to cover four to
six points will almost invariably make you go
overtime in your speech.

A key to success in speaking is not just having

something worthwhile to say, but also saying it
briefly. We need to follow the speaking axiom:

"Have a powerful, captivating opening and a

strong, memorable close, and put the two of
them as close together as possible."

PUBLIC SPEAKING TIPS-2

Centuries ago great speakers often spoke two hours and more. But today when
sound bytes on television news are the norm and serious problems are solved in
an hour on a television drama, audiences are most interested in speakers that
get their points across in a short period of time.

Television has helped create an impatient society, where audiences expect us to

make our point simply and quickly.

Today great speakers are noted for their brevity.

More work done in less time produces more power. In the same way, a speaker's
message is most powerful when he [or she] can deliver a lot of good material in a
short amount of time."

Here are guidelines to make brevity a key foundation in your next speech.

First, keep your stories under two minutes in length.

In preparing a story, continue to ask the question,

- "How can I say this in less time and in fewer words?"

Script out your story and then seek to condense it. There is an adage in using
humor: "The longer the story the funnier it had better be." Connecting this
principle to stories in general, we might say, "The longer the story, the more
impact it had better have." To make sure your stories stay under two minutes,
include only information that answers the questions,

 "Who?"

 "What?"

 "When?"

 "Where?" and

 "Why?"

If it doesn't answer one of these questions, leave it out. Make sure also that
you have a sense of direction in the story. Each part of the story should move
toward the conclusion in the mind of the listener. The listener should always
feel you are going somewhere in developing your story.

Second, when possible, follow the proverb, "Less is better than more."

- Never use three words when you can say it in two.

- Leave out clichés, filler words, and hackneyed words, such as "You
know," "OK," and "All right."

- Leave out phrases such as "Let me be honest," or blunt, or frank. Avoid

"In other words - " or "To say it another way - "

- Speak in short sentences, short phrases, and short words. Word choice
should be instantly clear to an audience. Make it a goal to make every
word have impact in your speech.

Third, know the length of your speech by practicing it.

Never be surprised by the length of your speech. Never say to an audience, "I'm
running out of time, so I must hurry along." You should know because of your
preparation and practice of the speech. To go one step further, if you know the
time limit on your speech is 20 minutes, stop a minute short; don't go overtime.
Audiences will appreciate your respect of their time and will think more highly of
you as a speaker because of that. You should never be surprised by how long it
takes you to deliver a speech

Fourth, learn to divide parts of your speech into time segments

- Let's use a 20-minute speech as an example. The introduction should be

no longer than 2½ minutes. You can get the attention and preview your
message easily in that length of time. Avoid opening with generalizations
about the weather or the audience. Let the audience know up front that
every word you speak counts.

- Spend the bulk of your time in the body of the speech. This is where you
make your points and give support or evidence for each point.

- The final two minutes should be your summary and move to action
statement. Some speakers have a hard time concluding. When you say
you are going to conclude, do so. As one wise person stated, "Don't
dawdle at the finish line of the speech."

One way to keep your speech brief is to have few points in the body of your
speech-no more than three. With a maximum of three points, you will have the
self-discipline to condense rather than amplify. In organizing your material,
accept the fact you will always have more material than you can cover and that
you will only include material that relates to one of the two or three points you
plan to make. Trying to cover four to six points will almost invariably make you go
overtime in your speech.

A key to success in speaking is not just having something worthwhile to say, but
also saying it briefly. We need to follow the speaking axiom:

"Have a powerful, captivating opening and a strong, memorable close, and

put the two of them as close together as possible."

Know the needs of your audience and match your contents to their needs. Know your
material thoroughly. Put what you have to say in a logical sequence. Ensure your speech
will be captivating to your audience as well as worth their time and attention. Practice
and rehearse your speech at home or where you can be at ease and comfortable, in front
of a mirror, your family, friends or colleagues. Use a tape-recorder and listen to yourself.
Videotape your presentation and analyze it. Know what your strong and weak points are.
Emphasize your strong points during your presentation.

When you are presenting in front of an audience, you are performing as an actor is on
stage. How you are being perceived is very important. Dress appropriately for the
occasion. Be solemn if your topic is serious. Present the desired image to your audience.
Look pleasant, enthusiastic, confident, proud, but not arrogant. Remain calm. Appear
relaxed, even if you feel nervous. Speak slowly, enunciate clearly, and show appropriate
emotion and feeling relating to your topic. Establish rapport with your audience. Speak to
the person farthest away from you to ensure your voice is loud enough to project to the
back of the room. Vary the tone of your voice and dramatize if necessary. If a
microphone is available, adjust and adapt your voice accordingly.

Body language is important. Standing, walking or moving about with appropriate hand
gesture or facial expression is preferred to sitting down or standing still with head down
and reading from a prepared speech. Use audio-visual aids or props for enhancement if
appropriate and necessary. Master the use of presentation software such as PowerPoint
well before your presentation. Do not over-dazzle your audience with excessive use of
animation, sound clips, or gaudy colors which are inappropriate for your topic. Do not
torture your audience by putting a lengthy document in tiny print on an overhead and
reading it out to them.

Speak with conviction as if you really believe in what you are saying. Persuade your
audience effectively. The material you present orally should have the same ingredients as
that which are required for a written research paper, i.e. a logical progression from
INTRODUCTION (Thesis statement) to BODY (strong supporting arguments, accurate
and up-to-date information) to CONCLUSION (re-state thesis, summary, and logical
conclusion).

Do not read from notes for any extended length of time although it is quite acceptable to
glance at your notes infrequently. Speak loudly and clearly. Sound confident. Do not
mumble. If you made an error, correct it, and continue. No need to make excuses or
apologize profusely.

Maintain sincere eye contact with your audience. Use the 3-second method, e.g. look
straight into the eyes of a person in the audience for 3 seconds at a time. Have direct eye
contact with a number of people in the audience, and every now and then glance at the
whole audience while speaking. Use your eye contact to make everyone in your audience
feel involved.

Speak to your audience, listen to their questions, respond to their reactions, adjust and
adapt. If what you have prepared is obviously not getting across to your audience, change
your strategy mid-stream if you are well prepared to do so. Remember that
communication is the key to a successful presentation. If you are short of time, know
what can be safely left out. If you have extra time, know what could be effectively added.
Always be prepared for the unexpected.
Pause. Allow yourself and your audience a little time to reflect and think. Don't race
through your presentation and leave your audience, as well as yourself, feeling out of
breath.

Add humor whenever appropriate and possible. Keep audience interested throughout
your entire presentation. Remember that an interesting speech makes time fly, but a
boring speech is always too long to endure even if the presentation time is the same.

When using audio-visual aids to enhance your presentation, be sure all necessary
equipment is set up and in good working order prior to the presentation. If possible, have
an emergency backup system readily available. Check out the location ahead of time to
ensure seating arrangements for audience, whiteboard, blackboard, lighting, location of
projection screen, sound system, etc. are suitable for your presentation.

Have handouts ready and give them out at the appropriate time. Tell audience ahead of
time that you will be giving out an outline of your presentation so that they will not waste
time taking unnecessary notes during your presentation.

Know when to STOP talking. Use a timer or the microwave oven clock to time your
presentation when preparing it at home. Just as you don't use unnecessary words in your
written paper, you don't bore your audience with repetitious or unnecessary words in your
oral presentation. To end your presentation, summarize your main points in the same way
as you normally do in the CONCLUSION of a written paper. Remember, however, that
there is a difference between spoken words appropriate for the ear and formally written
words intended for reading. Terminate your presentation with an interesting remark or an
appropriate punch line. Leave your listeners with a positive impression and a sense of
completion. Do not belabor your closing remarks. Thank your audience and sit down.

Have the written portion of your assignment or report ready for your instructor if
required.

ORAL PRESENTATION
A common assignment in technical writing courses is to prepare and deliver an
oral presentation. You might wonder what an oral report is doing in a writing
class. Employers look for coursework and experience in preparing written
documents, but they also look for some experience in oral presentation as well.
That's why the real name of courses like these ought to be "Introduction to
Technical Communications."

The following was written for a standard face-to-face classroom setting. If you are
taking the online version of technical writing, the oral reports can be sent in as
"scripts," or with the right equipment, audio versions can be transmitted live.
Either way, students evaluate each other's oral-report scripts by filling out an
online form and sending it to the instructor.

Check out these examples of oral report scripts:

Oral report 1: Patient Seminar on

Frames Nonframes Plain
Physical Therapy
Oral report 2: Presentation on
Automobile Airbags for Sales Frames Nonframes Plain
Representatives

Topic and Situation for the Oral Presentation

For the oral report, imagine that you are formally handing over your final written
report to the people with whom you set up the hypothetical contract or
agreement. For example, imagine that you had contracted with a software
company to write its user guide. Once you had completed it, you'd have a
meeting with chief officers to formally deliver the guide. You'd spend some time
orienting them to the guide, showing them how it is organized and written, and
discussing some of its highlights. Your goal is to get them acquainted with the
guide and to prompt them for any concerns or questions. (Your class will gladly
pretend to be whoever you tell them to be during your talk.)

As you can see, you shouldn't have to do any research to prepare for this
assignment—just plan the details of your talk and get at least one visual ready. If
you have a topic that you'd prefer not to present orally to the group, discuss other
possibilities with your instructor. Here are some brainstorming possibilities in
case you want to present something else:

• Purpose: Another way to find a topic is to think about the purpose of your
talk. Is it to instruct (for example, to explain how to run a text editing
program on a computer), to persuade (to vote for or against a certain
technically oriented bond issue), or simply to inform (to report on citizen
participation in the new recycling program).

o Informative purpose: An oral report can be primarily informative.

For example, as a member of a committee involved in a project to relocate
the plant, your job might be to give an oral report on the condition of the
building and grounds at one of the sites proposed for purchase. Or, you
might be required to go before the city council and report on the success
of the new city-sponsored recycling project.
 o Instructional purpose: An oral report can be primarily instructional.
Your task might be to train new employees to use certain equipment or to
perform certain routine tasks.

o Persuasive purpose: An oral report can be primarily persuasive.

You might want to convince members of local civic organizations to
support a city-wide recycling program. You might appear before city
council to persuade its members to reserve certain city-owned lands for
park areas, softball and baseball parks, or community gardens.

• Topics: You can start by thinking of a technical subject, for example, solar
panels, microprocessors, drip irrigation, or laser surgery. For your oral
report, think of a subject you'd be interested in talking about, but find a
reason why an audience would want to hear your oral report.

• Place or situation: You can find topics for oral reports or make more
detailed plans for them by thinking about the place or the situation in
which your oral report might naturally be given: at a neighborhood
association? at the parent teachers' association meeting? at a church
meeting? at the gardening club? at a city council meeting? at a meeting of
the board of directors or high-level executives of a company? Thinking
about an oral report this way makes you focus on the audience, their
reasons for listening to you, and their interests and background.

Contents and Requirements for the Oral Presentation

The focus for your oral presentation is clear, understandable presentation; well-
organized, well-planned, well-timed discussion. You don't need to be Mr. or Ms.
Slick-Operator—just present the essentials of what you have to say in a calm,
organized, well-planned manner.

When you give your oral presentation, we'll all be listening for the same things.
Use the following as a requirements list, as a way of focusing your preparations:

• Plan to explain to the class what the situation of your oral report is, who
you are, and who they should imagine they are. Make sure that there is a
clean break between this brief explanation and the beginning of your
actual oral report.
• Make sure your oral report lasts no longer than 7 minutes. Your instructor
will work out some signals to indicate when the 7-minute mark is
approaching, has arrived, or has past.

• Pay special attention to the introduction to your talk. Indicate the purpose
of your oral report, give an overview of its contents, and find some way to
interest the audience. (See the example text of an introduction to an oral
report.)

• Use at least one visual—preferably a transparency for the overhead

projector. Flip charts and objects for display are okay. But please avoid
scribbling stuff on the chalkboard or relying strictly on handouts.

• Make sure you discuss key elements of your visuals. Don't just throw them
up there and ignore them. Point out things about them; explain them to the
audience.

• Make sure that your speaking style and gestures are okay. Ensure that
you are loud enough so that everybody can hear, that you don't speak too
rapidly (nerves often cause that), and that your gestures and posture are
okay. For example, don't slouch on the podium or against the wall, and
avoid fidgeting with your hands. As for speaking style, consider slowing
your tempo a bit—a common tendency is to get nervous and talk too fast.
Also, be aware of how much you say things like "uh," "you know," and
"okay."

• Plan to explain any technical aspect of your topic very clearly and
understandably. Don't race through complex, technical stuff—slow down
and explain it carefully so that we understand it.

• Use "verbal headings"—by now, you've gotten used to using headings in

your written work. There is a corollary in oral reports. With these, you give
your audience a very clear signal you are moving from one topic or part of
your talk to the next. (See the examples of verbal headings.)

• Plan your report in advance and practice it so that it is organized. Make

sure that listeners know what you are talking about and why, which part of
the talk you are in, and what's coming next. Overviews and verbal
headings greatly contribute to this sense of organization.
 • End with a real conclusion. People sometimes forget to plan how to end
an oral report and end by just trailing off into a mumble. Remember that in
conclusions, you can summarize (go back over high points of what you've
discussed), conclude (state some logical conclusion based on what you
have presented), provide some last thought (end with some final
interesting point but general enough not to require elaboration), or some
combination of these three. And certainly, you'll want to prompt the
audience for questions and concerns.

• As mentioned above, be sure your oral report is carefully timed to 7

minutes. Some ideas on how to do this are presented in the next section.

Diagram of the oral presentation.

Preparing for the Oral Presentation

Pick the method of preparing for the talk that best suits your comfort level with
public speaking and with your topic. However, do some sort of preparation or
rehearsal—some people assume that they can just jump up there and ad lib for 7
minutes and be relaxed, informal. It doesn't often work that way—drawing a
mental blank is the more common experience.

Here are the obvious possibilities for preparation and delivery:

• Write a script, practice it, keep it around for quick-reference during your
talk.

• Set up an outline of your talk, practice with it, bring it for reference.

• Set up cue cards, practice with them, use them during your talk.

• Write a script and read from it.

Of course, the extemporaneous or impromptu methods are also out there for the
brave and the adventurous. However, please bear in mind that up to 25 people
will be listening to you—you owe them a good presentation, one that is clear,
understandable, well-planned, organized, and informative.

It doesn't matter which method you use to prepare for the talk. Of course the
head-down style of reading your report directly from a script has its problems.
There is little or no eye contact or interaction with the audience. The delivery
tends toward a dull monotone that either puts listeners off or is hard to
understand.

For some reason, people tend to get nervous in this situation. Try to remember
that your classmates and instructor are a very forgiving, supportive group. You
don't have to be a slick entertainer—just be clear, organized, understandable,
informative. The nerves will wear off someday, the more oral presenting you do.
Introductory remarks in an oral presentation.

Delivering an Oral Presentation

When you give an oral report, focus on common problem areas such as these:

• Timing—Make sure you keep within the 7-minute time limit. Anything
under 6 minutes is also a problem. Do some rehearsal, write a script, or
find some other way to get the timing just right.

• Volume—Obviously, you must be sure to speak loud enough so that all of

your audience can hear you. You might find some way to practice
speaking a little louder in the days before the oral presentation.

• Pacing, speed—Sometimes, oral presentators who are a bit nervous talk

too fast. All that adrenaline causes them to speed through their talk. That
 makes it hard for the audience to follow. In general, it helps listeners to
understand you better if you speak a bit more slowly and deliberately than
you do in normal conversation. Slow down, take it easy, be clear.

• Gestures and posture—Watch out for nervous hands flying all over the
place. This too can be distracting—and a bit comical. At the same time,
don't turn yourself into a mannikin. Plan to keep your hands clasped
together or holding onto the podium and only occasionally making some
gesture. As for posture, avoid slouching at the podium and leaning against
the wall.

• Verbal crutches—Watch out for too much "uh," "you know," "okay" and
other kinds of nervous verbal habits. Instead of saying "uh" or "you know"
every three seconds, just don't say anything at all. In the days before your
oral presentation, practice speaking without these verbal crutches. The
silence that replaces them is not a bad thing—it gives listeners time to
process what you are saying.

Examples of verbal headings in an oral presentation.

Planning and Preparing Visuals for Oral Presentations

Prepare at least one visual for this report. Here are some ideas for the "medium"
to use for your visuals:

• Transparencies for overhead projector—For most college classrooms and,

in fact, business conference rooms, the overhead projector is the best way
to show things to the whole group. Design your visual on a sheet of blank
paper, then photocopy it, and then get a transparency of it. You may have
access to equipment like this at your work; most copy shops can make
transparencies for you; and your instructor can make transparencies for
you, given a few days lead-time.

• Posterboard-size charts—Another possibility is to get some posterboard

and draw and letter what you want your audience to see. If you have a
choice, consider transparencies—it's hard to make charts look neat and
professional.

• Handouts—You can run off copies of what you want your listeners to see
and hand them out before or during your talk. This option is even less
effective than the first two because you can't point to what you want your
listeners to see and because handouts take listeners' attention away from
you. Still, for certain visual needs, handouts are the only choice.

• Objects—If you need to demonstrate certain procedures, you may need to

bring in actual physical objects. Rehearse what you are going to do with
these objects; sometimes they can take up a lot more time than you
expect.

Please avoid just scribbling your visual on the chalkboard. Whatever you can
scribble on the chalkboard can be neatly prepared and made into a transparency
or posterboard-size chart, for example. Take some time to make your visuals
look sharp and professional-use a straightedge, good dark markers, neat
lettering or typing. Do your best to ensure that they are legible to the entire
audience.

As for the content of your visuals consider these ideas:

• Drawing or diagram of key objects—If you describe or refer to any objects

during your talk, try to get visuals of them so that you can point to different
components or features.
 • Tables, charts, graphs—If you discuss statistical data, present it in some
form or table, chart, or graph. Many members of your audience may have
trouble "hearing" such data as opposed to seeing it.

• Outline of your talk, report, or both—If you are at a loss for visuals to use
in your oral presentation, or if your presentation is complex, have an
outline of it that you can show at various points during your talk.

• Key terms and definitions—A good idea for visuals (especially when you
can't think of any others) is to set up a two-column list of key terms you
use during your oral presentation with their definitions in the second
column.

• Key concepts or points—Similarly, you can list your key points and show
them in visuals. (Outlines, key terms, and main points are all good,
legitimate ways of incorporating visuals into oral presentations when you
can't think of any others.)

During your actual oral report, make sure to discuss your visuals, refer to them,
guide your listeners through the key points in your visuals. It's a big problem just
to throw a visual up on the screen and never even refer to it.