PowerPoint® Lecture

Presentations prepared by
Mindy Miller-Kittrell,
North Carolina
State University

CHAPTER 3
Cell Structure
and Function

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 Processes of Life

• Growth

• Reproduction

• Responsiveness

• Metabolism

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 Figure 3.1 Examples of types of cells.

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 Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells: An Overview

• Prokaryotes
• Composed of bacteria and archaea

• Lack nucleus

• Lack various internal structures bound with phospholipid

membranes

• Are typically 1.0 µm in diameter or smaller

• Have a simple structure

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 Figure 3.2 Typical prokaryotic cell.

Inclusions

Ribosome

Cytoplasm
Nucleoid Flagellum
Glycocalyx
Cell wall
Cytoplasmic membrane
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 Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells: An Overview

• Eukaryotes
• Have nucleus

• Have internal membrane-bound organelles

• Are larger: 10–100 µm in diameter

• Have more complex structure

• Composed of algae, protozoa, fungi, animals, and

plants

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 Figure 3.3 Typical eukaryotic cell.

Nuclear envelope

Nuclear pore

Nucleolus
Lysosome
Mitochondrion
Centriole
Secretory vesicle

Golgi body
Cilium
Transport vesicles

Ribosomes Rough endoplasmic

reticulum

Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum

Cytoplasmic
membrane
Cytoskeleton
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 Figure 3.4 Approximate size of various types of cells.

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 External Structures of Bacterial Cells

• Glycocalyces

• Gelatinous, sticky substance surrounding the outside of

the cell

• Composed of polysaccharides, polypeptides, or both

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 External Structures of Bacterial Cells

• Two Types of Glycocalyces

• Capsule
• Composed of organized repeating units of organic chemicals
• Firmly attached to cell surface
• May prevent bacteria from being recognized by host
• Slime layer
• Loosely attached to cell surface
• Water soluble
• Sticky layer allows prokaryotes to attach to surfaces

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 Figure 3.5 Glycocalyces.

Glycocalyx Glycocalyx
(capsule) (slime layer)

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 Motility

PLAY Motility

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 External Structures of Bacterial Cells

• Flagella
• Are responsible for movement

• Have long structures that extend beyond cell surface

• Are not present on all bacteria

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 External Structures of Bacterial Cells

• Flagella
• Structure
• Composed of filament, hook, and basal body

• Basal body anchors the filament and hook to cell wall

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 Flagella: Structure

PLAY Flagella: Structure

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 Figure 3.6 Proximal structure of bacterial flagella.

Filament

Direction
of rotation
during run

Rod Peptidoglycan
layer (cell wall)

Protein rings
Cytoplasmic
membrane
Cytoplasm

Filament

Outer
protein
rings Outer
membrane
Rod Cell
Gram + Gram – Peptidoglycan wall
Integral layer
Basal protein
body
Inner
protein Cytoplasmic
rings membrane
Cytoplasm
Integral
protein

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 Figure 3.7 Micrographs of basic arrangements of bacterial flagella.

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 Flagella: Arrangement

PLAY Flagella: Arrangement

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 Spirochetes

PLAY Spirochetes

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 Figure 3.8 Axial filament.

Endoflagella
rotate Axial filament
rotates around
Axial filament cell

Outer
membrane

Cytoplasmic
membrane

Spirochete
corkscrews Axial filament
and moves
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forward
 External Structures of Bacterial Cells

• Flagella
• Function
• Rotation propels bacterium through environment

• Rotation reversible; can be counterclockwise or clockwise

• Bacteria move in response to stimuli (taxis)

• Runs

• Tumbles

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 Figure 3.9 Motion of a peritrichous bacterium.

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 Flagella: Movement

PLAY Flagella: Movement

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 External Structures of Bacterial Cells

• Fimbriae and Pili

• Fimbriae
• Sticky, bristlelike projections

• Used by bacteria to adhere to one another and to

substances in environment

• Shorter than flagella

• Serve an important function in biofilms

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 Figure 3.10 Fimbriae.
Flagellum Fimbria

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 External Structures of Prokaryotic Cells

• Pili
• Special type of fimbria

• Also known as conjugation pili

• Longer than fimbriae but shorter than flagella

• Bacteria typically only have one or two per cell

• Transfer DNA from one cell to another (conjugation)

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 Figure 3.11 Pili.
Pilus

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 Bacterial Cell Walls

• Provide structure and shape and protect cell from osmotic

forces

• Assist some cells in attaching to other cells or in resisting

antimicrobial drugs
• Can target cell wall of bacteria with antibiotics
• Give bacterial cells characteristic shapes
• Composed of peptidoglycan
• Scientists describe two basic types of bacterial cell walls
• Gram-positive and Gram-negative

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 Figure 3.12 Bacterial shapes and arrangements.

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 Figure 3.13 Possible structure of peptidoglycan.

Sugar
backbone

Tetrapeptide
(amino acid)
crossbridge

Connecting chain
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 Bacterial Cell Walls

• Gram-Positive Bacterial Cell Walls

• Relatively thick layer of peptidoglycan

• Contain unique polyalcohols called teichoic acids

• Appear purple following Gram staining procedure

• Up to 60% mycolic acid in acid-fast bacteria helps cells

survive desiccation

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 Figure 3.14a Comparison of cell walls of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.

Peptidoglycan layer
(cell wall)

Cytoplasmic
membrane

Gram-positive cell wall Lipoteichoic acid

Teichoic acid

Integral
protein

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 Prokaryotic Cell Walls

• Gram-Negative Bacterial Cell Walls

• Have only a thin layer of peptidoglycan

• Bilayer membrane outside the peptidoglycan contains

phospholipids, proteins, and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)

• Lipid A portion of LPS can cause fever, vasodilation,

inflammation, shock, and blood clotting

• May impede the treatment of disease

• Appear pink following Gram staining procedure

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 Figure 3.14b Comparison of cell walls of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.

Porin

Outer Porin
membrane (sectioned)
of cell wall

Peptidoglycan
layer of cell wall Periplasmic space

Cytoplasmic
Gram-negative cell wall membrane

Phospholipid layers
Lipopolysaccharide
(LPS) layer, containing Integral
lipid A proteins

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 Prokaryotic Cell Walls

• Bacteria Without Cell Walls

• A few bacteria lack cell walls

• Often mistaken for viruses due to small size and lack of

cell wall

• Have other features of prokaryotic cells such as

ribosomes

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 Bacterial Cytoplasmic Membranes

• Structure
• Referred to as phospholipid bilayer
• Composed of lipids and associated proteins

• Integral proteins

• Peripheral proteins

• Fluid mosaic model describes current understanding of

membrane structure

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 Figure 3.15 The structure of a prokaryotic cytoplasmic membrane: a phospholipid bilayer.

Head, which
contains phosphate
(hydrophilic)
Phospholipid
Tail
(hydrophobic)

Integral
proteins

Cytoplasm

Integral
protein
Phospholipid
bilayer

Peripheral protein
Integral protein

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 Bacterial Cytoplasmic Membranes

• Function
• Energy storage

• Harvest light energy in photosynthetic bacteria

• Selectively permeable

• Naturally impermeable to most substances

• Proteins allow substances to cross membrane

• Maintain concentration and electrical gradient

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 Figure 3.16 Electrical potential of a cytoplasmic membrane.
Na+
Cl–
Cell exterior (extracellular fluid)
–30
mV

Cytoplasmic membrane

Integral
protein
Protein

DNA

Protein

Cell interior (cytoplasm)

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 Passive Transport: Principles of Diffusion

PLAY Passive Transport: Principles of Diffusion

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 Bacterial Cytoplasmic Membranes

• Function
• Passive processes
• Diffusion

• Facilitated diffusion

• Osmosis

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 Figure 3.17 Passive processes of movement across a cytoplasmic membrane.

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 Figure 3.18 Osmosis, the diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane.

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 Figure 3.19 Effects of isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic solutions on cells.

Cells without a wall

(e.g., mycoplasmas, H2O H2O
animal cells) H2O

Cell wall Cell wall

Cells with a wall H2O H2O H2O

(e.g., plants, fungal
and bacterial cells)

Cell membrane Cell membrane

Isotonic Hypertonic Hypotonic

solution solution solution

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 Passive Transport: Special Types of Diffusion

PLAY Passive Transport: Special Types of Diffusion

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 Prokaryotic Cytoplasmic Membranes

• Function
• Active processes
• Active transport

• Group translocation

• Substance is chemically modified during transport

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 Figure 3.20 Mechanisms of active transport.

Extracellular fluid
Uniport

Cytoplasmic
membrane

ATP
ATP
ADP P
ADP P
Symport
Cytoplasm
Uniport Antiport Coupled transport:
uniport and symport

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 Active Transport: Overview

PLAY Active Transport: Overview

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 Active Transport: Types

PLAY Active Transport: Types

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 Figure 3.21 Group translocation.

Glucose

Extracellular
fluid

PO4

Cytoplasm

Glucose 6-PO4

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© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Cytoplasm of Bacteria

• Cytosol
• Liquid portion of cytoplasm

• Mostly water

• Contains cell's DNA in region called the nucleoid

• Inclusions
• May include reserve deposits of chemicals

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 Figure 3.22 Granules of PHB in the bacterium Azotobacter chroococcum.
Pilus

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 Cytoplasm of Bacteria

• Endospores
• Unique structures produced by some bacteria

• Defensive strategy against unfavorable conditions

• Vegetative cells transform into endospores when

multiple nutrients are limited

• Resistant to extreme conditions such as heat, radiation,

chemicals

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 Figure 3.23 The formation of an endospore.

Cytoplasmic
Steps in Endospore Formation Cell wall membrane

1 DNA is replicated. 5 A cortex of peptidoglycan

is deposited between the Cortex
DNA membranes; meanwhile,
dipicolinic acid and
calcium ions accumulate
within the center of the
Vegetative cell
endospore.

Spore coat
2 DNA aligns along 6 Spore coat forms
the cell’s long axis. around endospore.

Outer
3 Cytoplasmic membrane Forespore 7 Endospore matures: spore coat
invaginates to form completion of spore coat
forespore. and increase in resistance
to heat and chemicals by
unknown process. Endospore

4 Cytoplasmic membrane First 8 Endospore is released from

grows and engulfs membrane original cell.
forespore within a
second membrane.
Vegetative cell’s DNA
disintegrates. Second
membrane

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 Cytoplasm of Prokaryotes

• Nonmembranous Organelles
• Ribosomes
• Sites of protein synthesis
• Composed of polypeptides and ribosomal RNA
• Cytoskeleton
• Composed of three or four types of protein fibers
• Can play different roles in the cell
• Cell division
• Cell shape
• Segregate DNA molecules
• Move through the environment
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 Figure 3.24 A simple helical cytoskeleton.

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 External Structures of Archaea

• Glycocalyces
• Function in the formation of biofilms
• Adhere cells to one another and inanimate objects

• Flagella
• Consist of basal body, hook, and filament
• Numerous differences with bacterial flagella

• Fimbriae and hami

• Many archaea have fimbriae
• Some make fimbria-like structures called hami
• Function to attach archaea to surfaces

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 Figure 3.25 Archaeal hami.
Hamus

Grappling
hook

Prickles

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 Archaeal Cell Walls and Cytoplasmic
Membranes
• Most archaea have cell walls
• Do not have peptidoglycan

• Contain variety of specialized polysaccharides and

proteins

• All archaea have cytoplasmic membranes

• Maintain electrical and chemical gradients

• Control import and export of substances from the cell

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 Figure 3.26 Representative shapes of archaea.

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 Cytoplasm of Archaea

• Archaeal cytoplasm similar to bacterial cytoplasm

• 70S ribosomes

• Fibrous cytoskeleton

• Circular DNA

• Archaeal cytoplasm also differs from bacterial cytoplasm

• Different ribosomal proteins

• Different metabolic enzymes to make RNA

• Genetic code more similar to eukaryotes

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© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
 External Structure of Eukaryotic Cells

• Glycocalyces
• Not as organized as prokaryotic capsules

• Help anchor animal cells to each other

• Strengthen cell surface

• Provide protection against dehydration

• Function in cell-to-cell recognition and communication

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 Eukaryotic Cell Walls and Cytoplasmic
Membranes
• Fungi, algae, plants, and some protozoa have cell walls

• Composed of various polysaccharides

• Cellulose found in plant cell walls

• Fungal cell walls composed of cellulose, chitin, and/or

glucomannan

• Algal cell walls composed of a variety of polysaccharides

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 Figure 3.27 A eukaryotic cell wall.
Cell wall Cytoplasmic membrane

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 Eukaryotic Cell Walls and Cytoplasmic
Membranes
• All eukaryotic cells have cytoplasmic membrane

• Are a fluid mosaic of phospholipids and proteins

• Contain steroid lipids to help maintain fluidity

• Contain regions of lipids and proteins called

membrane rafts

• Control movement into and out of cell

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 Figure 3.28 Eukaryotic cytoplasmic membrane.

Cytoplasmic
membrane

Intercellular
matrix

Cytoplasmic
membrane

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 Figure 3.29 Endocytosis.
Pseudopodium

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© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes

• Flagella
• Structure and arrangement

• Differ structurally and functionally from prokaryotic flagella

• Within the cytoplasmic membrane

• Shaft composed of tubulin arranged to form microtubules

• Filaments anchored to cell by basal body; no hook

• May be single or multiple; generally found at one pole of cell

• Function

• Do not rotate but undulate rhythmically

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 Figure 3.30a-b Eukaryotic flagella and cilia.

Flagellum

Cilia

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 Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes

• Cilia
• Shorter and more numerous than flagella

• Coordinated beating propels cells through their

environment

• Also used to move substances past the surface of the

cell

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 Figure 3.30c Eukaryotic flagella and cilia.

Cytoplasmic membrane

Cytosol

Central pair
microtubules
“9 + 2”
Microtubules arrangement
(doublet)

Cytoplasmic
membrane

Portion
cut away to show
transition area
from doublets
Basal body to triplets and
the end of
central
microtubules

Microtubules
“9 + 0”
(triplet) arrangement
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 Figure 3.31 Movement of eukaryotic flagella and cilia.

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 Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes

• Other Nonmembranous Organelles

• Ribosomes
• Larger than prokaryotic ribosomes (80S versus 70S)
• Composed of 60S and 40S subunits
• Cytoskeleton
• Extensive network of fibers and tubules
• Anchors organelles
• Produces basic shape of the cell

• Made up of tubulin microtubules, actin microfilaments, and

intermediate filaments

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 Figure 3.32 Eukaryotic cytoskeleton.
Microtubule Microfilament
Actin
subunit 7 nm
25 nm
Intermediate filament
Protein 10 nm
Tubulin subunits

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 Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes

• Other Nonmembranous Organelles

• Centrioles and centrosome

• Centrioles play a role in mitosis, cytokinesis, and

formation of flagella and cilia

• Centrosome is region of cytoplasm where centrioles are

found

• Not found in all eukaryotic cells

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 Figure 3.33 Centrosome.
Centrosome (made up of two centrioles)

Microtubules

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 Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes

• Membranous Organelles
• Nucleus
• Often largest organelle in cell
• Contains most of the cell's DNA
• Semiliquid portion called nucleoplasm
• Contains chromatin
• RNA synthesized in nucleoli present in nucleoplasm
• Surrounded by nuclear envelope
• Contains nuclear pores

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 Figure 3.34 Eukaryotic nucleus.

Nucleolus

Nucleoplasm

Chromatin

Nuclear envelope

Two phospholipid
bilayers
Nuclear pores

Rough ER

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 Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes

• Membranous Organelles
• Endoplasmic reticulum

• Netlike arrangement of flattened, hollow tubules

continuous with nuclear envelope

• Functions as transport system

• Two forms

• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)

• Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

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 Figure 3.35 Endoplasmic reticulum.

Membrane-bound
ribosomes
Mitochondrion

Free ribosome

Rough endoplasmic
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. reticulum (SER)
 Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes

• Membranous Organelles
• Golgi body

• Receives, processes, and packages large molecules for

export from cell

• Packages molecules in secretory vesicles that fuse with

cytoplasmic membrane

• Composed of flattened hollow sacs surrounded by

phospholipid bilayer
• Not in all eukaryotic cells
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 Figure 3.36 Golgi body.

Secretory vesicles

Vesicles
arriving
from ER
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 Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes

• Membranous Organelles
• Lysosomes, peroxisomes, vacuoles, and vesicles
• Store and transfer chemicals within cells

• May store nutrients in cell

• Lysosomes contain catabolic enzymes

• Peroxisomes contain enzymes that degrade poisonous

wastes

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 Figure 3.37 Vacuole.

Cell wall

Nucleus

Central vacuole

Cytoplasm

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 Figure 3.38 The roles of vesicles in endocytosis and exocytosis.
Endocytosis
(phagocytosis)
Bacterium

Smooth
endoplasmic
Phagosome reticulum
(food vesicle) (SER)
Vesicle Transport
fuses with a vesicle
lysosome

Lysosome

Phagolysosome
Golgi body

Secretory
vesicle

Exocytosis
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 Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes

• Membranous Organelles
• Mitochondria
• Have two membranes composed of phospholipid bilayer

• Produce most of cell's ATP

• Interior matrix contains 70S ribosomes and circular

molecule of DNA

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 Figure 3.39 Mitochondrion.

Outer membrane
Inner membrane
Crista

Matrix
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Ribosomes
 Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes

• Membranous Organelles
• Chloroplasts

• Light-harvesting structures found in photosynthetic

eukaryotes

• Use light energy to produce ATP

• Have two phospholipid bilayer membranes and DNA

• Have 70S ribosomes

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 Figure 3.40 Chloroplast.

Granum

Stroma

Thylakoid Thylakoid
space
Inner bilayer
membrane
Outer bilayer
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 Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes

• Endosymbiotic Theory

• Eukaryotes formed from union of small aerobic prokaryotes with

larger anaerobic prokaryotes
• Smaller prokaryotes became internal parasites
• Parasites lost ability to exist independently

• Larger cell became dependent on parasites for aerobic ATP

production
• Aerobic prokaryotes evolved into mitochondria
• Similar scenario for origin of chloroplasts
• Theory is not universally accepted

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© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.