Physics Department SMK Sultan Ismail Johor Bahru.

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CHAPTER 1: INTR. TO PHHYSICS

Physical Quantities
Physical Quantities
1. A physical quantity is a quantity that can be measured.
2. A physical quantity can be divided into base quantity and derived quantity.

Base Quantities
Base quantities are quantities that cannot be defined in term of other physical quantities.

5 Base Quantites
Quantity Name of Unit Symbol of Unit
Length metre m
Time second s
Temperature Kelvin K
Mass kilogram kg
Current Ampere A

Derived Quantities
A derived quantity is a Physics quantity that is not a base quantity. It is the quantities which
derived from the base quantities through multiplying and/or dividing them.

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Derived Unit
The derived unit is a combination of base units through multiplying and/or dividing them.

Prefixes
Prefixes are the preceding factor used to represent very small and very large physical
quantities in SI units.

Prefixes Symbol Value

Tera T 1012
Giga G 109
Mega M 106
kilo k 103
desi d 10-1
centi c 10-2
mili m 10-3
micro µ 10-6
nano n 10-9

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pico p 10-12
fento f 10-15

Scalar Quantities
1. Scalars are quantities which are fully described by a magnitude alone.
2. Examples of scalar quantities are distance, speed, mass, volume, temperature, density
and energy.

Vector Quantities
1. Vectors are quantities which are fully described by both a magnitude and a direction.
2. Examples of vector quantities are displacement, velocity, acceleration, force,
momentum, and magnetic field.

Error Analysis
Error
Error is the difference between the actual value of a quantity and the value obtained in
measurement.

Systematic Error
Systematic errors are errors which tend to shift all measurements in a systematic way so their
mean value is displaced. Systematic errors can be compensated if the errors are known.

Sources of Systematic Error

1. zero error, which cause by an incorrect position of the zero point,
2. an incorrect calibration of the measuring instrument.
3. consistently improper use of equipment.

Steps to reduce Systematic Error

1. Conducting the experiment with care.
2. Repeating the experiment by using different instruments.

Zero Error
1. A zero error arises when the measuring instrument does not start from exactly zero.

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2. Zero errors are consistently present in every reading of a measurement.

3. The zero error can be positive or negative.

Random Error
1. Random errors arise from unknown and unpredictable variations in condition.
2. It changes from one measurement to the next.

Causes of Random Error

Random errors are caused by factors that are beyond the control of the observers. Random
error can cause by:

1. personal errors such as human limitations of sight and touch.

2. lack of sensitivity of the instrument: the instrument fail to respond to the small
change.
3. natural errors such as changes in temperature or wind, while the experiment is in
progress.
4. wrong technique of measurement.

How to avoid random error

1. Taking repeat readings
2. Find the average value of the reading.

Parallax Error
A parallax error is an error in reading an instrument due to the eye of the observer and pointer
are not in a line perpendicular to the plane of the scale.

Measurement
Precision
Precision is the ability of an instrument in measuring a quantity in a consistent manner with
only a small relative deviation between readings.

Accuracy

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The accuracy of a measurement is the approximation of the measurement to the actual value
for a certain quantity of Physics.

How to Increase Accuracy

1. taking a number of repeat readings to calculate the mean value of the reading.
2. avoiding the end errors or zero errors.
3. taking into account the zero and parallax errors.
4. using more sensitive equipment such as a vernier caliper to replace a ruler.

Sensitivity
1. The sensitivity of an instrument is its ability to detect small changes in the quantity
that is being measured.
2. Thus, a sensitive instrument can quickly detect a small change in measurement.
3. Measuring instruments that have smaller scale parts are more sensitive.
4. Sensitive instruments need not necessarily be accurate.

Vernier Calipers
1. A vernier caliper is used to measure an object with dimensions up to 120 mm.
2. Vernier calipers can be used to measure thickness, diameter of a wire and depth of a
liquid.

3. The main scale is marked in divisions of 1 mm.

4. The vernier scale is marked in divisions of 0.1 mm.
5. The vernier caliper has an accuracy of 0.1 mm or 0.01 cm.
6. Principle of vernier calipers.
(a) The vernier scale is divided into ten equal division.

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(b) The length of this 10 divisions are equal to 0.9 cm.

(c) Hence 1 mark on the vernier scale is equal to 0.09 cm.
(d) Figure 1.1 shows, the difference between the sizes of one division on the main
scale and one division on the vernier scale is;
0.1 – 0.09 = 0.01 cm
7. Take the reading,

(a) 34.0 mm

(b) 0.6 mm

Figure 1.2

(a) read the main scale before ‘0’ mark on the vernier scale.
(b) take the vernier scale reading that lines up with any main scale reading.
(c) figure 1.2 shows,
The main scale reading = 34.0 mm
The vernier scale reading = 0.6 mm
Therefore the reading is = 34.0 mm + 0.6 mm
= 34.6 mm

8. Before we used the vernier calipers, we need to check for zero error in order to obtain
accurate readings.
9. Positive zero error occurs if the ‘0’ mark on the vernier scale is to the right of the ‘0’
mark on the main scale as shown in figure 1.3

Figure 1.3

The positive zero error as shown in figure 1.4 is +0.4 mm / +0.04 cm.
To eliminate the zero error;

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Correct reading = Caliper reading – zero error

The reading in figure 1.2 above must be corrected by subtracting +0.04 cm to the
reading.

Correct reading = 34.6 mm – (+0.4 mm)

= 34.2 mm
10. Negative zero error occurs if the ‘0’ mark on the vernier scale is to the left of the ‘0’
mark on the main scale as shown in figure 1.4

Figure 1.4

The negative zero error as shown in figure 1.5 is – 0.2 mm / - 0.02 cm.
To eliminate the negative zero error;

Correct reading = Caliper reading – zero error

The reading in figure 1.2 above must be corrected by subtracting - 0.2 cm to the reading.

Correct reading = 34.6 mm – (- 0.2 mm)

= 34.8 mm

Micrometer Screw Gauge

1. A micrometer screw gauge is used to measure very small thickness and diameters
ranging between 0.10 mm up to 25.00 mm.
2. The micrometer screw gauge can be used to measure diameter of wires and
thicknesses sheet of paper to an accuracy of 0.01 mm.
3. Turn the thimble until the object is gripped gently between the anvil and spindle.
4. Turn the ratchet knob until a "click" sound is heard. This is to prevent exerting too
much pressure on the object measured.
5. Take the reading,

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Figure 1.5

Reading of main scale = 5.5mm

Reading of thimble scale = 0.27mm

Actual Reading = 5.5mm + 0.27mm = 5.77mm

6. Before we used the micrometer screw gauge, we need to check for zero error in order
to obtain accurate readings.

7. When the jaws are fully closed and the ‘0’ mark on the thimble scale is exactly in line
with the horizontal reference line there is no zero error.

Figure 1.6

8. Positif zero error occurs (figure 1.6), when the horizontal reference line is in the
positive side of the ‘0’ mark on the thimble scale. The positive zero error as shown in figure
1.6 is + 0.04 mm.

To eliminate the positive zero error;

Correct reading = Micrometer reading – zero error

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The reading in figure 1.5 above must be corrected by subtracting + 0.04 cm to the
reading.

Correct reading = 5.77 mm – (+ 0.04 mm)

= 5.73 mm

Figure 1.7

9. Negative zero error occurs if the horizontal reference line on the main scale is below
the ‘0’ mark of the thimble scale. The negative zero error as shown in figure 1.7 is - 0.03
mm.

To eliminate the negative zero error;

Correct reading = Micrometer reading – zero error

The reading in figure 1.5 above must be corrected by subtracting - 0.03 mm to the
reading.

Correct reading = 5.77 mm – (- 0.03 mm)

= 5.80 mm

Scientific Investigation
Scientific Report
A report of the investigation must include:

1. Objective of the experiment,

2. Inference,
3. Hypothesis,
4. Three types of variables: manipulated variable, responding variable and fixed
variable,
5. Defined operational variables,
6. List of apparatus,
7. Procedure,
8. Tabulation of data,

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9. Analysis of data,
10. Conclusion.

Inference
Inference is a statement to state the relationship between two visible quantities observed in a
diagram or picture.

Hypothesis
Hypothesis is a statement to state the relationship between two measurable variables that can
be investigated in a lab.

Variables
A variable is a quantity that can vary in value. There are 3 types of variable:

1. Manipulated Variables: Manipulated variables are factors which changed for the
experiment.
2. Responding Variables: Responding variables are factors which depend on the
manipulated variables.
3. Constant Variables: Constant variables are factors which are kept the same throughout
the experiment.

Tabulating Data
A proper way of tabulating data should include the following:

1. The name or the symbols of the variables must be labelled with respective units.
2. All measurements must be consistent with the sensitivity of the instruments used.
3. All the values must be consistent to the same number of decimal places.

Drawing Graph
Graphs are used to make a relationship between variables. Gradient value and extrapolation
of a graph are used to analyse a graph.

A well-plotted must contain the following features:

1. A title to show the two variables under investigation,

2. two axes labelled with the correct variables and their respective units,
3. the graph drawn is greater than 50 % of the graph paper,
4. appropriate scales (1:1 x 10x, 1:2 x 10x and 1:5 x 10x)
5. all the points are correctly plotted,
6. a best fit line is drawn

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