Austenitic stainless steels

Austenitic stainless steels have high ductility, low yield stress and relatively
high ultimate tensile strength, when compare to a typical carbon steel.

A carbon steel on cooling transforms from Austenite to a mixture of ferrite

and cementite. With austenitic stainless steel, the high chrome and nickel
content suppress this transformation keeping the material fully austenite on
cooling (The Nickel maintains the austenite phase on cooling and the
Chrome slows the transformation down so that a fully austenitic structure can
be achieved with only 8% Nickel). 

Heat treatment and the thermal cycle caused by welding, have little influence
on mechanical properties.  However strength and hardness can be increased
by cold working, which will also reduce ductility.  A full solution anneal
(heating to around 1045°C followed by quenching or rapid cooling) will
restore the material to its original condition, removing alloy segregation,
sensitisation, sigma phase and restoring ductility after cold working. 
Unfortunately the rapid cooling will re-introduce residual stresses, which
could be as high as the yield point.  Distortion can also occur if the object is
not properly supported during the annealing process.

Austenitic steels are not susceptible to hydrogen cracking, therefore pre-

heating is seldom required, except to reduce the risk of shrinkage stresses in
thick sections.  Post weld heat treatment is seldom required as this material
as a high resistance to brittle fracture; occasionally stress relief is carried out
to reduce the risk of stress corrosion cracking, however this is likely to cause
sensitisation unless a stabilised grade is used  (limited stress relief can be
achieved with a low temperature of around 450°C ). 

Austenitic steels have a F.C.C atomic structure which provides more planes
for the flow of dislocations, combined with the low level of interstitial
elements (elements that lock the dislocation chain), gives this material its
good ductility. This also explains why this material has no clearly defined
yield point, which is why its yield stress is always expressed as a proof
stress. Austenitic steels have excellent toughness down to true absolute (-
273°C), with no steep ductile to brittle transition. 

This material has good corrosion resistance, but quite severe corrosion can
occur in certain environments. The right choice of welding consumable and
welding technique can be crucial as the weld metal can corrode more than the
parent material.

Probably the biggest cause of failure in pressure plant made of stainless steel
is stress corrosion cracking (S.C.C).  This type of corrosion forms deep
cracks in the material and is caused by the presence of chlorides in the
process fluid or heating water/steam (Good water treatment is essential ), at a
temperature above 50°C, when the material is subjected to a tensile stress
(this stress includes residual stress, which could be up to yield point in
magnitude). Significant increases in Nickel and also Molybdenum will
reduce the risk. 

Stainless steel has a very thin and stable oxide film rich in chrome. This film
reforms rapidly by reaction with the atmosphere if damaged.  If stainless
steel is not adequately protected from the atmosphere during welding or is
subject to very heavy grinding operations, a very thick oxide layer will form.
This thick oxide layer, distinguished by its blue tint, will have a chrome
depleted layer under it, which will impair corrosion resistance.  Both the
oxide film and depleted layer must be removed, either mechanically
(grinding with a fine grit is recommended, wire brushing and shot blasting
will have less effect), or chemically (acid pickle with a mixture of nitric and
hydrofluoric acid).  Once cleaned, the surface can be chemically passivated
to enhance corrosion resistance, (passivation reduces the anodic reaction
involved in the corrosion process).

Carbon steel tools, also supports or even sparks from grinding carbon steel,
can embed fragments into the surface of the stainless steel.  These fragments
can then rust if moistened. Therefore it is recommended that stainless steel
fabrication be carried out in a separate designated area and special stainless
steel tools used where possible.

 If any part of stainless-steel is heated in the range 500 degrees to 800
degrees for any reasonable time there is a risk that the chrome will form
chrome carbides (a compound formed with carbon) with any carbon present
in the steel.  This reduces the chrome available to provide the passive film
and leads to preferential corrosion, which can be severe. This is often
referred to as sensitisation.  Therefore it is advisable when welding stainless
steel to use low heat input and restrict the maximum interpass temperature to
around 175°, although sensitisation of modern low carbon grades is unlikely
unless heated for prolonged periods.  Small quantities of either titanium
(321) or niobium (347) added to stabilise the material will inhibit the
formation of chrome carbides.
 
To resist oxidation and creep high carbon grades such as 304H or 316H are
often used.  Their improved creep resistance relates to the presence of
carbides and the slightly coarser grain size associated with higher annealing 
temperatures.  Because the higher carbon content inevitably leads to
sensitisation, there may be a risk of corrosion during plant shut downs, for
this reason stabilised grades may be preferred such as 347H.

The solidification strength of austenitic stainless steel can be seriously

impaired by small additions of impurities such as sulphur and phosphorous,
this coupled with the materials high coefficient of expansion can cause
serious solidification cracking problems.  Most 304 type alloys are designed
to solidify initially as delta ferrite, which has a high solubility for sulphur,
transforming to austenite upon further cooling. This creates an austenitic
material containing tiny patches of residual delta ferrite, therefore not a true
austenitic in the strict sense of the word.  Filler metal often contains further
additions of delta ferrite to ensure crack free welds.

The delta ferrite can transform to a very brittle phase called sigma, if heated
above 550°C for very prolonged periods  (Could take several thousand hours,
depending on chrome level.  A duplex stainless steel can form sigma phase
after only a few minutes at this temperature)

The very high coefficient of expansion associated with this material means
that welding distortion can be quite savage.  I have seen thick ring flanges on
pressure vessel twist after welding to such an extent that a fluid seal is
impossible.  Thermal stress is another major problem associated with
stainless steel; premature failure can occur on pressure plant heated by a
jacket or coils attached to a cold veesel.  This material has poor thermal
conductivity, therefore lower welding current is required (typically 25% less
than carbon steel) and narrower joint preparations can be tolerated.  All
common welding processes can be used successfully, however high
deposition rates associated with SAW could cause solidification cracking and
possibly sensitisation, unless adequate precautions are taken. 

To ensure good corrosion resistance of the weld root it must be protected

from the atmosphere by an inert gas shield during welding and subsequent
cooling.  The gas shield should be contained around the root of the weld by a
suitable dam, which must permit a continuous gas flow through the area. 
Welding should not commence until sufficient time has elapsed to allow the
volume of purging gas flowing through the dam to equal at least the 6 times
the volume contained in the dam (EN1011 Part 3 Recommends 10).   Once
purging is complete the purge flow rate should be reduced so that it only
exerts a small positive pressure, sufficient to exclude air.  If good corrosion
resistance of the root is required the oxygen level in the dam should not
exceed 0.1%(1000 ppm); for extreme corrosion resistance this should be
reduced to 0.015% (150 ppm).  Backing gasses are typically argon or helium;
Nitrogen Is often used as an economic alternative where corrosion resistance
is not critical, Nitrogrn + 10% Helium is better.  A wide variety of
proprietary pastes and backing materials are available than can be use to
protect the root instead of a gas shield.  In some applications where corrosion
and oxide coking of the weld root is not important, such as large stainless
steel ducting, no gas backing is used.
 

Carbon content:
304 L grade  Low Carbon, typically    0.03% Max
304   grade   Medium Carbon, typically   0.08% Max
304H grade  High Carbon, typically  Up to 0.1% 

The higher the carbon content the greater the yield strength.  (Hence the
stength advantage in using stabilised grades)

Typical Alloy Content

304 (18-20Cr, 8-12Ni)

316 (16-18Cr, 10-14Ni + 2-3Mo) 304 + Molybdenum
316 Ti (316 with Titanium Added) 304 + Moly + Titanium
320 (Same as 316Ti) -
321 (17-19Cr, 9-12Ni + Titanium) 304 + Titanium
347 (17-19Cr, 9-13Ni + Niobium) 304 + Niobium
308 (19-22Cr, 9-11Ni) 304 + Extra 2%Cr
309 (22-24Cr, 12-15Ni) 304 + Extra 4%Cr + 4% Ni
All the above stainless steel grades are basic variations of a 304. All are
 readily weldable and all have matching consumables, except for a 304 which
is welded with a 308 or 316, 321 is welded with a 347 (Titanium is not easily
transferred across the arc) and a 316Ti is normally welded with a 318. 

Molybdenum has the same effect on the microstructure as chrome, except

that it gives better resistance to pitting corrosion.  Therefore a 316 needs less
chrome than a 304.
 
 

310 (24-26Cr,19-22Ni) True Austenitic.  This material does not

transform to ferrite on cooling and therefore
does not contain delta ferrite.  It will not suffer
sigma phase embrittlement but can be tricky to
weld.
904L (20Cr,25Ni,4.5Mo) Super Austenitic Or Nickel alloy.  Superior
corrosion resistance providing they are welded
carefully with low heat input (less than 1
kJ/mm recommended) and fast travel speeds
with no weaving.  Each run of weld should not
be started until the metal temperature falls
below 100°C.  It is unlikely that a uniform
distribution of alloy will be achieved
throughout the weld (segregation), therefore
this material should either be welded with an
over-alloyed consumable such as a 625 or
solution annealed after welding, if maximum
corrosion resistance is required.
 
Carbon Steel To Austenitic Steel
When a weld is made using a filler wire or consumable, there is a mixture in the weld consisting
of approximately 20% parent metal and  80% filler metal alloy ( percentage depends on welding
process, type of joint and welding parameters).

Any reduction in alloy content of 304 / 316 type austenitics is likely to cause the formation of
matensite on cooling.  This could lead to cracking problems and poor ductility.  To avoid this
problem an overalloyed filler metal is used, such as a 309, which should still form austenite on
cooling providing dilution is not excessive.

The Shaeffler diagram can be used to determine the type of microstructure that can be expected
when a filler metal and parent metal of differing compositions are mixed together in a weld.

The Shaeffler Diagram

 
The Nickel and other elements that form Austenite, are plotted against Chrome and other
elements that form ferrite,  using the following formula:-

Nickel Equivalent =  %Ni + 30%C + 0.5%Mn

Chrome Equivalent = %Cr + Mo + 1.5%Si + 0.5%Nb

Example, a typical 304L = 18.2%Cr, 10.1%Ni, 1.2%Mn, 0.4%Si, 0.02%C

Ni Equiv = 10.1 + 30 x 0.02 + 0.5 x 1.2 =  11.3

Cr Equiv = 18.2 + 0 + 1.5 x 0.4 + 0 = 18.8

A typical 309L welding consumable Ni Equiv = 14.35, Cr Equiv = 24.9

The main disadvantage with this diagram is that it does not represent Nitrogen, which is a very
strong Austenite former. 

Ferrite Number
The ferrite number uses magnetic attraction as a means of measuring the proportion of delta
ferrite present.  The ferrite number is plotted on a modified Shaeffler diagram, the Delong
Diagram. The Chrome and Nickel equivalent is the same as that used for the Shaeffler diagram,
except that the Nickel equivalent includes the addition of 30 times the Nitrogen content.  
Examples

The Shaeffler diagram above illustrates a carbon steel C.S , welded with 304L filler. Point A
represents the anticipated composition of the weld metal, if it consists of a mixture of filler metal
and 25% parent metal. This diluted weld, according to the diagram, will contain martensite. 
This problem can be overcome if a higher alloyed filler is used, such as a 309L, which has a
higher nickel and chrome equivalent that will tend to pull point A into the austenite region. 

If the welds molten pool spans two different metals the process becomes more complicated. 
First plot both parent metals on the shaeffler diagram and connect them with a line.  If both
parent metals are diluted by the same amount, plot a false point B on the diagram midway
between them.  (Point B represents the microstructure of the weld if no filler metal was applied.)

Next, plot the consumable on the diagram, which for this example is a 309L. Draw a line from
this point to false point B and mark a point A along its length equivalent to the total weld
dilution.  This point will give the approximate microstructure of the weld metal. The diagram
below illustrates 25% total weld dilution at point A, which predicts a good microstructure of
Austenite with a little ferrite.
 
The presence of martensite can be detected by subjecting a macro section to a hardness survey,
high hardness levels indicate martensite. Alternatively the weld can be subjected to a bend test
( a side bend is required by the ASME code for corrosion resistant overlays), any martensite
present will tend to cause the test piece to break rather than bend.

However the presence of martensite is unlikely to cause hydrogen cracking, as any hydrogen
evolved during the welding process will be absorbed by the austenitic filler metal. 

Evaluating Dilution
 
Causes Of High Dilution

 High Travel Speed. Too much heat applied to parent metal instead of on filler metal.
 High welding Current.  High current welding processes, such as Submerged Arc
Welding can cause high dilution.
 Thin Material.  Thin sheet TIG welded can give rise to high dilution levels.
 Joint Preparation.  Square preps generate very high dilution. This can be reduced by
carefully buttering the joint face with high alloy filler metal.

http://www.avestapolarit.com/upload/steel_properties/Schaeffler_large.jpg
 

 
The Metallurgy Of Carbon Steel
The best way to understand the metallurgy of carbon steel is to study the ‘Iron
Carbon Diagram’.  The diagram shown below is based on the transformation
that occurs as a result of slow heating.  Slow cooling will reduce the
transformation temperatures; for example: the A1 point would be reduced
from 723°C to 690 °C.  However the fast heating and cooling rates
encountered in welding will have a significant influence on these
temperatures, making the accurate prediction of weld metallurgy using this
diagram difficult.

 Austenite   This phase is only possible in carbon steel at high

temperature.  It has a Face Centre Cubic (F.C.C) atomic structure
which can contain up to 2% carbon in solution.

 Ferrite  This phase has a Body Centre Cubic structure (B.C.C) which
can hold very little carbon; typically 0.0001% at room temperature.  It
can exist as either: alpha or delta ferrite. 

 Carbon  A very small interstitial atom that tends to fit into clusters of
iron atoms.  It strengthens steel and gives it the ability to harden by
heat treatment.  It also causes major problems for welding ,
particularly if it exceeds 0.25% as it creates a hard microstructure that
 is susceptible to hydrogen cracking.  Carbon forms compounds with
other elements called carbides.  Iron Carbide, Chrome Carbide etc.

 Cementite  Unlike ferrite and austenite, cementite is a very hard

intermetallic compound consisting of 6.7% carbon and the remainder
iron, its chemical symbol is Fe3C.  Cementite is very hard, but when
mixed with soft ferrite layers its average hardness is reduced
considerably. Slow cooling gives course perlite; soft easy to machine
but poor toughness.  Faster cooling gives very fine layers of ferrite and
cementite; harder and tougher

 Pearlite  A mixture of alternate strips of

ferrite and cementite in a single grain. 
The distance between the plates and their
thickness is dependant on the cooling
rate of the material;  fast cooling creates
thin plates that are close together and
slow cooling creates a much coarser
structure possessing less toughness.  The
name for this structure is derived from its
mother of pearl appearance under a
microscope.  A fully pearlitic structure
occurs at 0.8% Carbon.  Further
increases in carbon will create cementite
at the grain boundaries, which will start
to weaken the steel.

 Cooling of a steel below 0.8% carbon   When a steel solidifies it

forms austenite.  When the temperature falls below the A3 point,
grains of ferrite start to form.  As more grains of ferrite start to form
the remaining austenite becomes richer in carbon.  At about 723°C the
remaining austenite, which now contains 0.8% carbon, changes to
pearlite.  The resulting structure is a mixture consisting of white grains
of ferrite mixed with darker grains of pearlite.  Heating is basically the
same thing in reverse.
 

 Martensite  If steel is cooled rapidly from austenite, the F.C.C

structure rapidly changes to B.C.C leaving insufficient time for the
carbon to form pearlite.  This results in a distorted structure that has
the appearance of fine needles. There is no partial transformation
associated with martensite, it either forms or it doesn’t.  However,
only the parts of a section that cool fast enough will form martensite;
in a thick section it will only form to a certain depth, and if the shape
is complex  it may only form in small pockets.  The hardness of
martensite is solely dependant on carbon content, it is normally very
high, unless the carbon content is exceptionally low.
  Tempering  The carbon trapped in the martensite transformation can
be released by heating the steel below the A1 transformation
temperature.  This release of carbon from nucleated areas allows the
structure to deform plastically and relive some of its internal stresses.
This reduces hardness and increases toughness, but it also tends to
reduce tensile strength.  The degree of tempering is dependant on
temperature and time; temperature having the greatest influence. 

 Annealing  This term is often used to define a heat treatment process

that produces some softening of the structure.  True annealing
involves heating the steel to austenite and holding for some time to
create a stable structure.  The steel is then cooled very slowly to room
temperature.  This produces a very soft structure, but also creates very
large grains, which are seldom desirable because of poor toughness.

 Normalising  Returns the structure back to normal.  The steel is

heated until it just starts to form austenite; it is then cooled in air. This
moderately rapid transformation creates relatively fine grains with
uniform pearlite.

 Welding  If the temperature profile for a typical weld is plotted

against the carbon equilibrium diagram, a wide variety of
transformation and heat treatments will be observed. 

Note, the carbon equilibrium diagram shown above is only for illustration, in
reality it will be heavily distorted because of the rapid heating and cooling
rates involved in the welding process. 

a) Mixture of ferrite and pearlite grains; temperature below A1,

  therefore microstructure not significantly affected.

b)  Pearlite transformed to Austenite, but not sufficient temperature

  available to exceed the A3 line, therefore not all ferrite grains
  transform to Austenite.  On cooling, only the transformed grains
will be normalised. 
c) 
  Temperature just exceeds A3 line, full Austenite transformation. 
On cooling all grains will be normalised
d) 
Temperature significantly exceeds A3 line permitting grains to
grow.  On cooling, ferrite will form at the grain boundaries, and a
course pearlite will form inside the grains.  A course grain
structure is more readily hardened than a finer one, therefore if
the cooling rate between 800°C to 500°C is rapid, a hard
microstructure will be formed.  This is why a brittle fracture is
most likely to propagate in this region.
 

 Welds  The metallurgy of a weld is very

different from the parent material.  Welding
filler metals are designed to create strong and
tough welds, they contain fine oxide particles
that permit the nucleation of fine grains. 
When a weld solidifies, its grains grow from
the course HAZ grain structure, further
refinement takes place within these course
grains creating the typical acicular ferrite
formation shown opposite. 
 
Residual Stress

 
 

Magnitude Of Stresses- A Simple Analogy

Strain Age Embrittlement

This phenomenon applies to carbon and low alloy steel.  It involves ferrite forming a compound
with nitrogen; iron-nitride (Fe4N).  Temperatures around 250°C, will cause a fine precipitation of
this compound to occur.  It will tend to pin any dislocations in the structure that have been
created by cold work or plastic deformation.

Strain ageing increases tensile strength but significantly reduces ductility and toughness.

Modern steels tend to have low nitrogen content, but this is not necessarily true for welds. 
Sufficient Nitrogen, approximately 1 to 2 ppm, can be easily picked up from the atmosphere
during welding.

Weld root runs are particularly at risk because of high contraction stresses causing plastic
deformation.  This is why impact test specimens taken from the root or first pass of a weld can
give poor results.

Additions of Aluminium can tie up the Nitrogen as Aluminium Nitride, but weld-cooling rates
are too fast for this compound to form successfully.  Stress relief at around 650 degrees C will
resolve the problem.

  

HOW TO AVOID PWHT

 
The above picture is of a new pressure vessel that failed during its hydraulic
test.  The vessel had been stress relieved, but some parts of it did not reach
the required temperature and consequently did not experience adequate
tempering.  This coupled with a small hydrogen crack, was sufficient to
cause catastrophic failure under test conditions.  It is therefore important
when considering PWHT or its avoidance, to ensure that all possible failure
modes and their consequences are carefully considered before any action is
taken.

The post weld heat treatment of welded steel fabrications is normally carried
out to reduce the risk of brittle fracture by: -

 Reducing residual Stresses.  These stresses are created when a weld

cools and its contraction is restricted by the bulk of the material
surrounding it.  Weld distortion occurs when these stresses exceed
the yield point.  Finite element modelling of residual stresses is now
possible, so that the complete welding sequence of a joint or repair
can be modelled to predict and minimise these stresses.

 Tempering the weld and HAZ microstructure.  The microstructure,

particularly in the HAZ, can be hardened by rapid cooling of the
weld.  This is a major problem for low and medium alloy steels
containing chrome and any other constituent that slow the
austenite/ferrite transformation down, as this will result in hardening
of the micro structure, even at slow cooling rates. 

The risk of brittle fracture can be assessed by fracture mechanics.  Assuming

worst-case scenarios for all the relevant variables.  It is then possible to
predict if PWHT is required to make the fabrication safe.  However, the
analysis requires accurate measurement of HAZ toughness, which is not
easy because of the HAZ’s small size and varying properties.  Some
approximation is possible from impact tests, providing the notch is taken
from the point of lowest toughness. 

If PWHT is to be avoided, stress concentration effects such as: - backing

bars, partial penetration welds, and internal defects in the weld and poor
surface profile, should be avoided.  Good surface and volumetric NDT is
essential.  Preheat may still be required to avoid hydrogen cracking and a
post weld hydrogen release may also be beneficial in this respect (holding
the fabrication at a temperature of around 250C for at least 2 hours,
immediately after welding).

Nickel based consumables can often reduce or remove the need for preheat,
but their effect on the parent metal HAZ will be no different from that
created by any other consumable, except that the HAZ may be slightly
narrower.  However, nickel based welds, like most austenitic steels, can
make ultrasonic inspection very difficult.
 Further reduction in the risk of brittle fracture can be achieved by refining
the HAZ microstructure using special temper bead welding techniques.

 
Alloying Elements

Manganese
Increases strength and hardness; forms a carbide; increases hardenability; lowers the
transformation temperature range.  When in sufficient quantity produces an
austenitic steel; always present in a steel to some extent because it is used as a
deoxidiser

Silicon
Strengthens ferrite and raises the transformation temperature temperatures; has a
strong graphitising tendency.  Always present to some extent, because it is used
with manganese as a deoxidiser

Chromium
Increases strength and hardness; forms hard and stable carbides.  It raises the
transformation temperature significantly when its content exceeds 12%. Increases
hardenability; amounts in excess of 12%, render steel stainless.  Good creep
strength at high temperature.

Nickel
Strengthens steel; lowers its transformation temperature range; increases
hardenability, and improves resistance to fatigue. Strong graphite forming tendency;
stabilizes austenite when in sufficient quantity.  Creates fine grains and gives good
toughness.

Nickel And Chromium

Used together for austenitic stainless steels; each element counteracts disadvantages
of the other.

Tungsten
Forms hard and stable carbides; raises the transformation temperature range, and
tempering temperatures.  Hardened tungsten steels resist tempering up to 6000C

Molybdenum
Strong carbide forming element, and also improves high temperature creep
resistance; reduces temper-brittleness in Ni-Cr steels.  Improves corrosion resistance
and temper brittleness.
Vanadium
Strong carbide forming element; has a scavenging action and produces clean,
inclusion free steels. Can cause re-heat cracking when added to chrome molly
steels.

Titanium
Strong carbide forming element. Not used on its own, but added as a carbide
stabiliser to some austenitic stainless steels.

Phosphorus
Increases strength and hardnability, reduces ductility and toughness.  Increases
machineability and corrosion resistance

Sulphur
Reduces toughness and strength and also weldabilty.  
Sulphur inclusions, which are normally present, are taken into solution near the
fusion temperature of the weld.  On cooling sulphides and remaining sulphur
precipitate out and tend to segregate to the grain boundaries as liquid films, thus
weakening them considerably.  Such steel is referred to as burned.  Manganese
breaks up these films into globules of maganese sulphide; maganese to sulphur ratio
> 20:1,  higher carbon and/or high heat input during welding > 30:1, to reduce
extent of burning.