Industrial

Ergonomics
Scope of this Tutorial
This tutorial will give Industrial and
Manufacturing Engineers an understanding
of the basic concepts of ergonomics, known
risk factors, methods of analyzing tasks, and
suggested ways of reducing risk in an
industrial or warehousing environment.

Ergonomics is an ‘inexact science’ and the results of some

method analyses can be open to interpretation. However ‘a
little common sense’ goes a long way.
Contents

 What is Ergonomics
 Understanding Ergonomic Risk
 Analyzing & Recognizing Ergonomic Problems
 Reducing the Risk
 Work Station & Tool Check Lists
 New Product Design
What is Ergonomics?
 A study of the relation between
people and their work
environment.

 Is used to prevent injuries and

illnesses associated with the
design of physical work.

 Is used to increase employee

safety and comfort and to
optimize work performance and
quality.
What is Ergonomics?
 The term ‘ergonomics’ comes from the
Greek words ergon (work) and nomos
(law).

 Too often ergonomics is only applied

because of the ‘Law’.

 Ergonomics should be seen as a

‘win/win’ opportunity to improve
productivity and quality while increasing
employee safety and morale.
What is Ergonomics?
 Reactive Ergonomics – is where you
respond to a work place complaint or injury.

 Proactive Ergonomics – is where you

analyze a proposed task at design time to
prevent an injury.

 A real world ergonomics program should

include both analyses. But due to constraints of
time and staffing not every task can or indeed
needs to be analyzed.

 Good work station & tool design will prevent a

lot of problems whatever the task.
What is Ergonomics?

Examples of work requirements that can cause

discomfort, fatigue, injury, and illness are:

 Stretching to reach
 Repeated heavy lifting
 High pinch forces
 Handling objects that are sharp, very hot, or
very cold.
 Working with hands above shoulders
 Long periods of work without a change in
body posture.
What is Ergonomics?

The Goal of Ergonomics

 Is to make the work fit the

operator, not make the operator
fit the work.
What is Ergonomics?
And why do we need it?

Effects on the Operator Effects on the Company

 Fatigue  Poor Quality

 Pain  Absenteeism
 Illness – sprains, back ache, etc  Higher costs
 Low morale  Higher employee turnover &
 Frustration & Irritation training
 Low profits
 Occurance of wastages
What is Ergonomics?
And what is the benefit?

 Higher productivity
 Higher Quality
 Reduced operator injury
 Increased morale
 Greater job satisfaction
 Lower medical & insurance costs
 Reduced lost time
 Lower absenteeism
 Less employee turnover
Understanding Ergonomic Risk

 Physical Activity
 Fatigue
 Physical Exertion
 Fatigue & Recovery
 Overexertion & Cumulative Trauma
 Body Type
Understanding Ergonomic Risk

 It is important to note that occasional exposure to a

risk factor is not usually harmful.

 Significant exposure to a risk factor may be harmful to

sections of the population.

 You can’t specify the physique, age, sex of the operator.

 Ergonomic analysis tools are going to be based on

95% of the working population being able to do the
work.
Understanding Ergonomic Risk
Physical Activity How the Body uses Energy

 Our bodies use energy from the  Internal: Cell Growth: Digestion:
food we eat to meet two kinds of Circulation: Respiration etc.
physical demands.
 Internal demands are the  External: Walking: Lifting:
processes which maintain life and Standing: Exercising: etc
growth within our bodies.
 External demands are the physical
activities which we perform during
our waking hours
Understanding Ergonomic Risk
Fatigue

 If activities exceed our personal limits of stamina or strength (and

this varies from person to person), then two kinds of fatigue may
result

 Localized fatigue:- effects the particular part of the body that is

working, for example the arms.

 Whole – body fatigue occurs when several body parts are over
exerted.
Understanding Ergonomic Risk
Physical Exertion

 Is either dynamic or static.

 Dynamic exertion is where there is visible movement of the

body.

 Static exertion is where the body or part of the body is held in

place.

 Static exertion is often more tiring because the muscles have

no chance to recover.
Understanding Ergonomic Risk
Fatigue and Recovery

 The amount of force you use in an exertion and the

length of the exertion both effect how soon and how
much fatigue will set in.

 Localized fatigue is best relieved by changing

activities to rest working muscle groups or by resting
the working limb.

 Whole body fatigue is best reduced by reducing the

level of body activity or by resting the body.
Understanding Ergonomic Risk
Overexertion

 If an operator works in an activity that exceeds their strength or

stamina, then overexertion injuries and cumulative trauma injuries
are possible.

 Overexertion can cause immediate injuries to muscles, tendons and

ligaments. Such as sprains, strains and tears.

 Cumulative Trauma injuries are of the ‘wear and tear’ type and
include damage to hands, wrists, shoulders, elbow and some back
disorders
Understanding Ergonomic Risk
The working population varies in age, sex, health and size.
In most western countries you can’t specify the age, sex,
fitness or size of the operator.

 Stamina  Proportions
 Strength  Vision
 Height  Hearing
 Weight
Understanding Ergonomic Risk
Risk Factors

 Frequent Hand Use

 Arms Extended
 Bending & Twisting
 Static Body Posture
 Using Force
 Vibration
 Contact Stress
 Temperature
 Noise
 Fatigue
Understanding Ergonomic Risk
Things to consider

 Risk Activities may occur at work, and may occur at home.

Consider the body posture, force requirement and hand grip when
bowling or hanging washing on a line.

 When walking a factory, you can often tell the physically

demanding tasks by the operators performing them. Big, buff,
men! But consider who will get the blame (and cost) for operator
injury if ‘Big Bill’ hurt his back at home, and now has to do his
physically demanding tasks?

 The work has to fit the operator, not the operator the work!
Understanding Ergonomic Risk
Things to consider

 Tasks often have multiple Risk Factors

 To analyze the task, multiple assessments have to be

done to cover Force, Repetition, Posture, Fatigue

 The task time is important. If risk is found, any

proposed solutions must take into account
manufacturing cycle time requirements, and of
course

 COST.
Analyzing Tasks
Recognizing Problems

Ergonomic Analysis Methods

We need to know how much force is involved for each body posture, how
often is it repeated, for how long is it held, how often is the total task
repeated and for how long the task is worked.

 Posture  Fatigue & Recovery

 Force  Employee Survey
 Repetition
Analyzing Tasks
Recognizing Problems

Analyzing a video of the task

is the best way to make
ergonomic analyses of a task
Analyzing Tasks Recognizing Problems

Posture - Constant Use of Hands and Fingers

 Since you obviously can’t

assemble anything without
the use of hands and fingers
we have to be concerned
with the position of the
hands, the type of grip
forces involved, vibration,
pressure, temperature and
the number of repetitions.
 Analyzing Tasks Recognizing Problems
Posture - Constant Use of Hands and Fingers

Exceeding these angles may cause

problems when used in conjunction
with high repetition and/or force.

 Pronation – thumb down, turning

the wrist over 45 degrees

 Supination – thumb out, palm up.

Turning the hand palm up over 20
degrees

 Ulnar Deviation – twisting hand

outwards over 15 degrees
Analyzing Tasks Recognizing Problems

Posture - Constant Use of Hands and Fingers

 Radial Deviation – twisting the

hand inwards over 10 degrees

 Flexation – bending hand forward

over 45 degrees

 Extension – raising hand

backward over 40 degrees
Analyzing Tasks Recognizing Problems
Posture - Constant Use of Hands and Fingers

Tool design is crucial. Tools

need to be designed to:

 Keep the hand in a neutral

posture.

 Minimize forces required to

operate.

 Minimize vibration

 Have padded handles

Analyzing Tasks Recognizing Problems
Posture - Constant Use of Hands and Fingers
 A wrap or power grip is best.

 Pinch forces over 7lbs can cause

injury.

 Hook and contact grasps expose

the operator to the potential of
contact stress with sharp, or hard
objects.

 Using the hand(or any body part)

to strike objects obviously isn’t
recommended, but you do see it,
as an operator ‘slaps’ something
into place.
Analyzing Tasks Recognizing Problems
Posture - Constant Use of Hands and Fingers

 Twisting or Bending of the Wrists – effects the median nerve

passing through the carpal tunnel which can lead to carpal tunnel
syndrome.

 Repetitive Hand & Wrist Motions – effects the tendons passing

through the carpal tunnel which can lead to tendinitis/tenosynovitis.

 Vibration – effects the blood vessels in the fingers which can lead to
Raynaud’s Phenomenon.

 Pinch grips can lead to contact stress and overexertion of the hands.
 Analyzing Tasks Recognizing Problems
Arms and Shoulders

Arms Extended
Working with the arms above
the shoulder can lead to the
compression and entrapment of
nerve in the shoulder. It also
causes fatigue to the muscles of
the shoulder and arm.
 Analyzing Tasks Recognizing Problems
Arms and Shoulders

ARM AND SHOULDER

Working with the elbows
abducted at an angle of 25
degrees or more can lead to
the compression and
entrapment of nerves in the
shoulder. It is also causes
fatigue to the muscles of the
shoulder and arm.
Analyzing Tasks Recognizing Problems
Arms and Shoulders

Horizontal reach over 25 inches

(62.5cm) is greater than the
reach of 5% of the female
population without bending. A
vertical reach of over 70
inches(175cm) is above the
reach of 5% of the female
population
The longer the reach, the
greater effect of any weight
involved. The more off center
the reach, the greater effect of
any weight involved.
 Analyzing Tasks Recognizing Problems
Arms and Shoulders

The best position for

assembly work is with the
arms to the front, elbows
close to the body, at a
vertical height between the
operators chest and thigh.
Moving the arm across the
midline of the body should
be avoided.
Analyzing Tasks Recognizing Problems
Bending and Twisting
 The lower the reach, the greater effect of any weight involved.

 The more off center the reach, the greater effect of any weight involved.
 Analyzing Tasks Recognizing Problems
Bending and Twisting

The risk angles are

leaning more than 5
degrees, twisting more
than 15, and bending
more than 60.

In general twisting, bending

and leaning of the torso should
be avoided. Repetition with
weight in a poor body posture
may cause injury in a
significant percentage of the
population.
Analyzing Tasks Recognizing Problems
Bending and Twisting

Bending & Twisting also

applies to the neck.
In general neck side bending
or held in a twisted position
is to be avoided.

Bending the neck back

further than 5 degrees or
forward further than 20
should also be avoided

Use of head protection such as a

welding mask needs to be accounted for
in any fatigue assessment
Analyzing Tasks Recognizing Problems
Posture

The operator needs to

be in a balanced
posture.
The effects of repetition
and force will be
increased detrimentally
due to poor posture!
Analyzing Tasks Recognizing Problems
Posture

Methods that analyze body posture include:-

 RULA – Rapid Upper Limb Assessment.

 REBA – Rapid Entire Body Assessment.
 NIOSH 91 – Takes Body Posture into Account.

There are other methodologies. The screens shown earlier are based on
RULA.

Note: This tutorial does not explain how to use RULA.

 Analyzing Tasks Recognizing Problems
Posture
.

The task shown here

has two RULA action
level 4’s, meaning that
an immediate change
in method is suggested
Analyzing Tasks Recognizing Problems
Force

 Lifting
 Pushing
 Pulling
 Carrying
 Pinch Force
 Holding in place
Analyzing Tasks Recognizing Problems
Lifting
This screen shows input
 The most frequently for NIOSH91, as well as
used lifting analysis in for the Alpha analysis
the USA is the
NIOSH91 guide.

 This has a maximum

weight of 51 lbs
(23kg)

 It mainly uses weight

and body posture to
determine a lifting
index for the 5%
female.
 Analyzing Tasks Recognizing Problems
Force

 An index of 1 or less
is ideal, but may be
unrealistic. What %
of your workforce
are 5% female

 Some companies are

OK with a 2 or below

 This screen shows

the results of a
NIOSH91 analysis of
a given lift
 Analyzing Tasks Recognizing Problems
Force

 Whilst NIOSH91
focuses on the entire
body, the analysis
shown here gives
results for strength,
fatigue and recovery
by back, shoulder,
elbow and hand.
 A 4 means that 95%
of the working
population can’t do
the task without risk of
injury.
Analyzing Tasks Recognizing Problems
Force

 By using the tools

available you can
see areas of
concern

 Rule of thumb –
as you increase
the weight of a lift
(50 lb max) the
more neutral you
must keep the
body posture.
Analyzing Tasks Recognizing Problems
Force
Note:
The affectivity of safe lifting techniques has been questioned. “Proper
lifting’ is not a substitute for a well engineered work place. Loads that can
be lifted by the legs from a squat can exceed the capacity of the lower back.
Other variables that can effect the degree of difficulty in lifting loads safely
are:
 Size (bulk) of load  Space constraints
 Floor/shoe traction  Available rest between lifts
 Stability of load  Capability of the employee
 Adequacy of grip  skill in handling loads
 Distance to carry  past injuries
Analyzing Tasks Recognizing Problems
Force

Pushing Pulling
 Pushing is better than pulling  Pushing can be split
(less strain on back). into whole body or
 Pushing can be split into whole arms only
body or arms only.  Suggested force limits
 Suggested standing force limits are 24lbf using 2
are 50lbf using 2 hands. hands.
 A 2 wheel manual cart should
not be loaded with >250lb or
114 kg.
 3 or 4 wheel manual cart
should not be loaded with
>500lb or 228kg
Analyzing Tasks Recognizing Problems
Force

Pinch Forces Carrying

 Pinch forces of over  Carrying loads greater
2lbs (1 kilo) are than 50 lbs is to be
generally considered to avoided.
have injury potential  The load should be kept
close and near waist
level
 The load should have
handles
Analyzing Tasks Recognizing Problems
Force

Hold in Place

 Holding a force in place is

very fatiguing as the muscles
don’t get to rest and recover
Analyzing Tasks Recognizing Problems
Force

Repetition

Affects by:

 Causing fatigue if A ‘no significant weight’ assembly task where all

insufficient recovery time parts are under a pound can
still have risk if the repetitions are high
 Compounding the effects
enough.
of force
 Compounding the effects In tasks with a less than 30 second cycle
of poor body posture time, more than 1500-2000 similar hand
motions per hour can lead to injury
Analyzing Tasks Recognizing Problems
Fatigue and Recovery

Localized fatigue can be analyzed

as we have seen with tools like the
Alpha analysis. Whole body fatigue
can be analyzed by using a Kilo
Calorie Analysis or an industrial
engineering tool such as a PF&D
(Personal Fatigue & Delay) analysis
Analyzing Tasks Recognizing Problems
Employee Survey

Don’t ignore the operator. Not only will

they tell you where a task causes
discomfort, but often they have
thought of ways of alleviating it.
 Analyzing Tasks Recognizing Problems
Employee Survey

Compare the results of

your ergonomic analyses
with the survey.
Reducing the Risk
The Basics

Design each work station – follow a checklist

Use ergonomically designed tools – follow a
checklist
Have work instructions and ensure the operator
follows them
Do an analysis of the task
Reducing the Risk
 Constant use of hands & fingers – rotate to jobs where hand use is
lower.

 Arms extended & unsupported – alter the design of the work station
to bring the work closer. Don’t work above shoulders, don’t require
elbow abduction (elbows up).

 Bending & Twisting – reposition the objects to the front of the worker
at an appropriate height

 Using significant force – reduce the weight of the load if possible,

keep the body in neutral postures, use assisted lifts, reduce pinch
forces, use power grips, minimize lift distance.
Reducing the Risk

 Static body posture – alternate between standing and

sitting, rest one foot on a support while standing

 Vibration – isolate body from vibration source, rotate to non

vibrating job, use better designed tools

 Contact Stress – cushion exposed body parts (eg gloves),

pad hard or sharp objects, round or smooth rough edges

 Heat/cold – limit exposure to temperature extremes, provide

heating/cooling systems, provide protective clothing

 Noise – use hearing protection, reduce exposure to high

noise levels.
Reducing the Risk

 Lifting – provide handles, allow large containers to tilt or

have collapsible sides, raise tote bins to appropriate height

 Holding in place – provide clamps or fixtures

Reducing the Risk
But is management going to buy off on it?

 Can you cost justify it?

 Have you made productivity improvements?
 Is the new cycle time better or worse?
 Is that acceptable?
 Reducing the Risk

This solution using a

lifting arm while greatly
reducing the risk has
added 8 seconds to
the cycle time
Does it matter?
Work Station & Tool Check Lists

 The use of work station and tool design check lists will go a long
way in alleviating ergonomic problems.

 If your answers are negative, fix them if possible

 Work Station & Tool Check Lists

 Does the work space

accommodate the smallest
employee reach to the largest
employee clearance?
(No=Bad)
 Are work surfaces and chairs
adjustable? (No=Bad)
 Does the work keep the
operator immobile? (Yes=Bad)
 Requires handling of large
bulky materials regardless of
weight? (Yes=Bad)
 Is the floor slippery?
(Yes=Bad)
 Is matting provided? (No=Bad)
Work Station & Tool Check Lists
 Does the work require eye
focus at differing
distances? (yes=bad)
 Is lighting adequate?
(no=bad)
 Are noise levels less than
85 dbA for ambient and
less than 140 dbA for
impact? (no=bad)
 Is humidity in the range 20
to 85? (no=bad)
 Is temperature in the range
of 66-79F for light work,
64-74F for medium and
60-68F for heavy?
(no=bad)
 Are there peak loads
of muscular effort?
(yes=bad)
 Frequent or extreme
lifting requirements?
(yes=bad)
 Excessive pushing,
pulling or carrying?
(yes=bad)
 Is material manually
moved over long
distances? (yes=bad)
 Are there extended
reaches? (yes=bad)
 Could loads be reduced
by using more frequent,
lighter loads?
 Can Lifting Aids be
used?
 Can the lifting be
replaced by sliding?
 Are hand holds or
handles available?
(No=Bad)
 Does the job exceed the
capabilities of most
employees? (Yes=Bad)
 Is the operator working with
the neck bent further than 15-
20 degrees? (Yes=Bad)
 Are the wrists bent or flexed?
(Yes=Bad)
 Are there twisting motions of
the wrist? (Yes=Bad)
 Are the arms outstretched?
(Yes=Bad)
 Is the work required above
the shoulder? (Yes=Bad)
 Are most reaches to the front
of the operator? (No=Bad)
Work Station & Tool Check Lists
 Is the body leaning
forward? (Yes=Bad)
 Is there excessive twisting
or stretching? (Yes=Bad)
 What are the cycle time
requirements of the task?
 Is this a high volume task?
 Is the operator sweating?
Having problems keeping
up? (Yes=Bad)
 Would you like to do this
task? Every day? (No=Bad)
 Could you do this task?
Every day? (No=Bad)
Work Station & Tool Check Lists

 Is this the right tool for the

task? (no=bad)
 Has wrist flexing been
eliminated? (no=bad)
 Can the tool be used in either
hand? (no=bad)
 Are operator’s elbows close to
the body? (no=bad)
 Are dual handles 120 degrees
apart? (no=bad)
 Does it permit a full grasp?
(no=bad)
 Is the handle long enough?
(no=bad)
 Is it easy to hold? (no=bad)
 Work Station & Tool Check Lists
Tool Design

 Is the handle oval shaped?

(no=bad)

 Does it have plastic on it ?

(no=bad)

 Are all the fingers used to

trigger it? (no=bad)

 If not, is the thumb?

(no=bad)

 Is it easy to trigger?
(no=bad)

 Has vibration been

minimized? (no=bad)