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Integrated Module - Class X

(For CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads)

SCIENCE
PHYSICS
Module-1
Edition: 2020-21
Contents
CHAPTER NO. TOPIC PAGE NO.

1. Light : Reflection and Refraction


Level-I ................................................................................ 01 – 38
Level-II ............................................................................... 39 – 58

2. Human Eye and Colourful World


Level-I ................................................................................ 59 – 78
Level-II ............................................................................... 79 – 90

3. Electricity
Level-I .............................................................................. 91 – 116
Level-II ........................................................................... 117 – 128

4. Magnetic Effects of Electric Current


Level-I ............................................................................ 129 – 152
Level-II ........................................................................... 153 – 168

5. Sources of Energy
Level-I ............................................................................ 169 – 190
Level-II ........................................................................... 191 – 200

Additional Topics for NTSE (Stage-I)


(For some states only - as per their syllabus)

1. Heat ................................................................................... 201 – 208

2. Magnetism and Matter ....................................................... 209 – 216

Answers ........................................................................... .........217 – 221


Chapter-1
Light : Reflection and Refraction

Level-I
(For CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads)
Light :
CHAPTER 1
Reflection and Refraction THIS CHAPTER INCLUDES
z Properties of Light
z Propagation of Light
z Reflection of Light
You may be light-hearted, you can make light of things, bring ¾ Laws of Reflection
secrets to light. You can see the light and achieve enlightenment. But ¾ Reflection at Plane Surfaces
what is light? The dictionary definition is “something that makes ¾ Uses of Plane mirrors
things visible or affords illumination,” a vague and unsatisfying z Spherical Mirror

definition that circles around like a dog chasing its own tail. ¾ Reflection at Spherical Mirror (Laws of
Image Formation)
Physicists define light as electromagnetic radiation - a travelling
¾ Image Formation by a Concave Mirror
energy wave.
¾ Image Formation by a Convex Mirror
Light itself is invisible but it helps us to see the beautiful world ¾ Sign Convention for Reflection by
around us. The bright colour of flowers, butterflies, feathers of a Spherical Mirrors
¾ Mirror Formula
peacock, the rainbow, the blue colour of the sky, the reddish colour
¾ Magnification
of the sunrise and sunset and spectacular beauty of nature. To
z Refraction of Light
understand this, let us take a step forward by studying “Light :
¾ Laws of Refraction
Reflection and Refraction”. The branch of physics which deals with
¾ Absolute Refractive Index (n)
the nature of light, its sources, properties, effects and vision is called
¾ Simple Effects of Refraction
optics. In this chapter, we shall deal with light as wave and study the
¾ Refraction Through a Rectangular Glass Slab
phenomenon of reflection and refraction of light using straight line
z Spherical Lenses
propagation of light.
¾ Refraction by Spherical Lenses
¾ Different Types of Lens
¾ Laws of Image Formation by Spherical Lens

Light ¾ Lens Formula and Magnification


and ¾ Power of a Lens

Optics z Quick Recap


z Assignment

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2 Light : Reflection and Refraction Physics - Class X (Level-I)

PROPERTIES OF LIGHT
™ It is a non-mechanical wave as it doesn’t require any medium to travel.
™ Visible light (that enables us to see) has a very small wavelength i.e., it lies in the range of 400-700 nm.
™ Speed of light in vacuum is 299,792,458 m/s (approx. 3 × 108 m/s).
™ It is a transverse, electromagnetic wave.

DO YOU KNOW?
How fast does light travel?
About 186,000 miles per second (300,000 km/s), so light from the sun takes about 8 minutes 20 second
to travel 93 million miles (149 million km) to reach earth. If you drive to the sun at 60 mph (100 km/h), it
would take you 171.2 years to reach there! Light can go around the earth 7 times in 1 second.

A car would take 171.2 years.

Light only takes 8 minutes 20 second

Earth Sun

PROPAGATION OF LIGHT
It travels along straight line. Its path changes only when something comes in its path or when there is a change
of medium. This is called rectilinear propagation of light. Light that originates from a point P and passes
through another point Q in the same medium actually passes through all the points on the straight line PQ.
This straight line path of light is called a ray of light. A bundle of light rays is called a beam of light.

P Q
(i) (ii)
Fig.: (i) A ray of light, (ii) A beam of light

Note : A ray of light is an idealisation. In reality, we have a narrow beam of light which is made up of
several rays. For simplicity, we use the term ray for a narrow beam of light.

REFLECTION OF LIGHT
Reflection is defined as the bouncing back of light rays into the same medium when these rays strikes on a
surface or on a boundary separating two media.
When light from the sun and other sources like bulb, tube light etc. falls on the surface of objects like wall
of our house, book, table, black board, glass sheet, mirror, tree etc., it may be absorbed, transmitted or
reflected depending upon nature of the medium.
e.g. A black board appears black because most of light incident on it is absorbed by it.
An object that allows light to pass through it is called transparent medium.
e.g. Ordinary glass sheet transmits most of light falling on it so it appears transparent.
But some surfaces reflect most of the light falling on them and are called reflecting surfaces.
e.g. A polished silver mirror reflects light falling on it.
An object that does not allow light to pass through it is known as opaque medium e.g., stone, metal sheets etc.

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Light : Reflection and Refraction 3
DO YOU KNOW?
The wave nature of light can be understand by the fact that a small source of light casts a sharp shadow
of an opaque object indicates that light travels in straight line, if an opaque object on the path of light
becomes very small, light has a tendency to bend around it and not to walk in a straight line. As it has
the properties of a wave, we can talk about its wavelength and frequency. The light that our eyes can
see - The visible spectrum is a narrow band of wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum, which also
includes radiowaves, X-rays, ultraviolet light and infrared radiation. But the wave theory of light often
becomes inadequate for treatment of the interaction of light with matter, and light often behaves some
what like a stream of particles. This confusion about the nature of light (wave or stream of particles)
continued for some years till a modern quantum theory of light emerged. The new theory resolved the
particle properties of light with the wave nature.

Some Important Definitions


™ Incident Ray : The ray of light which strikes any surface is called incident ray.
™ Point of incidence : It is the point at which incident ray falls on the reflecting surface.
™ Reflected ray : The ray of light which is bounced back by any reflecting surface is called reflected ray.
™ Normal : It is line drawn perpendicular to the reflecting surface at the point of incidence.
™ Angle of incidence : Angle made by incident ray with the normal at the point of incidence. It is represented
by i.
™ Angle of reflection : Angle made by reflected ray with the normal at the point of incidence. It is represented
by r.
™ Object : Anything which gives out light either by itself or after reflection from it is said to be an object.
For example: a candle, tube light, sun, moon, table, chair etc.
™ Point object : A very small object like pin head is a point object and is represented by a dot (.).
™ Extended object : Large objects like car, bus, candle etc. are called extended objects and are represented
by an arrow ().
™ Image : There are two types of images viz. real image and virtual image.
™ Real image is an image formed by the actual intersection of light rays. It can be obtained on the screen.
e.g. - The image formed on cinema screen i.e., the image formed by a projector.
™ Virtual image : If the rays of light responsible for an image formation do not intersect actually but appears
to meet at some point, then the image is called a virtual image. It cannot be obtained on the screen.
e.g. - The image formed by a plane mirror of a real object is virtual.
™ Plane mirror : A plane glass sheet having a thin layer of silver metal deposited on one side which is
protected by a coat of red paint. The light is reflected from silvered surface of the plane mirror. A plane
mirror and its schematic representation are shown in the following figure.
M1

Reflecting surface
Polished surface

M2
Schematic representation of plane mirror

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4 Light : Reflection and Refraction Physics - Class X (Level-I)

ZONE

“Good morning, and welcome to The Wonders of Physics”

Laws of Reflection

Consider a ray of light incident on a plane mirror at an angle i with normal. The ray gets reflected at an angle
r with the normal, as shown in figure. Following are the two laws of reflection.

Normal

y
In

ra
ci
de

ed
nt

ct

i r
fle
ra

Re
y

Point of incidence
M M
Boundary

(i) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
(ii) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. That is i = r.
These laws of reflection are applicable to all types of reflecting surfaces including spherical surfaces.
Whenever a parallel beam of light falls on a reflecting surface, a part of it is reflected from the surface of the
medium. However the direction of the reflected rays depends upon nature of the surface. On the basis of
reflecting surface there are two kinds of reflections.
(i) Regular reflection : When all parallel rays of light reflected from a plane smooth surface (like mirror) are
parallel, the reflection is known as regular reflection. It helps in the formation of image and hence we can
see our face in a mirror.

i r i r i r

(Mirror) M M
Regular reflection
(ii) Diffused or Irregular reflection : When all the parallel rays reflected from a rough or uneven surface are
not parallel, the reflection is known as diffused or irregular reflection.

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Light : Reflection and Refraction 5

r
i r i
i r

Irregular reflection
Diffused reflection does not give rise to image formation. It takes place from walls, stones, trees etc. It
helps to spread light over a vast area and hence helps in general illumination. We can say that, non-
luminous objects become visible due to irregular reflection of light.
Diffused reflection is not due to the failure of laws of reflection but due to irregularities in the reflecting
surface.

Reflection at Plane Surfaces


In case of reflection at plane surface such as plane mirror :
1. The image formed by a plane mirror is always erect, virtual, of same size and is at the same distance
behind the mirror as the object is in front of it. The figure given below shows the formation of image (AB)
of an object AB by a plane mirror M1M2.
M1

B B
AB Object
i AB Image
A d r d A

Mirror
M2
2. Image formed by a plane mirror is the front back reversal of the object i.e., left handed objects look like
right handed objects and vice versa in their image. It is called lateral inversion. It is shown in the figure
given below.

FAX
3. Though every part of a mirror forms a complete image of an object, we usually see only that part of it from
which light after reflection from mirror reaches our eye.

Uses of Plane Mirrors


Plane mirrors are commonly used
1. By barbers to show the customer the backside of his head.
2. As reflector in a solar cooker.
3. By the opticians to provide false dimension, when their place of work is very small.
4. For providing false dimension in show cases, displaying jewellery, wrist watches etc.
5. For making kaleidoscope, periscope etc.
6. For signalling by the scouts and the army personnel.

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Example 1 :

A plane mirror is inclined at an angle  with horizontal as shown in figure.


If a ray incident from 10° above horizontal becomes vertical after reflection
from this mirror, then find . 10°

Solution : 

According to laws of reflection,


i = r
10°
From the figure,
90°
(90° – ) + 10° =   i
 r
 2 = 100° 90°
 = 50°

Try Yourself
1. The laws of reflection are applicable for
(1) Regular reflection

(2) Diffused reflection

(3) Both (1) & (2)

(4) Glass slab


2. Consider the figure shown. The reflected ray is perpendicular to the incident ray. Angle of
incidence for the ray is
(1) 30°
(2) 45°
(3) 60°
(4) 75°
3. Two plane mirrors are placed parallel to each other as shown in the figure. There is an object O
placed between the mirrors, at 10 cm from mirror M2. What are the distances of first two images
formed by M2 from M2?

M1 M2

O
10 cm

20 cm
(1) 5 cm, 30 cm (2) 10 cm, 10 cm
(3) 10 cm, 30 cm (4) 10 cm, 20 cm
[Ans. 1(3), 2(2), 3(3)]

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Light : Reflection and Refraction 7

ZONE
If it wasn’t for Thomas Alva Edison, we’d all be watching TV to the light of a candle.

SPHERICAL MIRROR

It is simply a piece cut out of a glass sphere whose either of the side is made reflecting. The reflecting surface of a
spherical mirror may be inwards or outwards.

Concave mirror : A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is curved inwards, facing towards the centre of the
sphere is called concave mirror. It is represented by the following figure.

Polished
Reflecting surface
surface

Convex mirror : A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is bulging (or curved) outwards, opposite to the
centre of the sphere is called convex mirror.

Reflecting Polished
surface surface

Opaque Opaque

Convex mirror Concave mirror

A spherical mirror can be thought of as being made of a portion cut off from a hollow glass sphere

Consider the following important terms regarding spherical mirrors :

Centre of Curvature (C ) : It is the centre of hollow sphere of glass, of which the spherical mirror is a part.

Radius of Curvature (R) : It is the radius of hollow sphere of glass, of which the spherical mirror is a part.

Pole (P) : It is the geometric centre of the reflecting surface of the spherical mirror.

Principal Axis : It is the line joining the centre of curvature and the pole of the mirror.
M Principal M
axis
C F F C
P P
(Pole)
M1 M1

R R
Concave Mirror Convex Mirror

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Aperture (d ) : It is the effective diameter of the light reflecting area of the mirror. Intensity of image formed
by a spherical mirror is proportional to the area of its aperture.

M M

d d

M1 M1
2
d
I
4
 I  d2
 I  (aperture)2
Principal Focus (F ) : If rays close and parallel to the principal axis are incident on a spherical mirror, then after
reflection they pass or seem to come from a point on the principal axis. This point is called as the principal focus.
r
i
i
r
P
C F P F C

Focal Length : It is the distance from the pole (P) of the mirror to the principal focus (F ) of the mirror. Focal
R
length of a spherical mirror is half of the radius of curvature of the mirror i.e., f  and it is independent of
2
the nature of medium in which the mirror is placed.

Note : Laws of reflection also hold for curved reflecting surfaces.

i r i r

P P

Convex surface Concave surface


i = r i = r

Reflection at Spherical Mirror (Laws of Image Formation)

In case of reflection at spherical surfaces such as spherical mirrors (concave mirror and convex mirror) :
1. A ray initially parallel to principal axis and close to it, after reflection, passes or appears to pass through the
principal focus.
(from law of reflection i.e., i = r and by definition of focus)

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N r
Normal
i i
r

C F P P F C

Concave mirror Convex mirror

2. A ray initially passing or appearing to pass through the principal focus, after reflection, becomes parallel
to the principal axis (by the principle of reversibility i.e., after any number of reflections if the direction of
light ray is reversed, it retraces its whole path).

i
r r
i

C F P P F C

Concave mirror Convex mirror

3. A ray initially passing or appearing to pass through the centre of curvature, after reflection, retraces its path.

C P P C

Concave mirror Convex mirror

Image Formation by a Concave Mirror


Following figures show image formation by a concave mirror for the different positions of an object. The
intersection of at least two reflected rays gives the position of image of the object.

M A M
A
A
h
C h C B
P
F B P B F

At
M1 v infinity M1
u
R
f
(1) (2)
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10 Light : Reflection and Refraction Physics - Class X (Level-I)

M M
A
A
B C B
P P
B F B C F

A A
M1 M1
(3) (4)

M M
A

B P
B P F B P
C F
C F C
A
From A
infinity
M1
M1
(5) (6a) (6b)

Following table summarises the nature of image formed for different cases shown in the figures here :

S.No Position of object Position of image Size of image Nature of image

1 Between pole P and focus F Behind the mirror Enlarged Virtual and erect

2 At focus F At infinity Highly enlarged Real and inverted

3 Between F and centre of curvature C Beyond C Enlarged Real and inverted

4 At C At C Same size as object Real and inverted

5 Beyond C Between F and C Diminished Real and inverted

At infinity - Incident rays parallel


6(a) At F Point sized Real and inverted
to principal axis.
At infinity - Incident rays not parallel
6(b) At F Highly diminished Real and inverted
to principal axis.

Note : Concave mirror can form either real or virtual image depending on where the object is placed.

Image Formation by a Convex Mirror


Following figures show image formation by a convex mirror for different positions of an object.
G
M M
A

h A
h C
B C
P B F P F

u
M1 M1
From
v infinity
f
R
(1) (2)

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Light : Reflection and Refraction 11
Following table summarises the nature of image formed for different cases shown in the figures here :

S.No Position of object Position of image Size of image Nature of image

1 Anywhere between infinity and Behind the mirror between P and F Diminished Virtual and erect
the pole P of the mirror

2 At infinity Behind the mirror at focus F Highly diminished Virtual and erect

Note : Convex mirror forms only virtual image of real object.

Sign Convention for Reflection by Spherical Mirrors

A y

x
B C F P

1. The object (as the object AB in the figure) is always placed to the left of the mirror which implies that
the light from the object falls on the mirror from the left of the mirror.
2. All the distances parallel to the principal axis are measured from the pole.
3. The distances measured along the direction of incident rays are taken as positive and that opposite to
the direction of incident rays are taken as negative, as shown in the figures given below.
4. All the distances measured perpendicular to and above the principal axis are taken as positive, and those
below the principal axis are taken negative, as shown in the figure below.
light +ve +ve
light

ve P +ve –ve P +ve

Mirror Mirror
ve ve
5. Focal length of a concave mirror is taken as negative, while for a convex mirror it is taken as positive.

Mirror Formula
The distance of the object from the pole of a spherical mirror is called the object distance (u) and the distance
of the image from the pole of the mirror is called the image distance (v).
The relationship between object distance (u), image distance (v) and focal length (f) is known as mirror formula.

u
A v
f
i
B
P
B C F
r
A

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12 Light : Reflection and Refraction Physics - Class X (Level-I)

1 1 1
 
f v u
This formula is called mirror formula, and is applicable for both concave and convex mirrors.

Magnification
Magnification (m) of a spherical mirror is defined as the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the
object. Its magnitude indicates how many times the size of the image is as compared to that of the object
and its sign indicates whether it is erect or inverted. Positive sign indicates an erect image and negative sign
indicates an inverted image.

height of the image  h  v


m  
height of the object  h  u

Important points about Spherical Mirrors


You should remember the following important points while dealing with the spherical mirrors.
(i) As an object is held in front of a spherical mirror, the distance of the object (u) is always negative.
(ii) The real image is formed in front of the mirror. So its distance (v) is taken as negative.
(iii) The virtual image is formed at the back of the mirror. So its distance (v) is taken as positive.
(iv) Focal length of concave mirror is considered as negative.
(v) Focal length of convex mirror is considered as positive.
(vi) When image formed is virtual and erect, magnification is positive.
(vii) When image formed is real and inverted, magnification is negative.
(viii) The height of the object is taken to be positive as the object is usually placed above the principal axis.
(ix) The height of the image should be taken as positive for virtual images while, it is taken as negative for real
images.

Uses of Spherical Mirrors


Concave mirror is used :
(i) As a reflector in search lights, head lights of motor vehicles to get powerful parallel beams of light. It is
also used in telescope, solar cookers etc.
(ii) In ophthalmoscope for reflecting light on to the retina of the eye.
(iii) As a shaving mirror, make-up mirror as it can form erect and magnified image.
(iv) By dentists to see large images of the teeth of patients.
Convex mirror is used :
As rear-view mirror in automobiles (like cars, trucks and buses) to see the traffic at the back side. Such a
mirror is preferred because it has a much wider field of view as compared to plane mirror or a concave mirror
and always produces an erect image.

Example 2 :

The focal length of a concave mirror is 30 cm. Find position of an object in front of the mirror, so that its
real image is three times the size of the object.
Solution :
For real image
v
m  3 (given)
u
or v = 3u

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Light : Reflection and Refraction 13
So from mirror formula,
1 1 1
 
v u f
1 1 1
or   (as focal length for concave mirror is –ve)
3u u 30
so u = – 40 cm
i.e., object must be at a distance of 40 cm in front of the mirror.

Note : Observe that u = 40 cm, this implies that the object is between F and C as f = 30 cm. So, from
our knowledge of 6 cases of concave mirror, we know that when an object is placed between F
and C, a real and inverted enlarged image is formed. This agrees with the given data, so we know
our answer is correct.

Example 3 :
Find the position and nature of the image of an object of height 3 cm, when placed 60 cm from a convex
mirror of focal length 15 cm.
Solution :
Here u = – 60 cm
v=?
f = + 15 cm
So from mirror formula,

1 1 1
 
v u f
1 1 1
  
v  60  15
1 1 1
    v = + 12 cm
v 60 15

v 12 1
and m    
u  60 5
size of image 1
so size of object  m  5

3 cm
or size of image =  0.6 cm.
5

i.e., virtual and erect image of size 0.6 cm will be formed at a distance of 12 cm behind the mirror.

Example 4 :
An image Y is formed of a point object X by a mirror whose principal axis is AB as shown. Draw a ray diagram
to locate the mirror and its focus.
X

A B

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14 Light : Reflection and Refraction Physics - Class X (Level-I)

Solution :

X N
F I
A P C B

Steps :
(i) From Y drop a perpendicular on the principal axis AB, such that YI = IN.
(ii) Draw a line joining points N and X so that it meets the principal axis AB at P. The point P will be the
pole of the mirror.
(iii) As the image Y of object X is real, inverted and enlarged, the mirror must be concave.
(iv) Join YX and extend it towards the mirror. It represents a light ray which after striking the mirror is reflected
along the same path. Therefore the point C where YX intersect the axis AB, is the centre of curvature of
the mirror. Taking C as centre and CP as radius, draw the arc of the circle. This arc represents the concave
mirror.
(v) The midpoint of CP is the focus F, since 2f = R.

Try Yourself
4. An object is placed at a distance 2f from the pole of a convex mirror of focal length f. The
magnification is
1 2
(1) (2)
3 3
3
(3) (4) 1
4
5. A concave mirror of focal length 20 cm produces an image twice the height of the object. If the
image is real, then the distance of the object from the mirror is
(1) 20 cm (2) 60 cm
(3) 10 cm (4) 30 cm
6. If the image of an object formed by a concave mirror is inverted and smaller than the object, then
(1) u < 2f (2) u > 2f
(3) u  2f (4) u = 2f
7. A concave mirror of focal length 18 cm forms an erect image, three times the size of the object.
How far is the object from the mirror?
(1) 36 cm (2) 18 cm
(3) 15 cm (4) 12 cm
8. A point object is placed at a distance of 30 cm from a convex mirror of focal length 30 cm. The
image will be formed at
(1) Pole (2) Infinity
(3) 15 cm behind the mirror (4) 15 cm in front of the mirror
[Ans. 4(1), 5(4), 6(2), 7(4), 8(3)]

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Light : Reflection and Refraction 15
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
1. Refraction is the phenomenon in which direction of propagation of light changes (as shown in the figure)
when it passes from one transparent medium to another. This is because, the speed of light is different
in different media.
Normal

Inc
ide
i

nt
ray
Medium 1
Boundary Medium 2
(Interface of medium 1
and medium 2) r

Ref
ract
ed r
ay
2. Optically rarer medium is that medium in which speed of light is more.
3. Optically denser medium is that medium in which speed of light is less.

Note : Greater the difference in speed of light in two media, greater will be the bending of refracted light.

Laws of Refraction
Following are the two laws of refraction :
1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
2. The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to sine of angle of refraction is a constant, for the light of a given
colour and given pair of media. This is known as Snell’s law of refraction. If i is the angle of incidence
and r is the angle of refraction, then

sin i
 constant  n21
sin r

Normal
i
Air (Medium 1)
Glass (Medium 2)
r

This constant value n21 is the optical property of the two media and is called refractive index of
medium 2 with respect to medium 1. If the first medium is air, then n21 is called absolute refractive index
or simply refractive index of medium 2. It is then simply denoted as n.

Absolute Refractive Index (n)


Let us discuss more about refractive index of a medium.
1. It is defined as the ratio of speed of light in air or vacuum to the speed of light in the medium.
2. As for light in free space c = f 0 (here f = frequency and 0 = wavelength of light in free space) and in a
medium v = f  (here f = frequency and  = wavelength of the light in the medium) so

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16 Light : Reflection and Refraction Physics - Class X (Level-I)

c 0
n 
v 
speed of light in air or vacuum (c ) wavelength of light in air or vacuum ( 0 )
Thus, n  
speed of light in medium (v ) wavelength of light in medium ( )
3. For a given light, denser is the medium, lesser will be the speed of light and so greater will be the refractive
index.
as, vglass < vwater, nglass > nwater
Refractive index of a medium w.r.t. air or vacuum is called its absolute refractive index.
Table : Absolute Refractive Indices of some material media

Material Refractive Material Refractive


Medium index (n) Medium index (n)

Air 1.0003 Rock salt 1.54


Water 1.33 Dense flint glass 1.65
Ice 1.31 Ruby 1.71
Alcohol 1.36
Diamond 2.42
Kerosene 1.44
Fused Quartz 1.46
Crown glass 1.52

Note : An optically denser medium may not possess greater mass density. For example kerosene having
higher refractive index is optically denser than water though it floats on water.

Example 5 :
The refractive index of glass is 1.5. Find speed of light in the glass.
Solution :
As we know
c
n
v
3  10 8
or 1.5 
v
so v = 2 × 108 m/s

Refractive index of one medium w.r.t. other (Relative Refractive Index)


Consider a ray of light travelling from medium 1 into medium 2, as shown in the given figure. If v1 is the speed
of light in medium 1 and v2 is the speed of light in medium 2, then the refractive index of medium 2 with respect
to medium 1 (n21) is given by

v1 i
(Medium 1)
(Medium 2)
r
v2

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Speed of light in medium 1 (v1 )
n21  ...(i)
Speed of light in medium 2 (v 2 )

And the refractive index of medium 1 with respect to medium 2 (n12) is given by

Speed of light in medium 2 (v 2 )


n12  ...(ii)
Speed of light in medium 1 (v1 )

It is clear from equations (i) and (ii), we have

1
n21 
n12

If medium 1 is air or vacuum, and medium 2 is glass, then refractive index of glass w.r.t. air (nga) is called
absolute refractive index of glass.

1
nga 
nag

e.g. Refractive index of glass w.r.t. air is 1.5, then refractive index of air w.r.t. glass is given by nag.

1 1
 nag    0.66
nga 1.5

Example 6 :

The refractive index of diamond is 2.42 and that of glass is 1.52. How much faster does light travel in glass
than in diamond?

Solution :
We have,
c
n
v
where c  Speed of light in air or vacuum.
v  Speed of light in medium.
Refractive index of diamond, n1 = 2.42, Refractive index of glass, n2 = 1.52. v1 and v2 are the speeds of light
in diamond and glass respectively.
Then,
c
n1 v1 v 2
 
n2 c v1
v2

v 2 2.42
or   1.59  1.6
v 1 1.52
Thus, v2 = 1.6 times the speed of light in diamond.

Note : The absolute refractive index of any medium can never be smaller than 1, because if n < 1, then
c
 1 and hence c becomes less than v, which is not possible.
v

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Conditions for no refraction


1. If light is incident normally on a boundary (i = 0).
From Snell’s law
sin i sin0 n2
 n21   n1
sin r sin r n1 Medium 1
 n1sin 0° = n2sin r Medium 2
or sin r = 0 or r = 0° n2

So, light ray in the second medium will pass undeviated at the boundary.
2. If the refractive indices of two media are equal (n1 = n2),

i
n1 = n
n2 = n
r=i

From Snell’s law,


n1sin i = n2 sin r
or nsin i = nsin r
or i = r
So, light ray in the second medium will pass undeviated at the boundary.

Bending of light ray


According to Snell’s law
sin i
n21 
sin r
n2 sin i
 
n1 sin r
n1sini = n2sinr
Case 1 : If light passes from rarer to denser medium (i.e., air to water or air to glass) then
sin i n2
 1 (as n2 > n1)
sin r n1 i n1
so, sin i > sin r
n2
or ( i) > ( r) r
So light ray bends towards the normal.
Case 2 : If light passes from denser to rarer medium. (i.e, from water to air or glass to air) then

i
n1
n2
r

sin i n2
 1 (As n1 > n2)
sin r n1
So sin i < sin r
or (i) < (r)
So, light ray bends away from the normal.

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Example 7 :
4 3
Refractive index of water and glass are and w.r.t. air or vacuum respectively. Find the refractive index
3 2
of glass w.r.t. water.

Solution :
3 4
Given that nga   1.5, nwa   1.33
2 3
nga 1.5
 ngw    1.13
nwa 1.33

Try Yourself
9. On entering in an optically rarer medium from an optically denser medium
(1) Speed of light increases
(2) Speed of light decreases
(3) Frequency of light increases
(4) Wavelength of light decreases
10. When light travels obliquely from glass to air
(1) It proceeds undeviated
(2) It bends towards the normal at the point of incidence
(3) It bends away from the normal at the point of incidence
(4) It is reflected back for all angle of incidence

 4
11. A ray of light of red colour travelling in air enters into water n   , its colour will become/remain
 3
(1) Red
(2) Blue
(3) Yellow
(4) Green

4 3
12. Refractive indices of water and glass are and respectively. A light ray travelling in water is
3 2
incident on water-glass interface at 30°. The angle of sine of angle of reflection is

4 8
(1) (2)
9 9

9 2
(3) (4)
16 3

13. If the refractive indices of alcohol and benzene with respect to air are 1.36 and 1.50 respectively,
then the refractive index of benzene with respect to alcohol is
(1) 1.10 (2) 1.20
(3) 0.90 (4) 1.00

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14. Which of the following rays, as shown in figure, represents the phenomenon of refraction correctly?
A
Air

I II III IV

Glass B

(1) I (2) II
(3) III (4) IV
[Ans. 9(1), 10(3), 11(1), 12(1), 13(1), 14(3)]

Simple Effects of Refraction

(i) A stick appears bent and short when immersed obliquely in water
Consider a stick AC, immersed obliquely in water, such that part AB of the stick is within water. Consider a
point A on the tip of the stick. A beam coming from it, after refraction will bend away from the normal and
reaches the eyes.Thus, the rays appear to come from point A1, which is above A.
This is true for any other point between A and B. Thus, on the whole, the stick appears bent and short within
water. However, it appears magnified because the image is formed closer to the eyes.
Eye

A1

Water
A

(ii) The bottom of a beaker filled with water appears raised


Take an empty beaker and place in it a fifty paisa coin. Cover the sides of the beaker with paper and move
away from it, till the coin is just out of your line of sight. Let somebody pour water in the beaker, gently. It is
observed that the coin becomes visible after some time.

O O

The reason for the above observation is that rays of light diverging from the coin, on emerging out of water,
suffer refraction, and hence, bend away from the normal. When these refracted rays reach the eye, then to
the eye they appear to come from point I, which is above O. Thus, the coin appears raised and the bottom
of the beaker appears shallow when filled with water.
For the same reason, a stamp placed under a glass block appears raised and a swimming pool appears
shallow, when filled with water.

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Refraction Through a Rectangular Glass Slab
Fix a white paper on a board. Place a transparent slab in the middle and draw its boundary. Draw a line RP
that meets one of the boundaries at P. Fix two pins A, B vertically on this line such that the separation
between the pins is about 10 cm. Now, look at the image of these pins from the other side of the slab and
insert a pin C such that 3 pins come in a straight line i.e., the images of A and B appear just behind C. Now
insert another pin D (about 10 cm from C) such that 4 pins come in straight line. Remove the pins and join
the points where C and D were inserted. Extend it to meet the boundary at Q. Join PQ. RP, PQ and QD
respectively represent the directions of the incident ray, refracted ray and the emergent ray.

R
A

B
P

R
R A
i
B
A P B
P
r
r
Q Q
D C C
r D
S S
(a) (b)
Let us consider a ray RP travelling through air be incident on the upper surface of a rectangular glass slab
at point P. After refraction, it moves along PQ within the slab. On reaching the lower surface of the glass slab,
it gets refracted again as it re-enters to air. Figure (b) shows the cross-section of the slab and ray’s path.
If refractive index of the material of the slab is n, then
sin i
n (Applying Snell’s law at interface AB)
sin r
sini = nsinr …(i)
For the surface CD, PQ is the incident ray and QS is the refracted ray. Normals to AB and CD are parallel
as AB || CD.
 PQ makes an angle r with the normal at Q i.e., angle of incidence at Q = r. Let the angle of refraction be r.
Here, glass is the first medium and air is the second medium.
sin r 1
  …(ii) (Applying Snell’s law at CD)
sin r  n
or sinr  = nsinr …(iii)
From equations (i) and (iii), we get
sini = sinr 
 i = r
 The ray QS is parallel to the ray RP.
When a light ray passes through a transparent slab with parallel faces, the ray is displaced parallel to itself.

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22 Light : Reflection and Refraction Physics - Class X (Level-I)

ZONE
Patient : I always see spots before my eyes.
Optician : Didn’t the new glasses help?
Patient : Sure, now I see the spots much clearer.

“When you are courting a nice girl an hour seems like a second. When you sit on a red-hot cinder
a second seems like an hour. That’s relativity.” - Albert Einstein.

SPHERICAL LENSES
Refraction by Spherical Lenses
A lens is a transparent material medium bounded by two surfaces, of which one or both surfaces are spherical.
The function of a lens is to deviate light, it can either converge or diverge a parallel beam of light. Depending
upon this property, lenses may be characterised into two categories : converging lens and diverging lens.

f
A converging lens
(Convex lens)

If the spherical surfaces are bulging outwards, then the lens is called double convex lens. A double convex
lens is simply called as a convex lens. It is thicker at the middle as compared to the edges. Convex lens
converges light rays as shown in the above figure.

f
A diverging lens
(Concave lens)

If the spherical surfaces are curved inwards then the lens is called double concave lens. A double concave
lens is simply called as a concave lens. It is thicker at the edges than at the middle. Concave lens diverges
light rays as shown in the above figure.

Different Types of Lens

Plano-convex Convex-meniscus Bi-convex

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Concave-meniscus Plano concave Bi-concave

Following important terms should be noted in case of spherical lenses.


1. Optical Centre : It is usually represented by the letter O. A ray of light through optical centre passes
undeviated.

O O

2. Principal Axis C1C2 is a line passing through optical centre and centres of curvature of curved surfaces.

C1 O C2 C1 O C2

3. Focus : When rays of light parallel to the principal axis are falling on a convex lens, then these rays after
refraction from the lens, converge to a point on the principal axis. This point on principal axis is called the
principal focus of the convex lens. In case of a concave lens, when rays of light parallel to the principal axis are
falling on it, then after refraction from the lens these rays are appearing to diverge from a point on the principal
axis. This point on the principal axis is called principal focus of the concave lens.

Focal plane Focal plane

2F1 F1 O 2F2 2F 1 F1 O F2 2F 2
F2

f f

If you pass parallel rays from the opposite surface of the lens, you get another principal focus on the
opposite side. It is usually represented by letter F. A lens has two principal foci. They are represented
by F1 and F2.
Focal plane : The plane passing through the focus of the lens and perpendicular to the principal axis is
called focal plane.

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24 Light : Reflection and Refraction Physics - Class X (Level-I)

4. Focal length f : The distance of the principal focus from the optical centre of a lens is called its focal length.
5. Aperture : It is the effective diameter of light transmitting area (i.e., the diameter of circular outline of a
spherical lens). Intensity of image formed by a lens I  (aperture)2.

Note : In this chapter, we shall confine our discussion to thin lenses. Thin lenses are those lenses whose
aperture is much less than its radius of curvature. In other words we may say that a thin lens is a
lens in which the thickness of the lens is small as compared to the object distance, image distance
or either of the two radii of curvature of the lens.

Measuring focal length of a convex lens

Take a convex lens (lens used in the spectacles of the elderly are often convex lenses). Face it towards the sun.
Take a small block and place it close to the lens such that lens is between sun and the block. On moving the lens
slowly, you will find a very small, bright image of the sun formed on the block at one stage. Distance between the
lens and the block is its focal length. You can’t use this method for concave lens as it forms a virtual image.

Laws of Image Formation by Spherical Lens


Graphically we can locate the position of image for a given object by drawing any two of the following three rays.
1. A ray, initially parallel to the principal axis of a lens, will pass or appear to pass through principal focus
after passing through the lens.

O
F1 F2 F1 O F2

2. A ray which initially passes or appears to pass through the principal focus of a lens will emerge from the
lens parallel to the principal axis.

F1 O F2
F1 O F2

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Light : Reflection and Refraction 25
3. A ray passing through the optical centre of a lens goes undeviated.

O
F1 F2 O
F1 F2

Sign Convention
The sign convention explained here should be kept in mind while solving numericals.
(i) The distances measured along the direction of incident rays are taken as positive and that opposite to
the direction of incident rays are taken as negative, as shown in the figure.
ve ve
light
light
Principal Principal
axis ve O ve axis ve O ve
lens (convex or concave) lens (convex or concave)

ve ve
(ii) All the distances parallel to the principal axis are measured from optical centre.
(iii) All the distances measured perpendicular to and above the principal axis are taken positive, while those
measured below it are taken as negative.
Focal length is taken positive for convex (converging) lens while negative for concave (diverging) lens.
Object distance is always taken as negative for all objects.

Lens Formula and Magnification


As we have a formula for spherical mirrors, we also have formula for spherical lenses. This formula gives the
relationship between object-distance (u), image distance (v) and the focal length(f ). The lens formula is
expressed as
1 1 1
– 
v u f
B C

Principal A O F2 A
axis u f
v
B

Lens
The lens formula given above is general and is valid in all situations for any spherical lens. Take proper care
of the signs of different quantities. While putting numerical values for solving problems relating to lenses.
If h is the height of the object and h is the height of its image, then
h v
m  ; m is called magnification.
h u
Its magnitude indicates how many times is the size of the image as compared to that of the object and its
sign indicates whether it is erect or inverted. Positive sign of m indicates an erect image and negative sign
indicates an inverted image.
By applying lens formula, for an object we get that if v = +ve, the image is real and if v = –ve, the image
formed is virtual.

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26 Light : Reflection and Refraction Physics - Class X (Level-I)

Power of a Lens

Power (P) of a lens characterises the converging or diverging properties of a lens and is defined as the reciprocal
of its focal length.
1 100
P 
(f in m) (f in cm)
The SI unit of power of a lens is ‘dioptre’ and is denoted by the letter D.

Note : In all above formulae all known quantities should be taken with proper sign convention.

Power and Focal Length of the Combination of Lenses


If a number of lenses are combined (or placed adjacent and touching each other) to increase the magnification,
then the net power of the combination (P) is given as
P = P1 + P2 + P3 + ..........
1
As P  so for effective focal length (F),
F
1 1 1 1
    ............
F f1 f2 f3

Note : In this case, net magnification m = m1 × m2 × m3 × ...............

Image formation by a thin convex lens


Images formed by a thin convex lens for different positions of an object are discussed here.
1. When the object is at infinity
(a) When incident rays not parallel to principal axis.

B
F1 O F2
A

For image,
Position : at focus F2
Nature : real, inverted and sign of magnification is negative
Size : highly diminished | m | << 1
(b) When incident rays are parallel to principal axis.

F1
F2

For image,
Position : at focus F2
Nature : real, inverted
Size : point sized

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2. When the object is between  and 2F1

B
B 2F1 F1 O F2 2F2

A

For image,
Position : between F2 and 2F2
Nature : real, inverted and sign of magnification is negative
Size : diminished ( | m | < 1)
3. When the object is at 2F1

B B
2F1 F1 O F2 2F2

A

For image,
Position : at 2F2
Nature : real, inverted and sign of magnification is negative
Size : same size as object (m = – 1)
4. When the object is between F1 and 2F1

B B
2F1 F1 O F2 2F2

A
For image,
Position : beyond 2F2
Nature : real, inverted and sign of magnification is negative
Size : enlarged ( | m | > 1)
5. When the object is at F1

B
F1 O F2

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For image,
Position : at infinity
Nature : real, inverted and sign of magnification is negative
Size : highly enlarged ( | m | >> 1)
6. When the object is between F1 and O

A

B F1 B O F2

For image,
Position : on the same side of lens as the object
Nature : virtual, erect and sign of magnification is positive
Size : enlarged | m | > 1

E tra Sho s
Pictures from light with a lens
1. Take a convex lens. Stand a few feet away from your light source. Hold your lens up so that light can
shine through it. Hold the piece of paper on the other side of the lens so that the light shines through
the lens and onto the paper. The paper is your screen like the screen in a movie theatre. The paper
screen will reflect a picture made of light so that you can see it.
2. Start with the lens up close to the paper and slowly move it away from the paper and towards the
light source. You will see a picture of the light source when the lens is at right distance from the paper.
The picture will be upside down.
3. If you don’t see a picture right away, keep trying. Try standing closer to the light source. Or try moving
the lens farther from the paper.

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Wow! I Didn’t Know That!
When you use your lens to make a picture of something that’s brightly lit, you are doing the same thing
that a movie projector does. In a movie projector, a light shines through a transparent picture, then through
a lens. The lens takes the light from the picture and makes a big picture on the movie screen.

If you take your


lens outside and focus
a bright spot of sun light,
DON’T stare at the bright
spot or hold it in one place
for more than a few
seconds. This can hurt
your eyes or
start a fire!

Image formation by thin concave lens


Images formed by a thin concave lens for different object positions of an object discussed here.
1. When the object is at infinity

F1 O F2

For image,
Position : at focus F1
Nature : virtual, erect and sign of magnification is positive
Size : highly diminished ( | m | << 1)
2. When the object is in between infinity and F1

F1 O F2

For image,
Position : between F1 and O
Nature : virtual and erect (m = +ve)
Size : diminished (| m | < 1)
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Example 8 :
An object of height 12 cm is kept 1.2 m far from a convex lens of focal length 80 cm. Find the distance of
image from the lens, its height and nature of the image.
Solution :
Here
u = –1.2 m = –120 cm
f = +80 cm
v=?
h = 12 cm
h = ?
1 1 1
So from lens formula  
f v u
We get,
1 1 1
 
80 v 120
1 1 1
  
v 80 120
1 32
 
v 240
 v = 240 cm = 2.4 m
h v
As 
h u
hv
 h 
u
12  240
 h   24 cm
120
As h is negative so the image is real and inverted.
So, the distance of image from the lens is 2.4 m and its height is 24 cm.

Example 9 :
A convex lens has a focal length of 10 cm. Where should the object be placed if the virtual image is to be
30 cm from the lens?
Solution :
Here v = – 30 cm
f = + 10 cm
u=?
1 1 1
So from lens formula  
v u f
We get,
1 1 1
 
 30 u 10
1 1 1
or  
u 10 30
1 4
 
u 30
or u = – 7.5 cm
So, the object must be placed in front of the lens at a distance of 7.5 cm from it.

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Note : Observe that u = –7.5 cm, this implies that the object is between O and F as f = 10 cm (given).
From our knowledge of 6 cases of convex lens. We know that when object is between O and F,
a virtual and enlarged image is formed on the same side of lens as the object. This is in agreement
with the given data, so our answer is correct.

Example 10 :
A convex lens of focal length f produces a real image, x times the size of an object, then find the distance
of the object from the lens.
Solution :

For real image,

v
m  x (given)
u

So, v = – xu

From lens formula

1 1 1
 
v u f

1 1 1
  
 xu u f

( x  1)
 u f
x

( x  1)
So, object should be placed at a distance  f from the lens.
x

Example 11 :
Two thin convex lenses of focal lengths 20 cm and 25 cm are placed in contact. Find the effective power of
the combination.
Solution :

100
As P 
(f in cm)

100
So, P1  5D
20

100
and P2  4D
25

 Effective power of combination is given by

P = P1 + P2 = (5 + 4) = 9 D.

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Try Yourself
15. When a ray of light is incident at angle 60° to a medium of refractive index n, it is observed that

the angle of refraction is half the angle of incidence. The value of n is

1 3
(1) (2)
3 2

2
(3) 3 (4)
3
16. Two thin lenses of focal lengths 10 cm and 20 cm are placed in contact. The effective power of
combination is

1
(1) D (2) 15 D
15
1
(3) D (4) 30 D
30
17. An object is put at a distance 25 cm from the optical centre of a convex lens. If its real image is
formed at a distance 30 cm from the lens then its focal length is about
(1) 10 cm
(2) 14 cm
(3) 12 cm
(4) 20 cm
18. A convex lens of focal length 10 cm forms a virtual image of an object at 30 cm from the lens.
The magnification produced will be
(1) 2
(2) 3
(3) 3.5
(4) 4
19. An object is placed at a distance of 10 cm from a convex lens of power 5 D. The position of the
image is
(1) –20 cm
(2) 40 cm
(3) 45 cm
(4) –10 cm
20. The distance between an object and a divergent lens is x-times the focal length of the lens. The
magnification m produced by the lens will be
(1) x (2) x + 1

1 1
(3) (4)
x ( x  1)
[Ans. 15(3), 16(2), 17(2), 18(4), 19(1), 20(4)]

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Light : Reflection and Refraction 33
QUICK RECAP

1. Light is a form of energy which causes sensation of vision. It travels in straight line path.
2. If incident light after interacting with a boundary separating two media comes back into the same medium,
this phenomenon is called reflection.
3. Images can be either real or virtual.
4. Real image is formed by the actual intersection of light rays and it can be obtained on the screen.
5. Virtual image is formed by the apparent meeting of reflected rays from a mirror or refracted rays from a
lens, when produced backwards. It cannot be obtained on the screen.
6. Laws of reflection : There are two laws of reflection.
(i) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.
(ii) The angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection i.e., i = r.
7. Spherical mirror : There are two spherical mirrors, viz concave mirror and convex mirror.
Concave mirror : A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is curved inwards, facing towards the centre
of the sphere.
Convex mirror : A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is curved outwards opposite to centre of sphere.
8. Focal length of a mirror : It is the distance between the pole and the focus of a spherical mirror. It is
half of its radius of curvature. It is positive for a convex mirror and negative for a concave mirror.

1 1 1
9. Mirror formula,   , gives the relationship between the object distance (u), image distance (v), and
f u v
the focal length (f) of a spherical mirror.
10. The magnification produced by a spherical mirror is the ratio of the height of the image to the height of
h v
the object, magnification (m )   .
h u
11. Refraction is the phenomenon in which direction of propagation of light changes at the boundary when it
passes from one medium to the other. This is because the speed of light is different in two media.
Frequency, colour do not change while wavelength and velocity of light will change on undergoing
refraction.
12. Laws of refraction : There are two laws of refraction :
(i) The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to sine of angle of refraction is a constant for a given colour
of light and given interface.
(ii) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.
13. Light travels in air or vacuum with an enormous speed of 3 × 108 m/s. The speed of light is different in
different media.
14. The refractive index of a transparent medium is the ratio of speed of light in air or vacuum to that in the
medium.
15. Apparent depth : When we look into a pool of water it appears to be less deep than it really is due to
refraction.
1 1 1
16. Lens formula :  – , gives the relationship between the object distance (u), image distance (v) and
f v u
the focal length (f) of a spherical lens.
17. The magnification produced by a lens is the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object.

h v
(m )  
h u

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34 Light : Reflection and Refraction Physics - Class X (Level-I)

18. Power of a lens is the reciprocal of its focal length. It is measured in dioptre which is denoted by D. It
is given by the formula.

1 100
P 
f (m) f (cm)
19. If a number of lenses are placed adjacent and touching each other the net power (P) of the combination is
given as P = P1 + P2 + P3 + …

1
As P  , so for effective focal length (F),
F

1 1 1 1
    
F f1 f2 f3

‰ ‰ ‰

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Assignment
17. Fill in the blanks:
SECTION-A
(a) Power of a lens is measured in _______.
Very Short Answer Type Questions : (b) The image formed by concave lens is _______.
(c) A mirror which always produces diminished,
1. What is the nature of image if the object is placed
virtual image is _______.
beyond C, in front of a concave mirror?
2. Write the mirror formula. (d) According to sign convention, positive
magnification means we have an _______
3. If the power of a lens is +2 D, what is its focal
image.
length and its nature?
4. When a ray of light falls obliquely into water, does (e) Speed of light in a _______ is 300,000 km/s.
the light ray bend towards the normal or away from (f) Light travels in a _______ line path.
the normal?
(g) A bundle of lights rays is called a _______.
5. If two lenses of focal lengths 5 cm and 10 cm are
placed in contact along the same axis, what will (h) In a plane mirror, the angle of incidence equals
be the power of combination of two lens? the angle of _______.
6. Find the power of a convex lens of focal length Short Answer Type Questions :
20 cm.
7. Name a mirror that can give an erect and enlarged 1. Why do we prefer a convex mirror as a rear-view
image of an object. mirror in vehicles?
8. What will happen to the image formed by a plane 2. The magnification produced by a plane mirror is
mirror if half of it is covered with a black paper? +1. What does this mean?
9. Why a flying bird appears higher in the sky 3. A fish under water is viewing obliquely a fisherman
compared to its actual height? standing on the bank of a lake. Does the man look
10. Can a convex mirror ever form a real image? If yes, taller or shorter than what he is actually?
under what condition? 4. What will be the value of refractive index of alcohol
11. Under what condition will a thin lens have w.r.t. carbon disulphide? The refractive index of
magnification –1? alcohol w.r.t. air is 1.36 and that of carbon
12. What is the minimum distance between an object disulphide w.r.t. air is 1.63.
and its real image formed by a convex lens of focal 5. A ray is reflected in turn by two plane mirrors,
length 20 cm? inclined at right angle with each other. Find the
13. What is the focal length of a plane mirror? angle between incident and reflected ray.
14. Can absolute refractive index be less than unity? 6. A concave mirror is made by cutting a hollow thin
15. What is meant by optical centre of a lens? glass sphere of radius 30 cm. Find its focal length.
16. What should be the position of an object relative 7. What will be nature of image formed by a concave
to a biconvex lens so that it behaves like a mirror, if the object is between focus and centre of
magnifier? curvature?
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36 Light : Reflection and Refraction Physics - Class X (Level-I)

8. Two thin lenses of powers 4 D and –2 D are placed 5. What is refraction of light? State the laws of
in contact. What is the focal length of the refraction. Distinguish between absolute refractive
combination? index and relative refractive index of a medium.
9. Three thin convex lenses of focal length f1, f2 and
f3 are placed in contact coaxially. What will be
effective power of combination? SECTION-B
10. A candle is held 3 cm away from a concave mirror Objective Type Questions :
of radius of curvature 24 cm. What will be the
1. A virtual image of same size as object is produced
distance of image from mirror?
by
11. Calculate the speed of light in (i) glass (ii) water.
(1) Convex mirror (2) Concave mirror
Refractive index of glass is 1.5 and water is 1.33.
(Take speed of light in air or vacuum, c = 3 × (3) Plane mirror (4) Concave lens
108 m/s) 2. The time taken by light to travel through a glass
plate of thickness t and having refractive index n is
12. An object of height 2.0 cm is placed perpendicular
(c is the velocity of light)
to the principal axis of a concave lens of focal
length 12 cm. Find the height of the image, if the t t
(1) (2)
object is placed at a distance of 8.0 cm from the nc n 2c
lens. nt n 2t
(3) (4)
13. The focal length of a convex lens is f. An object is c c
placed at a distance x from its first focal point. Find 3. In case of a converging lens
the ratio of the distance of the real image to that (1) Image formed by it is always real
of the object from the pole.
(2) The sun’s rays can be brought to a focus
Long Answer Type Questions : (3) Both faces of the lens must be of same radius
1. An object of size 5 cm is kept at a distance of 25 (4) It must not produce a virtual image
cm from the optical centre of a converging lens of 4. Light travel fastest in
focal length 10 cm. Calculate the distance of the
(1) Water (2) Air
image from the lens and size of the image.
(3) Glass (4) Diamond
2. Two lens of power +15 D and – 5 D are in contact
with each other forming a combination of lenses. 5. A concave mirror forms the image of an object on
a screen. If the lower half of the mirror is covered
(a) What is the focal length of this combination? with an opaque card, the effect would be
(b) An object of size 3 cm is placed at 30 cm (1) The image is less brighter
from this combination of lens. Calculate the
(2) The lower half of the image disappears
position and size of the image formed.
(3) The upper half of the image disappears
3. (a) Where should we place an object in front of a
(4) The image is more brighter
concave mirror in order to obtain a real image
beyond centre of curvature C? 6. The image formed by a concave mirror is
(b) An object is placed at distance 10 cm in front (1) Always real
of a concave mirror of radius of curvature 15 (2) Always virtual
cm. Find the position, nature and magnification (3) Virtual for the object placed between pole and
of the image. focus
4. (a) What is the difference between the images (4) Virtual if the object is at infinity
formed by a large and a small mirror?
7. Select the wrong statement
(b) If object is between focus and pole of a
(1) Light travels rectilinearly
concave mirror, explain image formation with
the help of ray diagram. (2) Light is a wave in nature

(c) Can a convex mirror be used to form real (3) Light has greater speed than sound in air
image for an object? Explain. (4) Light cannot travel through vacuum

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Light : Reflection and Refraction 37
8. Light of two colours, A and B is passed through a 14. For real extended objects if the image formed by
plane boundary. If A is bent more than B, then a single lens, is erect, then image
which colour travels more slowly in the second (1) Must be real
medium which is denser? (2) May be real
(1) B (3) Must be virtual

(2) A (4) May be real or virtual


15. For real extended object, if the image formed by a
(3) Both travel with same speed
single lens is inverted, then
(4) Nothing can be said (1) Image is real
9. Time taken by a ray of light to travel through a (2) Lens is convergent
glass slab of thickness 4 cm and refractive index (3) Image is either diminished or enlarged
1.5 will be (Take c, speed of light = 3 × 108 m/s) (4) All of these
(1) 10–8 s (2) 2 × 10–10 s 16. A ray of light is incident on a glass slab (ng = 1.5),
thickness t, in such a manner that the angle of
(3) 2 × 10–8 s (4) 10–12 s refraction is 30°, then the sine of angle of incidence
10. A person standing in front of a mirror finds his will be
image larger than himself. It implies that the mirror  3
is (1)  
 4 
(1) Plane mirror (2) Convex mirror  3
(2)  
(3) Concave mirror (4) Any one of these  2 

11. Convex mirror forms inverted image of a real object 3


(3)  
4
(1) Under no circumstances
3 3 
(2) When the object is very far from the mirror (4)  
 8 
(3) When object is at distance equal to focal 17. Why is refractive index of any transparent medium
length other than air greater than one?
(1) Because the speed of light in vacuum is
(4) When object is at distance equal to radius of
always less than its speed in a transparent
mirror
medium
12. An object is placed at a distance 4.5 m from the (2) Because the speed of light in vacuum is
convex mirror of radius of curvature 1 m, then always greater than its speed in a transparent
medium
1
(1) Image is in size of object (3) Frequency of wave changes when it crosses
10
the medium
(2) Image is virtual and erect
(4) Because speed of light in transparent medium
(3) Image is at 45 cm behind the mirror does not change
(4) All of these 18. What change will occur in an image produced by
a lens, if half of the lens is wrapped in a black
13. The nature of the image of a candle flame located paper?
40 cm from a concave spherical mirror is real,
(1) The size of the image will be reduced to one
inverted and magnified four times. Then the radius half
of curvature of the mirror is (2) The brightness of image will be reduced
(1) 32 cm (2) 64 cm (3) There will be no effect
(3) 48 cm (4) 80 cm (4) The image will disappear

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38 Light : Reflection and Refraction Physics - Class X (Level-I)

19. A convex lens and a concave lens, each having 22. An object of height 6 cm is placed on the principal
same focal length of 25 cm are placed coaxially in axis of a concave mirror of focal length f at a
close contact to form a combination of lenses. The distance of 4f. The length of the image will be
power of the combination will be
(1) 2 cm
(1) 25 dioptre (2) 50 dioptre
(2) 12 cm
(3) Zero (4) Infinite dioptre
20. A light of wavelength  gets refracted from vacuum (3) 4 cm
to a medium of refractive index n. The ratio of (4) 1.2 cm
wavelengths of incident and refracted wave is
23. A diminished image of an object is to be obtained
(1) 1 : n (2) 1 : 1
on a screen 1.0 m from it. This can be achieved
(3) n : 1 (4) n2 : 1 by appropriately placing
21. A real, inverted and image of same size as an
(1) A convex mirror of suitable focal length
object is formed when the object is placed x cm
from a concave mirror, then x is equal to [where (2) A concave mirror of suitable focal length
f is focal length, R is radius of curvature]
(3) A concave lens of suitable focal length
(1) f (2) R
f R (4) A convex lens of suitable focal length less than
(3) (4) 0.25 m
2 4

‰ ‰ ‰

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Chapter-1
Light : Reflection and Refraction

Level-II
(For CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads)
Light :
CHAPTER 1
Reflection and Refraction THIS CHAPTER INCLUDES
z Reflection at Plane Surface
z Velocity of Image in a Plane Mirror
z Minimum Length of plane Mirror
REFLECTION AT PLANE SURFACE z Images Formed in a Pair of Mirrors
In case of reflection at plane surface such as plane mirror: z Relation between F and R of a Spherical Mirror
1. Reflected ray suffers deviation of  = (180° – 2i ), with
z Mirror formula and Magnification
respect to the incident ray.
Consider the figure shown. Here, z Nature and Position of Images for a Spherical
Mirror
 = 180° – (i + r)
but i = r (Law of reflection) z Lateral Displacement
z Apparent Depth of a Tank
y
ra
In ray

z Lens Formula
ed
cid

i r
ct
en

fle

z Magnification Produced by a Lens


t

Re

M1 M2
z Application in Daily Life
= angle of deviation
z Assignment

so   180  2i

if i = 0 (that is, in case of normal incidence)

then   maximum  180

2. If keeping incident ray fixed, mirror is rotated by an angle , then reflected ray is rotated through an angle 2.
The figures here demonstrate this. It is valid for all angles of incidence.

Here, i = 0
Incident ray
 r = 0
Reflected ray

(Before rotating)
Incident ray coincides with the normal

When the mirror is rotated through an angle , normal to the mirror rotates through an angle  from the initial
so angle of incidence becomes  and reflected ray makes an angle 2 with the original reflected ray.

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40 Light : Reflection and Refraction Physics - Class X (Level-II)

Original orientation
of mirror

Incident ray

2 Orientation of mirror

ray ted
after rotating

flec
Re
3. Line joining the object and the image formed by a plane mirror is always perpendicular to the surface of the mirror.
O
O I

I Incorrect
Correct
4. If two mirrors are inclined at an angle  with each other, then a ray suffers net deviation  = 360° – 2
as shown in following figure.
M1


1  N1
N2
 

M2
2

The deviation produced by 1st mirror 1 = 180° – 2


The deviation produced by 2nd mirror 2 = 180° – 2
 Net deviation  = 1 + 2
= 360° – 2( + )
= 360° – 2 [∵  =  + ]
5. If two plane mirrors are inclined at 90° to each other, the finally reflected ray is always anti-parallel to
incident ray if it suffers one reflection from each of the mirrors i.e.,  = 360° – 2 × 90° = 180°

(90)
(90)
 

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Physics - Class X (Level-II) Light : Reflection and Refraction 41
Example 1 :
A ray of light incidents on a plane mirror as shown in the given figure. Calculate the deviation produced in
the ray.

70°
M M
Solution :
N
O
We know that angle of deviation,  = 180° – 2i
Angle of incidence (i) = NPM – OPM

°
°
20
20
= 90° – 70° = 20° 70°
M M
 = 180° – (2 × 20°) P 
= 180° – 40° = 140°

VELOCITY OF IMAGE IN A PLANE MIRROR


1. If an object moves towards (or away from) a plane mirror at speed v, the image also approaches
(or recedes from) the mirror at the same speed v and the relative velocity of image w.r.t. object is
equal to 2v.

v v
O I

Rest
2. If the mirror is moved towards (or away from) the object with speed v, the image will move towards
(or away from) the object with speed 2v.

Rest 2v
O I

MINIMUM LENGTH OF PLANE MIRROR

1. Minimum length of a plane mirror required to view the full image of a person is half of his height.

 APC  DPC AC = CD = x (By ASA similarity criterion)


 DQE  BQE DE = EB = y Head
A
C P
Height of person = AC + CD + DE + EB
= 2x + 2y D

= 2(x + y)
Minimum length of mirror required = PQ = CD + DE <
E
Q
= x + y<
height of person
Mirror length = Feet B
2
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42 Light : Reflection and Refraction Physics - Class X (Level-II)

2. Minimum length of the mirror required by a man standing midway


between wall and the mirror, to see full height of the wall
h
(behind him), is where h is height of the wall. A
3 H
In HBI and CBI, HI = IC = x (say) 2x i
x B
F
HBI ~ ABF (AAA similarity theorem) I x r
BF AF
so,  x+y Man C
BI HI y
2d AF
or 
d x r E
G
K i
or AF = 2x Mirror
y
Similarly, KEJ ~ GED (taking CK = KJ = y)
2y J
GE GD

KE KJ
2d GD D
or 
d y Wall d d

or GD = 2y
Height of the wall = AD = AF + FG + GD = 2x + x + y + 2y = 3(x + y)
h h
h = 3(x + y) so, x  y  and length of the mirror = BE  FG  x  y 
3 3

IMAGES FORMED IN A PAIR OF MIRRORS


The number of images formed when an object is placed between two plane mirrors inclined at an angle
 is
360 360
Number of images, n   1 if is even
 
360
e.g., for  = 90°, n  1 3 Object
90
360 
If is odd, then

360
(i) n   1 ; if the object lies symmetrically between the two mirrors.

360
(ii) n  ; if the object lies asymmetrically.

360
e.g., if the object lies symmetrically and  = 72°, then n  1 4
72
360
and if the object lies asymmetrically with  = 72°, then n   5.
72
360
If is a fraction, number of images formed will be equal to the integral part.

360 360
e.g.,  = 80°, then   4.5
 80
Number of images formed = 4
360
If  = 70°, then n   5.1
70
Number of images formed = 5

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Physics - Class X (Level-II) Light : Reflection and Refraction 43
360  360 
When two mirrors are kept parallel to each other, i.e., ( = ), then n     (infinite), so the
 0
number of images of an object kept in between two parallel mirrors will be infinite.

Try Yourself
1. Two plane mirrors are inclined at an angle of 75°. A ray of light is incident on one of the mirrors.
The ray undergo total deviation of
(1) 210° (2) 105°
(3) 150° (4) 75°
2. The minimum height of a plane mirror to enable a boy of height 4 feet to see his full image is
(1) 6 feet (2) 4 feet
(3) 3 feet (4) 2 feet
3. The number of images formed of a bulb placed between two plane mirrors inclined at an angle of
60° is
(1) 2 (2) 6
(3) 4 (4) 5
4. How many images of a person are formed who is in a room whose two adjacent walls and ceiling
are plane mirrors?
(1) 4 (2) 5
(3) 6 (4) 7
5. A man runs towards mirror with a speed of 10 m/s. Then the speed of his image with respect to
himself will be
(1) 20 m/s (2) 10 m/s
(3) Zero (4) 100 m/s
[Ans. 1(1), 2(4), 3(4), 4(4), 5(1)]

RELATION BETWEEN F AND R OF A SPHERICAL MIRROR


Let us consider a concave mirror of small aperture, on which a ray is incident parallel and close to the
principal axis. It passes through focus F, after reflection. Join CB. CB is normal to the mirror at B.

A B


C 
P
F

D
ABC = FBC …(i) (∵ i = r)

ABC = BCP …(ii) (Alternate interior angles between two parallel lines are equal)

FBC = BCP (From (i) & (ii))

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44 Light : Reflection and Refraction Physics - Class X (Level-II)

or FBC = BCF
 FC = FB …(iii) (Sides opposite to equal angles of a triangle are equal)
FB  PF …(iv) (As the aperture of mirror is very small, point B is very close to P)
 PC = PF + FC = 2PF (Using (iii) & (iv))

PC
or PF 
2

R
This gives f  as f = –PF and R = –PC where f is focal length and R is radius of curvature of the
2
mirror. This relation is applicable for both concave and convex mirrors.

MIRROR FORMULA AND MAGNIFICATION

The distance of the object from the pole of a spherical mirror is called the object distance (u) and the distance
of the image from the pole of the mirror is called the image distance (v).
The relationship between object distance (u), image distance (v) and focal length (f) is known as mirror formula.

u
A v
f
i
B
P
B C F
r
A

The figure here shows :


AB  an object placed beyond centre of curvature.
AB  Image of the object AB
PB = u  Distance of the object from pole (P).
PB = v  Distance of the image from pole (P).
PF = f  Focal length of concave mirror.
Mirror Formula Derivation
In ABP and ABP
APB = APB (i = r)
ABP = ABP (Each 90°)
So, ABP ~ ABP (AA corollary of AAA similarity theorem)
AB PB
 …(i)
A ' B  PB 
Similarly,
ABC ~ ABC
AB BC
 …(ii)
AB  B C

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Physics - Class X (Level-II) Light : Reflection and Refraction 45
From (i) and (ii), we get
PB BC

PB  B C
By sign convention, PB = –u, PB = –v, BC = PB – PC, BC = PC – PB
u u  2f
 
v 2f  v
 2fu – uv = uv – 2fv
 –2uv = –2fu – 2fv
 uv = fu + fv
By dividing both sides by uvf, we get

1 1 1
 
f v u
This formula is called mirror formula, and is applicable for both concave and convex mirrors. It can also be
applied for plane mirrors with f =  (infinity).
1 1 1 1 1
  or 0   or v = –u
 u v u v
i.e., image is formed as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.

Magnification in terms of v and f

1 1 1
 
f u v
v v v
   (Multiplying both sides by v)
f u v

v v f v
  1 
u f f
v f v
As  m so, m 
u f

Magnification in terms of u and f


1 1 1
Again taking  
f u v

u u u
   (Multiplying both sides by u)
f u v

u u f u
  1 
v f f
v 1 f u
As  m so, 
u m f
f
or m
f u

Note : For using all the above formulae, sign convention must be followed.

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46 Light : Reflection and Refraction Physics - Class X (Level-II)

NATURE AND POSITION OF IMAGES FOR A SPHERICAL MIRROR


1. As every part of a mirror forms a complete image, therefore even if a part of the mirror is obstructed, full
image will be formed, but intensity of the image will be reduced.
2. For an extended object.
™ If the image formed by a single mirror is erect it is always virtual.
In this situation, if the size of the image is
(i) Smaller than the object, mirror is convex. This is illustrated in the figure here.

;m<+1
O P I F

h
as m  , h < h gives m < 1.
h
(ii) Equal to the object, mirror is plane.

;m=+1
O I

(iii) Larger than the object, mirror is concave (Only if the object lies between F and P).

FO P I ;m>+1

Note : By observing the size of erect image in mirror we can decide the nature of mirror.

™ If the image formed by a single mirror is inverted, it is always real and mirror is concave.
In this situation, if the size of the image is
(i) Smaller than the object, than the object is between  and C and the image will lie between F and C.

I
; | m | < 1 (Negative magnification)
O C F P

h
As m  , h < h gives |m| < 1
h

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Physics - Class X (Level-II) Light : Reflection and Refraction 47
(ii) Equal to the object, than the object is at C and the image is also at C.

O
; m = –1 (Negative magnification)
I C F P

h
Putting h = –h in m  gives m = –1.
h
(iii) Larger than the object, than the object is between C and F and the image will lie between C and .

I
; |m| > 1 (Negative magnification)
C OF

A B

120°

C F

h
h > h gives  1 or |m| > 1.
h

Try Yourself
6. A ray AB travelling parallel to principal axis incident on a concave mirror as shown below. If
 BFC = 120°, then angle of incidence is
[Symbols have their usual meaning]

A B

120°

C F

(1) 30° (2) 60°


(3) 15° (4) 45°
7. An object is placed in front of a convex mirror of focal length 30 cm. If the image formed is half the
size of the object, then the position of the image from the mirror is
(1) 15 cm (2) 18 cm
(3) 60 cm (4) 45 cm

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48 Light : Reflection and Refraction Physics - Class X (Level-II)

8. The range of value of m for inverted and diminished image formed by a concave mirror of a real object
is
(1) m > 1 (2) 0 > m > –1
(3) 1 > m > 0 (4) 1 > m > –1
9. Select the correct relation between magnification M, object distance u and focal length f for a
spherical mirror
(1) mf = f – mu (2) mf = f + u
(3) mf = f – u (4) mf = mu + f
10. A point object is placed at a distance of 15 cm from a convex mirror of focal length 30 cm. The
image will be formed at
(1) Pole (2) Infinity
(3) 10 cm behind the mirror (4) 10 cm infront of the mirror
[Ans. 6(1), 7(1), 8(2), 9(4), 10(3)]

Note : Frequency of the light does not change when the light changes its medium of propagation. As colour
of the light is determined by its frequency so the colour of the light always remains unchanged
during refraction.

LATERAL DISPLACEMENT (d)

The lateral displacement of the ray is the perpendicular distance (AB) between the incident and the emergent
ray.
Let AOB =  = deviation on first refraction

AB  Opposite side 
In AOB, sin   Using sin = Hypotenuse 
OA  
 AB = OA sin
Now,  = i – r
i Air
 AB = OA sin(i – r) …(i) O
 Glass
In OCA,
r
t
CO r B
cos r 
OA
C A Air
i
 CO d
OA  …(ii)
cos r

Put (ii) in (i), we have

CO sin( i  r )
AB 
cos r
But CO = t = thickness of glass slab,

t sin( i  r ) t sin(i  r )
 AB   d
cos r cos r

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Physics - Class X (Level-II) Light : Reflection and Refraction 49
APPARENT DEPTH OF A TANK

When we look into a pool of water or any liquid it appears to be less deep than it really is, due to refraction.
Apparent depth of the tank can be calculated by the formula,
Real depth
Apparent depth  …(i)
Refractive index of the water
Image shift = real depth – apparent depth
 OI = AO – AI

( AO  AI )  AI 
 t   AO  1   AO
AO  AO  A
 

Apparent
Real depth
 1   1 

depth
 AO  1    t 1  
AO   nw  [From eq. (i)]
 
 AI  I t
 1  O
t  t  1  
 nw 

This formula is applicable when you observe an object from a point just above the position of that object and
liquid surface.
where, t  real depth of tank
nw  refractive index of the water

Example 2 :

A printed page is kept pressed by a glass slab (ng = 1.5) of thickness 6.0 cm. By what amount will the printed
letters appear to be shifted when viewed from the top of the slab normally?
Solution :
Thickness = t = 6.0 cm, ng = 1.5

 1 
 t  61    2.0 cm
 1 .5 

Example 3 :

A fish in water sees an object 24 cm above the surface of water. What is the apparent height of the object
 4
noticed by fish? Take n = 
 3
Solution : I
4 1 3
n= , h = 24 cm, refractive index of air w.r.t. water =  O
3 n 4
Note that in this case light rays travel from air to water. 24 cm

Real height 24
 Apparent height of object  
Refractive index of air w.r.t. water 3
4

4
 Apparent height of object =  24 cm = 32 cm
3

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50 Light : Reflection and Refraction Physics - Class X (Level-II)

Example 4 :

In a vessel of depth 21 cm, upto what height the water should be filled so that now it appears to be half filled
 4
if viewed from the top? Take nw = 
 3
Solution :
Let the vessel is filled with water upto height x when it appears to be exactly half filled, when viewed from the
top.
i.e., the depth of the vessel below the water surface seems to
be the same as its height above it.

Actual depth of water


Apparent depth in water  nw

x
 21– x 
4/3 21 – x
 (21 – x)4 = 3x
21 – x 21 cm
 21 × 4 = 7x
x
 x = 12 cm

LENS FORMULA

In the given figure, formation of a real and inverted image is shown.


Using sign convention we can write
(a) Object distance = OA = – u B C
(b) Image distance = OA = +v
(c) Focal length = OF2 = + f principal A O F2 A
axis u f
v
As right angled triangles OAB and OABare similar, B
AB v Lens
 …(i)
AB u
Similarly, from the right angled triangles F2OC and F2AB,

AB  AF2 v  f  OC  AB 
  …(ii)  AB  AB  
OC OF2 f ∵ 
 OC AB 
Comparing equation (i) and equation (ii), we get
v v  f
  vf = –uv + uf
u f
Dividing both sides by uvf
1 1 1
 
u f v
1 1 1
  
v u f
This is called lens formula, which is applicable to both convex and concave lenses.

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Physics - Class X (Level-II) Light : Reflection and Refraction 51
MAGNIFICATION PRODUCED BY A LENS

Magnification produced by a lens

height of image h v f  v f
m    
height of object h u f f u

1 1 1
  (Lens formula)
v u f

v v v
   (Multiplying both sides by v)
v u f

v v
 1 
u f
v v
 1 
f u
v f v
 
u f
f v
or m
f
Again using lens formula
1 1 1
 
v u f

u u u
   (Multiplying both sides by u)
v u f

u u f u
  1 
v f f
v f
or 
u f u
f
or m
f u

APPLICATION IN DAILY LIFE

Laser : It is a special source of light of only one pure colour (or wavelength). You can’t break up laser light
into other colours.
Splits in
seven colours
White light
from the sun
Red laser light

Glass prism

Glass p
rism

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52 Light : Reflection and Refraction Physics - Class X (Level-II)

It is an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.


(i) It can be focused to a very small spot and can shine for long distances without spreading out very much
(unlike a flash light which spreads out a lot).
(ii) They are highly energetic! Some lasers can cut through thick metals (and lasers of smaller frequencies
are used in some types of surgery).
(iii) They can be used for communication. They can also send information through long threads of glass called
optical fibres. A single laser can send thousands of phone conversations through a fibre at the same time.

Optical fibre helps Flash light Lasers focus light


us communicate
(iv) Grocery scanners use them to check prices (very common at shopping malls).

Grocery scanners use lasers to check prices

(v) They can make holograms. They are also used to make 3-D pictures called holograms (work is going
on moving holograms, so someday, we may have amazing 3-D TV pictures).

Try Yourself
11. A light ray passes through different media of refractive indices n1, n2, n3 as shown below. If AB is
parallel to CD, then

B
n1

n2

n3

(1) n1 = n2 (2) n2 = n3 = n
(3) n = n1 = n3 (4) n2 > n3

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Physics - Class X (Level-II) Light : Reflection and Refraction 53
12. The length of a vertical stick at the surface of a lake appears 12 cm to a fish under water. If refractive
4
index of water is , then actual length of stick above water surface is
3

(1) 16 cm (2) 9 cm
(3) 12 cm (4) 3 cm
13. A 30 cm high bucket is completely filled with a liquid. A coin at its bottom appears to be raised by
12 cm. The refractive index of the liquid is
(1) 3.0 (2) 1.33
(3) 1.67 (4) 1.25
14. In the given figure, a ray of light falls obliquely on a vertical glass slab and after refraction from slab
falls on a vertical plane mirror at angle x.

x
Normal
30°

The value of x is
(1) 30° (2) 60°
(3) 45° (4) 70°

[Ans. 11(3), 12(2), 13(3), 14(2)]

‰ ‰ ‰

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Assignment
10. Explain why does a swimming pool appear
SECTION-A shallower than it actually is. Obtain an expression
for the normal displacement of an object immersed
Subjective Type Questions : in water.
1. What will be the angle through which reflected ray
will rotate, if the incident ray is kept fixed and R
11. Deduce the expression f  for convex mirror.
mirror is rotated through an angle ? 2
2. If an object is placed between two plane mirrors 12. When an object is placed at a distance of 60 cm
held at 30°, how many images will be formed? from a convex mirror, the magnification produced
3. What should be the minimum height of a plane 1
mirror to enable a person of height 6 feet to see is . Where should the object be placed to get
2
his full image in it?
1
4. By how much distance, a coin at a depth h below a magnification of ?
the surface in a liquid (refractive index n) appear to 3
be shifted when observed from top, outside the 13. A ray of light falls at an angle of incidence ‘i ’ on
liquid? a transparent rectangular glass slab of thickness
5. A small ink dot on a paper is viewed normally ‘t ’ and refractive index ‘n’. Show that emergent
through a glass slab of thickness 10 cm and ray is parallel to the incident ray.
refractive index 1.5. By what height would the dot 14. In the given figure, length of the object AB = 9
appear to be raised? cm. Find the nature and position of the final image
6. The depth of a tank filled with a liquid is 2d. The and also its length. Assume that each lens is a
apparent depth is 60% of that of real depth. What thin lens.
is the refractive index of the liquid w.r.t. air?
16.66 D 8.33 D
7. Derive the relation between focal length f, A
magnification m and object distance u for a
concave mirror.
B
8. A thin lens forms image of intensity I. If the central
part of the lens of diameter half the diameter of
lens is black polished, then what will be the
intensity of image formed by the remaining part? 24 cm
9. A plane mirror is placed at a distance 12.5 cm from 15. Draw a ray diagram to show the formation of real
focus of a concave mirror of radius of curvature 20 image of the same size as the object placed in
cm. Find where an object can be placed between front of a converging lens. Using ray diagram,
the two mirrors, so that the first image in both the express the relation between u, v and f for this
mirrors coincide. lens.

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Physics - Class X (Level-II) Light : Reflection and Refraction 55
16. Two plane mirrors A and B are aligned parallel to 21. Find angle  for which a light ray incident at angle
each other as shown in the figure. A light ray is 60° on the horizontal mirror becomes vertical after
incident at an angle of 30° at point just inside one two successive reflections at the shown plane
end of A. The plane of incidence coincides with mirrors. Draw ray diagram for the event. (is angle
the plane of the figure. How many reflections will between plane mirrors)
occur between the mirrors?

2 3 .
B 22. A scientist claims that a ray initially parallel to the
principal axis, after reflection from concave mirror
0.2 m passes through the pole. Is it possible? If not,
30° why? If yes, then under what condition? Explain.

A
17. What should be the minimum height of man (as SECTION-B
shown in figure) so that he may see image of S
in mirror? Objective Type Questions :
1. Angle of incident ray with normal is 30°. The
incident ray after reflection will deviate through an
y
angle
 (1) 60° (2) 120°

20 cm (3) 150° (4) 90°
20 cm
S
f 
20 cm 100 cm 2. An object is placed at a distance   from a
18. In case of a thin lens of focal length f, if an object 3
convex lens. The distance of image from the lens
is placed at a distance a from first focus and its
will be
image is formed at a distance b from the second
focus then, find the relation between f, a and b. 3
(1) f (2) f
19. A person dressed in a new suit stands in front of 2
a plane mirror fixed on a vertical wall. Height of the f f
(3) (4)
person is ‘H ’ and that of his eyes from the ground 3 2
is ‘h’. Show that minimum length of the mirror so 3. When light is refracted, which of its following
H properties does not change?
that the person can have his full view is and
2
that it is independent of the position of eyes. Also (1) Wavelength (2) Frequency
determine the position of mirror relative to ground (3) Speed (4) Intensity
and show image formation with a ray diagram. 4. Colour of light is determined by its
20. Two plane mirrors are inclined to each other at an
(1) Speed (2) Wavelength
angle 70° as shown in figure. A ray of light PO
incident at some angle i on the mirror M1 falls after (3) Frequency (4) Intensity
reflection from it, on the other mirror M2 from 5. For a ray, incident at an angle 45° on a plane
which it gets reflected along a direction parallel to mirror the deviation produced in its path will be
the plane mirror M1. Find the value of i. (1) 45° (2) 90°
M2
(3) 120° (4) 150°

P 6. An object is initially at a distance of 160 cm from


a plane mirror. If the mirror approaches the object
A B
at a speed of 10 cm/s, then after 4 s the distance
M between the object and its image will be

70° i (1) 320 cm (2) 280 cm


M1
C O (3) 240 cm (4) 120 cm

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56 Light : Reflection and Refraction Physics - Class X (Level-II)

7. An object is placed between two plane mirrors 13. In the figure, there are two convex lenses L1 and
inclined at 30° to each other. The maximum L2 having focal lengths f1 and f2 respectively. The
number of images seen for an object placed distance between L1 and L2 will be
between them, will be L2
(1) 10 (2) 11
(3) 12 (4) Infinite
8. A concave mirror of radius of curvature R produces L1
a real image n times the size of the object, then
(1) f1 (2) f2
distance of the object from the mirror is
(3) f1 + f2 (4) f1 – f2
(n  1) 14. A convex lens is made of two different materials as
(1) –2(n – 1)R (2) R
2n shown in the figure. A beam of light is coming from
as shown. Which of the following is true?
(n  1)R (n  1)
(3) (4) R n1
2n 2

9. If for a spherical mirror object distance is u, image


distance is v and focal length is f then correct
n2
relation for magnification m is
(1) Two images are formed
f v f (2) Continuous image is formed between focal
(1) m  (2) m 
f f v points of lower lens and infinity
(3) One image is formed
f u f
(3) m  (4) m  (4) No image is formed
f f u 15. When a plane mirror is rotated through an angle ,
10. A convex lens is made up of three different then the reflected rays rotate through an angle 2.
materials as shown in the figure. For a point object The size of the image
placed on its axis, the number of images formed (1) Becomes half
are (2) Double
(1) 1 (3) Remains unchanged
(4) Is quadrupled
(2) 3
16. A convex lens of focal length f produces a real
(3) 4 1
image times of the size of the object. The
(4) 5 n
distance of the object from the lens is
11. Nine images are formed when two mirrors are held
f
at an angle (1)  (2) – nf
n
(1) 30° (3) – (n – 1)f (4) – (n + 1)f
(2) 60° 17. Two lenses x and y are placed in close contact with
each other. If the power of y-lens is –10 D and focal
(3) 45° length of this combination is –16.6 cm, then x and
(4) 36° y are respectively
(1) Concave lens (f = 20 cm), convex lens
12. A substance is behaving as convex lens in air and
(f = 10 cm)
concave in water, then its refractive index is
(2) Convex lens (f = 25 cm), concave lens
(1) Smaller than air (f = 10 cm)
(2) Greater than both air and water (3) Concave lens (f = 20 cm), concave lens
(f = 10 cm)
(3) Greater than air, but less than water
(4) Convex lens (f = 25 cm), convex lens
(4) Almost equal to water (f = 10 cm)
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Physics - Class X (Level-II) Light : Reflection and Refraction 57
18. The magnification of an object placed in front of a 22. A air bubble inside water behave like a
convex lens of focal length 20 cm is +2. To obtain (1) Converging lens
a magnification of –2, the object has to be moved
a distance equal to (2) Diverging lens
(3) Cylindrical lens
(1) 10 cm (2) 30 m
(4) Cannot behave like a lens
(3) 20 cm (4) 40 cm
23. Which of the following quantities related to a lens
19. If a lens is cut into two pieces by a plane does not depend on the wavelength of the incident
perpendicular to the principal axis and only one part light?
is used, the intensity of the image
(1) Refractive index
 1
(1) Becomes   times (2) Focal length
2
(3) Power
(2) Becomes 2 times
(4) Radii of curvature
(3) Remains the same 24. If two mirrors are kept at 60° to each other, then
(4) Becomes infinite the number of images formed by them is
20. A convex lens L1 of focal length 20 cm and a (1) 5 (2) 6
concave lens L2 of focal length 5 cm are kept (3) 7 (4) 8
along the same axis as shown in figure.
25. To get three images of a single object, one should
have two plane mirrors at an angle of
(1) 60° (2) 90°
(3) 120° (4) 30°

SECTION-C
L1 L2
d Assertion & Reason Type Questions :
To achieve emergent ray from lens L2 to be parallel In the following questions, a statement of
to incident ray, the distance between two lenses assertion (A) is followed by a statement of reason
should be equal to (R).
(1) 15 cm (2) 22.5 cm (1) If both Assertion & Reason are true and the reason
(3) 25 cm (4) 20 cm is the correct explanation of the assertion, then
mark (1).
21. A double convex lens, made of material of refractive
(2) If both Assertion & Reason are true but the reason
index n1, is placed inside two liquids of refractive is not the correct explanation of the assertion, then
indices n2 and n3, as shown. Given that n2 > n1 > mark (2).
n3. A wide, parallel beam of light is incident on the
(3) If Assertion is true statement but Reason is false,
lens from the left. The lens will give rise to
then mark (3).
(4) If both Assertion and Reason are false statements,
n2 n2 then mark (4).
n1 1. A : If a convex lens is kept in water, its converging
n3 n3 power decreases.
R : Focal length of a convex lens is independent
(1) A single convergent beam of the refractive index of the medium used.
2. A : A dentist uses a concave mirror to examine a
(2) Two different convergent beams
small cavity.
(3) Two different divergent beams R : A dentist uses a concave mirror which can
(4) A convergent and a divergent beam form a magnified, virtual image of an object.

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58 Light : Reflection and Refraction Physics - Class X (Level-II)

3. A : A single lens produces a coloured image of an 3. Match the following :


object illuminated by white light. Column-I Column-II
R : The refractive index of the material of the lens
a. Plane mirror (i) Real image
is different for different wavelengths of light.
b. Concave mirror, (ii) Virtual image
4. A : When an object is placed between two plane
parallel mirrors, then all the images found are object at C
of equal intensity. c. Convex lens, (iii) Image of same size
R : In case of parallel plane mirror, only two object at 2F
images are possible. d. Convex lens, object (iv) Diminished image
5. A : For observing at our back while driving, we beyond 2F
prefer to use a convex mirror. (1) a(ii), b(i), c(i), d(i)
R : A convex mirror has a much larger field of view (2) a(iii), b(iii), c(i, iii), d(i, iv)
than a plane mirror or a concave mirror.
(3) a(ii, iii), b(i), c(i, iii), d(i, iv)
(4) a(ii, iii), b(i, iii), c(i, iii), d(i, iv)
SECTION-D 4. Match the following :
Match the Columns Type Questions : Column-I Column-II

1. Match the following : a. A light ray is not (i) Refractive indices of


deviated at the two media are same
Column-I Column-II
interface between
a. Concave mirror, (i) Real image two media
object between pole
and focus b. Light ray travels (ii) Speed decreases
from air into a by 
b. Virtual image (ii) Enlarged image
medium of refractive
c. Convex mirror, object (iii) Erect image index 
anywhere between
infinity and pole c. Light ray travels (iii) Light ray is normal
from denser medium to the boundary
d. Concave mirror, (iv) Diminished image
to rarer medium
object beyond C
(1) a(ii), b(iii), c(iii), d(i) d. Light travels in air or (iv) Speed is maximum
vacuum
(2) a(iii), b(iii), c(iv), d(iv)
(3) a(ii, iii), b(iii), c(iii, iv), d(iv) (v) Speed increases
(4) a(ii, iii), b(iii), c(iii, iv), d(i, iv) (1) a(i), b(v), c(iv), d(v) (2) a(iii), b(ii), c(iv), d(v)
2. Match the following : (3) a(i, iii), b(ii), c(v), d(iv) (4) a(i, iii), b(v), c(ii), d(iv)
Column-I Column-II 5. Match the following :
a. Image formed by (i) Image at infinity Column-I Column-II
plane mirror
a. Focal length of plane (i) Positive
b. Convex mirror (ii) Image of same size mirror
c. Concave mirror, (iii) No top-bottom b. Focal length of (ii) Negative
object between reversal
concave mirror
C and F
c. Focal length of (iii) Infinity
d. Concave mirror, (iv) Virtual image
object between convex mirror
P and F d. Focal length of (iv) Zero
(v) Real image convex lens
(1) a(i), b(iv), c(v), d(iii) (1) a(iii), b(i), c(i, iv), d(ii)
(2) a(i), b(iii), c(v), d(iv) (2) a(iii), b(i, iv), c(ii), d(i)
(3) a(ii, iii, iv), b(iii, iv), c(v), d(iii, iv) (3) a(i, iv), b(i), c(iv), d(iii)
(4) a(i), b(iii, iv), c(v), d(iv) (4) a(iii), b(ii), c(i), d(i)
‰ ‰ ‰
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Chapter-2
Human Eye and Colourful World

Level-I
(For CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads)
Human Eye and
CHAPTER 2
Colourful World THIS CHAPTER INCLUDES
z The Human Eye
¾ Parts of the Human Eye
¾ Working of Ciliary Muscles
Try to spend one day keeping your eyes closed. Ask your friends ¾ Power of Accommodation
to explain you what they ‘see’ - bright coloured flowers, butterflies, z Defects of Vision
feathers of a peacock, the rainbow, the blue colour of the sky, the ¾ Myopia (Shor t-sightedness or Near-
reddish colour of the sun at sunrise and sunset and spectacular sightedness)

beauty of nature. Now, ask one of your friends who explained all ¾ Hypermetropia or Hyperopia (Long-
sightedness or Far-sightedness)
this to you to spend one day keeping his eyes closed. Now, try to
¾ Presbyopia
explain everything to him what he couldn’t explain to you when your
¾ Astigmatism
eyes were closed. So, now you realize the importance of eyes. To
¾ Cataract
understand this beautiful universe, let us take a step forward by
z Persistence of Vision
studying the ‘Human Eye and the Colourful World’. We shall study
z Refraction of Light Through a Prism
the structure and working of the human eye. We shall also discuss
z Dispersion of White Light by a Glass Prism
some natural phenomena occurring in nature.
¾ Rainbow
z Atmospheric Refraction
¾ Twinkling of Stars
¾ Oval Shape of the Sun in the Morning and
Evening
¾ Duration of the Sun’s Visibility
z Scattering of Light
¾ Tyndall Effect
¾ Blue Colour of Sky
¾ Reddish Colour of the Sun at the time of
Sunrise and Sunset
z Quick Recap
z Assignment

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60 Human Eye and Colourful World Physics - Class X (Level-I)

THE HUMAN EYE


One of the most valuable and sensitive sense organ in our body is our eye. It enables us to see the beautiful
and colourful world around us. The optical behaviour of the eye is similar to that of a camera. The eyeball
is nearly spherical and about 2.3 cm in diameter. The essential parts of the human eye, considered as an
optical systems are shown in the figure given below.
Ciliary
muscle Vitreous
Cornea humour

Retina
Aqueous
humour
Yellow spot or fovea
Pupil
Blind spot

Iris Optic nerve


(control the amount of Sclera (carries nerve impulses
light entering the eye) (tough, white away to the brain)
Lens protective layer)
Human Eye

Parts of the Human Eye


Various parts of the human eye are discussed as
1. Sclera : It is a tough white protective layer that covers most of the outer part of the eye ball and
maintains its spherical shape.
2. Cornea : It is a transparent protective thin membrane which covers one-sixth of the front portion of an
eye ball.
3. Iris : It is a dark circular muscular diaphragm that controls the amount of light entering the eye (i.e., the
size of the pupil). In low light condition, it expands the size of the pupil so that more light enters the
eye through pupil while in good light condition, it contracts the size of the pupil so that less light enters
the eye through pupil.
4. Pupil : It is a small opening at the centre of the iris. It appears black because any light falling on it goes
into the eye and the amount of light entering the eye is controlled by changing the size of the pupil with
the help of iris.
5. Crystalline Lens or eye lens : It is a transparent, biconvex lens of adjustable focal length inside the
eye, so as to focus objects placed at different distances. The eye lens is composed of a fibrous, jelly-
like material.
6. Retina : It is a delicate membrane where the light entering the eye forms real and inverted image of an
object. It consists of millions of cells called rods and cones which receive the light and about one million
optic-nerve fibres through which the information is transmitted to the brain. The function of the rod
cells is to respond to the brightness of light while the function of the cone cells is to respond
to the colours and also to distinguish between various colours.

Object
Image

Image formation of an object on retina

Note : The entire retina of an adult human contains about 7 million cones and 75 to 150 million rods.

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Human Eye and Colourful World 61
7. Ciliary Muscles : They alter the curvature of the eye lens. They can thus change the focal length of eye
lens.
8. Optic nerve : It carries nerve impulses to the brain.
9. Blind spot : It is not sensitive to light. In other words, blind spot is the area of zero vision i.e., if an image
is formed on this region of retina, it is not sensed and hence, the object is not seen. There are no rods
and cones at this spot and it is area where the optic nerve leads back into the brain.
10. Yellow spot : It is a small oval, yellowish area of the retina lying exactly opposite to the centre of cornea.
It is most sensitive to the light as maximum number of light sensitive cells are concentrated at this region.

Working of Ciliary Muscles


Ciliary
Ligaments muscles

Lens

Normal eye Focusing far object Focusing close object


(Ciliary muscles relaxed) (Ciliary muscles strained)
If an object is at infinity, parallel beam of light enters the eye and in this condition eye is least strained and
said to be ‘relaxed’ or ‘unstrained’.

Image

Relaxed or Normal eye


If an object is at least distance of distinct vision (near point), eye is under maximum strain and visual angle
is maximum as shown in the given figure.

O
Image

D = 25 cm

Maximum strained eye

Power of Accommodation
The ability of an eye to see objects from infinity (far point) upto 25 cm (near point) is called “power of
accommodation” or the ability of the eye lens to adjust its focal length is called power of accommodation.
Working of The Eye
When rays of light coming from an object enter into the pupil of the eye and falls on the eye lens as shown
in figure, it converges the light rays and produces a real and inverted image of the object on the retina. The
image formed on the retina is conveyed to the brain by the optic nerve and gives rise to the sensation of
vision.

Object
Image

Image formation of an object on retina

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62 Human Eye and Colourful World Physics - Class X (Level-I)

Example 1 :
What is a pupil?
Solution :
Pupil is a small opening at the centre of iris through which light enters in the eye and falls on the eye lens.

Example 2 :
What happens to the image distance in the eye when we increase the distance of an object from the eye?
Solution :
Image distance remains unchanged. As the distance of object increases, the focal length of the eye lens is
adjusted by ciliary muscles so that image is always formed at retina.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
An eye for an eye
Eye donation : A gift of beauty and return of an endless life after death. By donating our eyes after we
die, we can light the dark life of a blind person.
Nearly, 35 million people in world are blind and most of them can be cured. Around 4.5 million people (most
of which are children below 12 years of age), with corneal blindness may be cured by the corneal
transplantation of donated eyes. We should pass our vision to somebody in need.

Who can donate eye?


Eyes can be donated by any person to a visually challenged person suffering from corneal blidness. The
person may be
™ A male or female of any age.
™ A male or female of any society, caste, religion.
™ A male or female using spectacles, suffering from any normal disease but not AIDS, Hepatitis B or C,
Rabies, Leukemia, Tetanus, Cholera, Encephalitis.

Time of donation
The eyes can be donated within 4 to 6 hours after death of a person at any place, home or hospital.
A person who wants to donate the eyes has to pledge eyes during his/her life time to any registered eye
bank. He/she should also inform his/her relative about his pledge so that they can take necessary action
after his/her death.
™ The eye bank team removes the eye of deceased person at his/her home or at a hospital.
™ Eye removal takes about 10–15 minutes only without any disfigurement.
™ The identities of both the donor and the recipient is kept confidential.

Remember the following after making the call to the eye bank
™ Keep both eyes of the beloved deceased closed and cover with moist cotton.
™ Switch off the ceiling fan, if any, directly over the deceased person.
™ If possible apply antibiotic eye drops periodically in the deceased’s eyes to reduce the chance of any
infection.
™ Raise the head of the deceased by about six inches, if possible, to reduce the chances of bleeding at
the time of removal of the eyes.

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Human Eye and Colourful World 63
DEFECTS OF VISION
Defects occurs when a person is not able to see the objects distinctly and comfortably without strain on eyes.
It is due to the optical defects of the eye. The common refractive defects of vision include myopia,
hypermetropia and presbyopia.

Myopia (Short-sightedness or Near-sightedness)

In this defect, a person is not able to see the distant objects clearly, however he can see the nearby objects
clearly.
(i) The far point of a person with this defect becomes closer than infinity [figure (i)].
(ii) This defect arises due to increase in the curvature of the eye lens or decrease in the focal length of the
eye lens or elongation of the eyeball.
(iii) In this defect, the image of the distant object is formed in front of the retina [figure (ii)].
(iv) This defect can be corrected by using a spectacles having diverging (concave) lens of suitable power.
Purpose of using this lens is to produce the image back at the retina [figure (iii)].

O O O O O

(i) (ii) (iii)


(i) Far point of a myopic eye, (ii) Myopic eye and (iii) Correction for myopia with concave lens

1 1
(v) The power (P) of the lens needed to correct this defect is P   . [Here, F is the far point in metre]
f F

Hypermetropia or Hyperopia (Long-sightedness or Far-sightedness)

In this defect, a person is not able to see the nearby objects clearly, however he can see the distant objects
clearly.
(i) The near point of a person with this defect becomes greater than the normal near point (i.e., 25 cm)
[figure (i)].
(ii) This defect arises due to decrease in the curvature of the eye lens or increase in focal length of the eye
lens or the eyeball has become too small.
(iii) In this defect, the light rays from the nearby objects are focussed at a point behind the retina of the eye
[figure (ii)].
(iv) This defect can be corrected by using a spectacles having converging (convex) lens of suitable power.
Purpose of using this lens is to provide the additional focussing power required for forming the image
on the retina [figure (iii)].

N N N N N
(i) (ii) (iii)
(i) Near point of a hypermetropic eye, (ii) Hypermetropic eye and
(iii) Correction for hypermetropic eye

1  1 1   1 
(v) Power of the lens needed to correct the defect is P    or P   4  .
f  0.25 N.P.   N.P. 
[Here, N.P. (Near point) should be in metre].

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64 Human Eye and Colourful World Physics - Class X (Level-I)

Presbyopia

The power of accommodation of the eye usually decreases with ageing. For most people, the near point
gradually recedes away. This defect is also called as old sightedness (far-sightedness of old person).
(i) Presbyopic person finds it difficult to see the nearby objects comfortably and distinctly.
(ii) This defect usually occurs in old age because of gradual weakening of the ciliary muscles and diminishing
flexibility of the eye lens and thereby ciliary muscles lose their elasticity and so cannot change the focal
length of the eye lens effectively.
(iii) Sometimes, a person may suffer from both myopia and hypermetropia. In such case, the defect can be
corrected by using the spectacles having bifocal lenses such that the lower portion of the bifocal lens is
a convex lens so as to focus the nearby objects and the upper portion of the bifocal lens is a concave
lens so as to focus the distant objects.

Astigmatism

In this defect, the vision of a person becomes blurred because he is not able to focus on both horizontal as
well as vertical lines simultaneously.
(i) This defect occurs due to the irregular shape of cornea or the imperfect spherical nature of the eye lens
and that’s why the focal length of the eye lens in two perpendicular directions becomes different.
(ii) This defect can be corrected by using spectacles having cylindrical lens.

Cataract

In this defect, vision of eye gradually decreases and is ultimately lost.


(i) In this defect, the eye lens of a person loses its transparency and becomes opaque.
(ii) It occurs because of formation of membrane over the eye lens.
(iii) It can be corrected by cataract surgery.
(iv) It is more common in older people but it can occur at any age.

DO YOU KNOW?
There are several advantages of our having two eyes instead of one. We have a horizontal field view of
about 150° with one eye and about 180° with two eyes. Thus two eyes gives us a wider field of view.
But this view is less than animals, usually prey animals, having two eyes positioned on opposite sides
of their heads. If you shut one eye, the world looks flat i.e., two dimensional. Keep both eyes open and
the world takes on the third dimension of depth. As our eyes are separated by a few centimetres, each
eye sees a slightly different image. Our brain combines the two images into one, using the extra
information to tell us how close or far away things are. This is called stereopsis. The ability to detect
faint objects is, of course, enhanced with two eyes instead of one.

PERSISTENCE OF VISION
It is the ability of the eye to continue to see the image of an object for very small interval of time even after
1
the removal of the object. The image of an object persists on the retina for nearly th of a second after the
16
removal of the object.
Due to the persistence of vision, we are unable to detect discontinuity between the frames of a movie’s pictures
in the cinema hall as the frame rate is 24 frames per second.

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Human Eye and Colourful World 65
Example 3 :

A person cannot see any object distinctly placed beyond 50 cm from his eye. Calculate the power of the
lens which will enable him to see the distant stars clearly.

Solution :

As the person cannot see objects clearly beyond 0.5 m, so his far point is 0.5 m (or 50 cm). He wants to
see the distant stars clearly. To do so, he should use lens which forms the image of a distant object
(u = –) at a distance of 50 cm in front of it.

So, from lens formula,

1 1 1
 
v u f
1 1 1
   O
 50   f
 f = – 50 cm = – 0.5 m
50 cm
1 1
or Power P     2 D
f 0.5

Example 4 :

What must be the nature of the lens used in spectacles of a person suffering from Myopia?

Solution :

Concave lens.

Example 5 :

A person with a defective eye vision is unable to see the objects nearer than 1.5 m. He wants to read a
book at a distance of 30 cm. Find the focal length and the power of the lens he needs in his spectacles.

Solution :

This person is hypermetropic

u = –30 cm, v = –1.5 m = –150 cm

Focal length of the corrective lens,

1 1 1
 –
f v u
1 1 1
  –
f – 150 – 30
150
 f 
4

f  37.5 cm

As focal length is positive 37.5 cm it shows he needs a convex lens of focal length 37.5 cm.

100
 Power   2.67 D
37.5

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66 Human Eye and Colourful World Physics - Class X (Level-I)

Example 6 :

A far-sighted man cannot focus distinctly on objects closer than 75 cm. What is the power of the lens that
will permit him to read from a distance of 40 cm?

Solution :

As here near point is 75 cm and the distance of the object is 40 cm both in front of the lens,

From lens formula,

1 1 1
P   [∵ u = –0.4 m and v = –0.75 m]
f v u

1 1
or P 
 0.75 ( 0.4)
4 5 7
or P   D
3 2 6

Try Yourself
1. The least distance of distinct vision for an adult man/woman

(1) 25 cm (2) 2.5 m

(3) 25 m (4) 2.5 cm

2. The human eye can focus objects at different distances by adjusting the focal length of the eye lens.
This is known as

(1) Presbyopia (2) Accommodation

(3) Myopia (4) Astigmatism

3. To correct myopic defect, the focal length of the concave lens should be

(1) Equal to the distance of far point (2) Less than the distance of far point

(3) Less than the distance of near point (4) Equal to the distance of near point

4. Hypermetropia is the defect of vision due to which a person finds difficulty in seeing the

(1) Distant objects (2) Nearby objects

(3) Objects at all distances (4) Colours

5. The change in the focal length of the eye lens is caused by the action of the

(1) Pupil (2) Retina

(3) Ciliary muscles (4) Iris

6. A person is suffering from the defect of astigmatism. Its main reason is

(1) Decrease in the focal length of the eye lens

(2) Power of accommodation of the eye is decreased

(3) Irregular shape of cornea or the imperfect spherical nature of the eye lens

(4) Increase in the focal length of the eye lens

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Human Eye and Colourful World 67
7. Which of the following diagrams shows myopic eye?

(1) (2)

(3) (4)

[Ans. 1(1), 2(2), 3(1), 4(2), 5(3), 6(3), 7(2)]

REFRACTION OF LIGHT THROUGH A PRISM


1. A glass prism is a refracting medium with two or more non-parallel refracting surfaces. It is named according
to the shape of its base. The prism shown below is a triangular prism which has two triangular bases and
three rectangular lateral surfaces. For a triangular glass prism, the angle between the non-parallel (lateral)
refracting surfaces is known as the angle of the prism denoted by A.
D

A
Angle of R Angle of
incidence i r1 r2 e emergence
Q
P O
S
2. When light passes through a prism as shown in figure below, it gets deviated and the angle between the
emergent ray and the incident ray is called angle of deviation ().
A


i e
Em
erg
ray en
cident t ra
In B C y

DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT BY A GLASS PRISM


When white light (composition of seven component colours) passes through a prism then each colour is
deviated by different angles. Because the refractive index of the prism is different for different colours depending
upon their wavelengths (higher the wavelength of light, lower is the refractive index). If this pattern is obtained
on a screen, then we find that violet colour is deviated the most and red colour is deviated the least. The colour
sequence obtained on the screen are Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red. These colours can
be remembered by the famous acronym VIBGYOR. This colour pattern (or colour band) is called spectrum
of white light. The splitting of white light into its component colours is called dispersion.

R
ht O
hite lig Y
W G Spectrum
B
I
V
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68 Human Eye and Colourful World Physics - Class X (Level-I)

Sir Isaac Newton was the first person to obtain the spectrum of sunlight by using a glass prism. He also tried
several times to split the colours of the spectrum further by using another similar prism. However, he could
not get any more colours. He then used a second identical prism in an inverted position with respect to the
first prism, as shown in the figure given below. He noticed that all the colours recombined and beam of white
light emerge from the other side of the second prism.
P1 P2
t
e ligh
Recombination Whit
A1
R
ht
e lig
Whit
Dispersion V
A2
Recombination of the spectrum of white light
Finally, Newton concluded that the sunlight is made up of seven colours.

Note : Any light that gives a spectrum similar to that of sunlight is often referred as white light.

Rainbow
It is a natural optical phenomenon caused by the dispersion of sunlight by tiny water droplets in the Earth’s
atmosphere. This results in a spectrum of light appearing in the sky. A rainbow is always formed in a direction
opposite to that of the sun. When sunlight is incident on the water droplets, it get refracted while entering a
droplet, then it is internally reflected inside on the back of the droplet and refracted again when leaving it. Due
to the dispersion of light and total internal reflection, different colours reaches the observer’s eyes at different
angles forming the spectrum.

Sunlight
R
V R

V R

Contribution of a single water droplet suspended in air in the formation of a rainbow

Note : Actually rainbows are full circles, however, most of the observers see approximately the upper half
of the arc only.

Example 7 :

What phenomenon is depicted in the given diagram? Explain the phenomenon and label A and B in the
diagram.

A
B
V
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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Human Eye and Colourful World 69
Solution :
The phenomenon depicted in the diagram is dispersion of light. When a ray of white light passes through
the prism, it splits up into its constituents colour (VIBGYOR).
where, A  White light beam
B  Spectrum of white light (VIBGYOR).
Example 8 :

When a white light passes through a prism, which colour deviates the least and which colour deviates the
most?
Solution :
Red colour deviates least and violet colour deviates most.

ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION
With height, the layers of the atmosphere changes, so does its optical density, hence light on entering the earth’s
atmosphere undergoes refraction continuously. The refraction of light by the earth’s atmosphere is termed as
atmospheric refraction. Now, let us see few phenomena occurring in nature due to the atmospheric refraction of light.

Twinkling of Stars
Apparent
Stars are self luminous distant objects. The twinkling of a star is due Star star position
to atmospheric refraction of starlight. The starlight, on entering the
earth’s atmosphere, undergoes refraction continuously before it
reaches the earth. The atmospheric refraction occurs in a medium of
Ray path
gradually changing refractive index. Since the atmosphere bends the
starlight towards the normal, the apparent position of the star is
slightly higher than its actual position when viewed near the horizon.
Further, this apparent position of the star keeps on changing slightly
Refractive index
because the physical conditions of the earth’s atmosphere changes increasing
continuously. As stars appears to be point-sized sources of light, so
even the slight variation in the path of light leads to fluctuation in the
position of the stars. Even the starlight reaching our eyes increases
and decreases continuously due to atmospheric refraction and the star
appears to twinkle at night.
Planets do not twinkle because the planets are much closer to the earth. A planet can be considered as a
collection of a large number of point-sized sources of light. So the total variation in the amount of light entering
our eye from all the individual point sized sources will average out to zero, thereby nullifying the twinkling effect.

Oval Shape of the Sun in the Morning and Evening


In the morning or evening, the sun is at the horizon and refractive index of the earth’s atmosphere decreases
with height. Due to this, light reaching the earth’s atmosphere from different parts of vertical diameter of the
sun, enters at different heights in the earth’s atmosphere and so travels in media of different refractive indices
at the same instant and hence, bends unequally. Due to this unequal bending, image of the sun appears oval
and larger. However, at noon when the sun is over head, then due to normal incidence of sunlight there will
be no bending and the sun appears circular.

Duration of the Sun’s Visibility


In the absence of atmosphere the sun will be visible at its actual position (or at actual sunrise, when the sun
is actually crossing the horizon). However, in the presence of atmosphere (in which refractive index (n)
decreases with height) due to the phenomenon of refraction, the sun becomes visible even when it is below
the horizon. It is estimated that due to this effect the period of visibility of the sun increases by two minutes
in the morning and two minutes in the evening.

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Apparent position
of the sun

Observer Horizon

Earth

Atmospheric refraction effects at sunrise and sunset

Example 9 :

Define twinkling effect.


Solution :
When we look up in the sky, the apparent position of the star fluctuates due to change in physical conditions
of the earth’s atmosphere and the amount of light entering the eye flickers. So, the stars sometimes appear
brighter and at some other time fainter. This phenomenon is called twinkling effect.

Example 10 :

What is the difference between the hot and cold air in terms of refractive index?
Solution :
The refractive index of the cold air is greater than that of hot air.

SCATTERING OF LIGHT
When sunlight falls on a mixture of minute particles (like smoke, tiny water droplets, suspended particles of
dust and molecules of air in the earth’s atmosphere), it gets scattered in all directions, if the size of the particle
is comparable to the wavelength of light. These particles are more effective in scattering light of shorter
wavelength at the blue end than light of longer wavelength at the red end.

S
Incident beam

Scattered light

Tiny particle

Tyndall Effect
The earth’s atmosphere is a heterogenous mixture of minute particles which includes smoke, tiny water droplets,
suspended particles of dust and molecules of air. When a beam of light strikes such fine particles the path
of the beam becomes visible. The light reaches us, after being reflected diffusely by these particles. The
phenomenon of scattering of light by the colloidal particles gives rise to Tyndall effect. This phenomenon is
seen when a fine beam of sunlight enters a smoke filled room through a small hole. Thus, scattering of light
makes the particles visible.

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Human Eye and Colourful World 71
Tyndall effect can also be observed when sunlight passes through a canopy of a dense forest. Here, tiny water
droplets in the mist scatter the light.
The colour of the scattered light depends on the size of the scattering particles. Very fine particle scatter mainly
blue light while particles of larger size scatter light of longer wavelengths. If the size of the scattering particles
is large enough, then the scattered light may even appear white.

Blue Colour of Sky


It is on the account of scattering of sunlight from the earth’s atmosphere. The molecules of air and other fine
particles in the atmosphere have size smaller than the wavelength of visible light. These are more effective in
scattering light of shorter wavelengths. So as the wavelength of blue light is less than that of red. (b < r),
therefore maximum scattering is of blue colour. Hence, the sky appears blue.

White light directly


from the sun

Blue sky
(Due to scattered light)

Reddish Colour of Sun at the Time of Sunrise and Sunset


The sun rays near the horizon pass through thicker layers of air and
dust particles and travel larger distances in the earth’s atmosphere
before reaching our eyes. Thus most of the blue light will be
scattered, therefore maximum red colour (longer wave length) of light
reaches our eyes. Therefore, the sun and the region around the sun
looks reddish. Whereas when the sun is at over head, sun rays travel
relatively shorter distance. At noon the sun appears white as only a
little of the blue and violet colours are scattered.

Sun nearly
overhead

Blue light scattered away Less blue


Sun appears reddish scattered

Sun near
horizon Observer

Fig. : Reddening of the Sun at sunrise and sunset

Example 11 :

Why are the ‘danger’ signal lights, red in colour?


Solution :
The red light is least scattered by fog or smoke, so it is visible in the same colour from quite a large distance
even through fog or smoke.

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Example 12 :
Why does the sky appears dark instead of blue to an astronaut in space?
Solution :
The sky appears dark to the astronauts in space, as the space does not have atmosphere, so the scattering
of light does not take place at such heights in the space.

Example 13 :
What is Tyndall effect?
Solution :
The phenomenon of scattering of light by the colloidal particles of a medium is known as Tyndall effect.

ZONE
Physics professor has been doing an experiment, and has worked out an empirical equation that
seems to explain his data. He asks the maths professor to look at it.
A week later, the maths professor says the equation is invalid. By then, the physics professor has used
his equation to predict the results of further experiments, and he is getting excellent results, so he
asks the maths professor to look it again.
Another week goes by, and they meet once more. The maths professor tells the physics professor that,
the equation does work, “But only in the trivial case where the numbers are real and positive”.

Try Yourself
8. When sunlight is incident on a prism, it produces a spectrum due to
(1) Atmospheric refraction
(2) Reflection
(3) TIR
(4) Variation in speeds of different colours of light in the prism
9. A ray of light is coming from air to water. Which of the following figures show dispersion of the
light?

Air Air
(1) Water (2)
Water
V
R R
V

Air Air
(3) Water (4)
R
V
V
R
Water
10. Rainbow is formed due to
(1) Dispersion and total internal reflection (2) Refraction and absorption
(3) Dispersion and scattering (4) Refraction and scattering

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Human Eye and Colourful World 73
11. When a beam of light passes through an unknown solution, its path becomes visible. The unknown
solution among the following is
(1) Water (2) Vinegar
(3) Blood (4) Salt solution
12. The reddish appearance of the sun at sunrise and sunset is due to
(1) Scattering (2) Dispersion
(3) Total internal reflection (4) All of these
13. It is said that the sun becomes visible before the actual rise and remains visible even after the actual
sunset. This makes the day a bit longer. It happens due to
(1) Scattering of sunlight (2) Atmospheric reflection of sunlight
(3) Atmospheric refraction of sunlight (4) Dispersion of sunlight
14. After a shower of rain, a colourful spectrum is seen
(1) Towards the sun (2) Opposite to the sun
(3) Anywhere in the sky (4) Even in absence of the sun
15. It is observed that "danger" signal lights are red in colour. This is because
(1) The red colour is most scattered by fog or smoke
(2) The red colour has lower wavelength than violet
(3) The red colour is least scattered by the fog or smoke
(4) Frequency of red colour is greater than other colours
[Ans. 8(4), 9(2), 10(1), 11(3), 12(1), 13(3), 14(2), 15(3)]

QUICK RECAP
1. Human eye consists of a crystalline convex lens (Eye lens) and a screen (Retina). The eye lens forms
a real image of an object on the retina of the eye and we are able to see the object.
2. The eye has an ability to focus both near and distant objects, by adjusting its focal length, this ability
is called power of accommodation of the eye.
3. The minimum distance at which the eye can see the objects clearly without strain is 25 cm. This distance
is called least distance of distinct vision.
4. The farthest point from the eye which can be seen clearly is called far point of the eye. For normal human
eye, it is infinity ().
5. The common defects of vision are myopia (short-sightedness), hypermetropia (far-sightedness), presbyopia,
astigmatism and cataract.
6. Myopic eye cannot see the distant objects clearly though can see the nearby objects clearly. The image
of an object is formed before retina. It is corrected by using a concave lens.
7. Hypermetropic eye cannot see the nearby objects clearly though it can see the distant objects clearly.
This is because the light rays from a close by object are focussed at a point behind the retina. It can
be corrected by using convex lens.
8. Presbyopia is the defect of the eye due to which an old person cannot read comfortably and clearly
without spectacles. The same person may have both the defects of vision – myopia as well as
hypermetropia. In this case, it is corrected by using bifocal lens, in which upper half part consists of a
concave lens and lower half consists of a convex lens.

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74 Human Eye and Colourful World Physics - Class X (Level-I)

9. Astigmatism is that defect of the eye in which the person cannot focus on both horizontal and vertical
lines simultaneously. It arises due to the irregularities in the shape of cornea. It can be corrected by using
cylindrical lens.
10. Cataract arises due to formation of a membrane over the eye lens and it become cloudy. This defect can
be corrected by cataract surgery.
11. The refraction of light which is caused by the earth’s atmosphere having varying refractive index is called
atmospheric refraction.
12. The twinkling of stars, the sun is seen two minutes before the actual sunrise and two minutes after the
actual sunset, is all due to the atmospheric refraction of light.
13. Dispersion is the phenomenon of splitting of white light into its constituents colours when passed through
a prism.
14. Scattering is the phenomenon of scatter of the sunlight when it falls on minute particles of size
comparable to the wavelength of light.
15. Scattering of sunlight is the cause of blue colour of sky and reddish colour of the sun at sunrise and
sunset.

‰ ‰ ‰

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Assignment
Short Answer Type Questions :
SECTION-A
1. What do you mean by power of accommodation of
Very Short Answer Type Questions : the eye?
2. If a person can see the distant object clearly but
1. What kind of lens is present in the human eye?
cannot see the nearby object, what type of
2. How long the image of an object will remain in our corrective lens he should use to restore his vision?
eyes even after removal of the object? 3. Define the terms cornea and optical nerves.
3. In which defect of vision, the image of a distant 4. How a rainbow is formed in the sky after a rain
object is formed in front of retina? shower?
4. When is a person said to have cataract in his eye? 5. A person uses spectacles of power –0.5 D for distinct
vision. How far is the far point of the person?
5. Why does the sky appears blue?
6. What is astigmatism? How is it corrected?
6. What is the least distance and far distance of 7. The far-point of a myopic person is 100 cm in front
normal eye? of the eye. What is the nature and power of the
7. What is presbyopia? lens require to correct the vision?
8. What is meant by the ‘persistence of vision’?
8. In which defect of vision, the image of an object is
formed behind retina? 9. A beam of white light falling on a glass prism gets
split up into seven colours marked 1 to 7 as shown
9. What is meant by dispersion of light? in the diagram.
10. What focal length should the reading spectacles A student makes the following statements about
have for a person for whom the least distance of the spectrum observed on the screen as
distinct vision is 50 cm?
11. Fill in the blanks:
(a) The dark muscular diaphragm that controls the 1
amount of light entering the eye called ______. 2
3
(b) Another name of far-sightedness is ______. 4
5
(c) ______ of sunlight is the cause of blue colour 6
of sky and ______ colour of the sun at 7
sunset.
(i) The colours at positions marked 3 and 5 are
(d) The eye lens forms a ______ image of an
similar to the colour of the core of hard boiled
object on the ______ of the eye.
egg and sky respectively. Is the above
(e) The red colour is ______ scattered by the fog statement made by the student correct or
or smoke. incorrect? Justify

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76 Human Eye and Colourful World Physics - Class X (Level-I)

(ii) Which two positions correspond closely to the


colour of SECTION-B
(a) A solution of potassium permanganate?
Objective Type Questions :
(b) Stop signal or danger signal of light?
1. A person cannot see clearly the objects beyond
10. Explain
50 cm. What should be the power of the lens to
(i) Why the sky appears dark instead of blue to correct his vision?
an astronaut.
(1) –0.5 D (2) –1.0 D
(ii) The sky near the horizon appears to be
(3) –1.5 D (4) –2.0 D
reddish at the time of sunset and sunrise.
2. Stars are not visible in the day time because
11. Why we are unable to see our surroundings clearly
when we enter into a dark cinema hall from (1) Stars are behind the sun
outside’s bright sunlight. Why our vision improves (2) Stars do not reflect the sun's ray during day
after some time? Explain.
(3) Atmosphere scatters sunlight as a blanket of
12. A person can read the number of a distant bus extreme brightness through which faint stars
clearly, but he finds difficulty in reading a cannot be visible
newspaper.
(4) Stars vanish during the day
(i) What is his problem?
3. The atmospheric refraction occurs in a medium of
(ii) What type of spectacle lens should he use to gradually changing refractive index which causes
correct the problem?
(1) Scattering of light
13. The power of accommodation of the eye usually
decreases with ageing. Suppose when you will be (2) Blue colour of sky
old, which type of eye defect are you likely to (3) Twinkling of stars
suffer, will it be curable. If yes, what types of
(4) Tyndall effect
spectacles you would use?
4. Who was the first to use a glass prism to obtain
Long Answer Type Questions : the spectrum of sunlight?
1. Differentiate between myopia and hypermetropia. (1) Galileo (2) Newton
A student finds the writing on the blackboard as (3) Einstein (4) Raman
blurred and unclear when sitting on the last desk 5. If a person is using a concave lens to restore his
in the classroom. He however, sees it clearly when vision, then he is suffering from
sitting on the front desk at an approximate
(1) Short-sightedness
distance of 2 m from the blackboard.
(2) Long-sightedness
Draw a ray diagrams to illustrate the formation of
image of the blackboard writing by his eye lens (3) Astigmatism
when he is seated at the (i) last desk (ii) front (4) Night-blindness
desk.
6. Illumination of the sun at noon is maximum
2. Draw a diagram of the human eye. Mark clearly because
the cornea, iris, pupil, ciliary muscles, optical
(1) Scattering of sunlight is increased at noon
nerve, blind spot, yellow spot and write short notes
on each part of the eye. (2) The sun is nearer to the earth at noon
3. What is near-sightedness? List two causes for (3) Rays are incident almost normally
near-sightedness. Describe with a ray diagram, (4) Reflection of light is minimum at noon
how this defect may be corrected by using
spectacles? 7. A person uses a spectacles of power +2 D, he is
suffering from
4. What is far-sightedness? List any two causes for
far sightedness. Describe with a ray diagram, how (1) Myopia (2) Presbyopia
this defect may be corrected by using spectacles? (3) Astigmatism (4) Hypermetropia

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Human Eye and Colourful World 77
8. A person with defective eye cannot see a closer 16. The maximum focal length of the eye lens of a
objects clearly because the image is formed person is greater than its distance from the retina.
(1) On the eye lens The eye is

(2) Between eye lens and retina (1) Strained for an object at short distance only

(3) On the retina (2) Always strained in looking at an object

(4) Beyond retina (3) Unstrained for all distances

9. One cannot see through fog. This is because (4) Strained for object at large distances only

(1) Fog absorbs light 17. The muscles of a normal eye are least strained
when the eye is focused on an object
(2) The refractive index of fog is infinity
(1) Very close to eye
(3) Light suffers total internal reflection in the fog
(2) Far away from the eye
(4) Light is scattered by the droplets in the fog
(3) At 25 cm from the eye
10. The correct arrangement of colours in the
descending order of their wavelength is (4) At 1 m from the eye
(1) Yellow, Violet, Green, Orange 18. A person with glasses cannot see the object at the
distance more than 60 cm from his eye. In order
(2) Orange, Yellow, Green, Violet
to see the object clearly he must use the lens of
(3) Violet, Green, Yellow, Orange power
(4) Orange, Green, Yellow, Violet (1) – 60 D (2) + 60 D
11. If a person closes his one eye, the world appears (3) – 1.66 D (4) + 1.66 D
to him as
19. Myopia is due to
(1) One dimensional (2) Three dimensional
(1) Irregular change in focal length of the eye lens
(3) Two dimensional (4) All of these
(2) Elongation of eyeball
12. In human eye, the focusing of the image of an
(3) Older eye
object is done by
(4) Shortening of eyeball
(1) To and fro movement of the eye lens
20. Name the defect of the eye in which person cannot
(2) To and fro movement of the retina
see near and far objects clearly
(3) Change in the convexity of the eye lens
(1) Presbyopia
(4) Change in the refractive index of the eye fluids
(2) Myopia
13. C.V. Raman got Nobel prize for his experiment on
(3) Hypermetropia
(1) Dispersion of light (2) Reflection of light
(4) Astigmatism
(3) Refraction of light (4) Scattering of light
21. Which phenomenon of light is involved in the
14. A doctor advises a patient to use spectacles with rainbow formation?
a convex lens of focal length 40 cm in contact with
a concave lens of focal length 25 cm. The power (1) Scattering of sunlight
of the combination is (2) Atmospheric refraction of sunlight
(1) –6.5 D (2) –1.5 D (3) Dispersion of sunlight
(3) 6.5 D (4) 1.5 D (4) Reflection of sunlight
15. When sunlight is passed through a triangular glass 22. The stars sometimes appears brighter, and at
prism, the colour which deviates least is some other time fainter. This is because
(1) Blue (1) Of atmosphere refraction
(2) Red (2) Of scattering of light
(3) Green (3) The stars are the point sources of light
(4) Violet (4) The refractive index of atmosphere is uniform

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23. A defect of vision in which lines in one plane of an 26. A ray of light passing through a prism P suffers
object appear in focus while those in another plane minimum deviation in the equilateral prism P. If
are out of focus is called additional prisms Q and R of identical shape and
(1) Astigmatism (2) Presbyopia of the same material as P are now added to P, as
shown in the figure. The ray will now suffer
(3) Myopia (4) Hypermetropia
24. A person has a horizontal field of view of about x
with one eye and y with two eyes. The value of
x and y respectively are P Q R
(1) 180°, 150° (2) 130°, 150°
(3) 150°, 170° (4) 150°, 180°
25. In the given figure, the image is formed at the back (1) Same deviation as before
of retina. The eye is (2) Greater deviation
(3) Lesser deviation
(4) No deviation
I 27. Myopia is due to
(1) Excessive positive diopters of the eye lens
(2) Excessive negative diopters of the eye lens
(1) Normal (2) Myopic (3) Irregular change in focal length of eye lens
(3) Hypermetropic (4) Astigmate (4) None of these

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Chapter-2
Human Eye and Colourful World

Level-II
(For CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads)
Human Eye and
CHAPTER 2
Colourful World THIS CHAPTER INCLUDES
z Angle of Prism
z Factors Affecting the Angle of Deviation
z Angle of Deviation
ANGLE OF PRISM
z Condition for Minimum Deviation
D z Colour Detection by Human Eye

A z Critical Angle
Angle of R Angle of z Total Internal Reflection (TIR)
incidence i r1 r2 e emergence
Q z Application of Total Internal Reflection
P O
S z Assignment

In QOR,
r1 + r2 + QOR = 180°
[Angle sum property of a triangle]

QOR = 180° – (r1 + r2) …(i)

In quadrilateral DQOR,

A + DQO + QOR + ORD = 360°


[Sum of interior angles of a quadrilateral is 360°]

DQO + ORD = 180° [90°


each]

 A + QOR = 180°

From (i),

A + 180° – (r1 + r2) = 180°

 A = (r1 + r2)

FACTORS AFFECTING THE ANGLE OF DEVIATION

The value of the angle of deviation depends on the following factors :


(i) The angle of incidence (i)
(ii) The material of prism (n)
(iii) The angle of prism (A), and
(iv) The wavelength () of light used.

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80 Human Eye and Colourful World Physics - Class X (Level-II)

ANGLE OF DEVIATION
 = (i + e) – A
where i = Angle of incidence
e = Angle of emergence
A = Angle of prism

CONDITION FOR MINIMUM DEVIATION


It is found experimentally that as the angle of incidence increases, first the angle of deviation decreases
and reaches to its minimum value for a certain angle of incidence. By further increasing the angle of
incidence angle of deviation is found to increase. This minimum deviating angle is called the minimum
angle of deviation.
For minimum deviation Angle of deviation
(i) Refracted ray becomes parallel to the base of the prism.
(ii) Angle of incidence becomes equal to the angle of emergence.
 min
i.e., i = e
Hence minimum angle of deviation  = m
m = i + i – A Angle of incidence (i)

m  2i  A

Example 1 :

A ray of light incident at an angle 48° on a prism of refracting angle 60° suffers minimum deviation. Calculate
the angle of minimum deviation.
Solution :
i = 48°
A = 60°
m = ?
Form m = 2i – A
m = 2 × 48 – 60
= 96° – 60° = 36°

Example 2 :

What should be the angle of incidence for a ray of light which suffers a minimum deviation of 36° through
an equilateral prism?
Solution :
A = 60° (Equilateral prism)
i=?
m = 36°
We know, m = 2i – A
m  A
i =
2
36  60
= = 48°
2

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Physics - Class X (Level-II) Human Eye and Colourful World 81

Knowledge Cloud
Scattering of light means bouncing off light by small particles like atoms, suspended particles or molecules
in various random directions and of different intensities, if the size of the particles is comparable to the
wavelength of light.
The intensity of the scattered light varies inversely to the fourth power of the wavelength of incident light.

1
i.e., I
4

COLOUR DETECTION BY HUMAN EYE


There are two shapes of cells in our retina, rods and cones. The function of the rod shaped cells is to respond
to the brightness (Intensity) of light whereas, the function of the cone shaped cells is to respond to the colour
of light in such a way that, not only we can see colours but also distinguish between various colours. These
cone shaped cells become active in bright light only. Since there is a difference in the structure of rods and
cones shaped cells in animals and human beings, that’s why the colour perception of animals is different
from human beings, we cannot see objects in ultraviolet light because our retina’s cones are not sensitive
to these wavelengths. Some persons are not able to distinguish between colours but can see well are known
as colour-blind. This is due to the absence of some cone shaped cells due to genetic disorder.

Knowledge Cloud
Red, blue and green are the primary spectral colours. The colour produced by mixing any two primary
colours is secondary colour. Cyan, yellow and magenta are secondary colours produced by mixing (blue,
green), (green, red) and (red, blue) respectively. A red object appears red because it absorbs all the colours
of light but reflects only red colour.

Example 3 :

How do we see colours?


Solution :
The retina of human eye has a large number of light sensitive cells. These cells are of two types. i.e., rod
cells and cone cells. The rod shaped cells show response towards the intensity of light rays, while the cone
shaped cells respond to colours. These cone cells, make it possible for human to see different colours and
distinguish between them.

CRITICAL ANGLE

It is the angle of incidence in denser medium corresponding to which the angle of refraction in rarer medium
is 90º. It is represented by C and depends upon nature of media in contact. Mathematically, it is given by
the relation.

1  1
sin C   C  sin1  
n n
where, n Refractive Index of the denser medium with respect to rarer medium.
C  Critical angle in degree

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82 Human Eye and Colourful World Physics - Class X (Level-II)

Table : Showing critical angles of few media w.r.t. air and their refractive index

S.No. Medium Critical angle w.r.t. air (C) Refractive index (n)
1. Water 48.75° 1.33
2. Crown glass 41.14° 1.52
3. Dense glass 37.31° 1.65
4. Diamond 24.41° 2.42

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION (T.I.R.)


It is the phenomenon of reflection of light into a denser medium from an interface of rarer and denser medium.
When the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle.
Essential Condition for T.I.R.
There are two essential conditions for T.I.R. as
(i) The ray of light should travel from denser medium to rarer medium.
(ii) The angle of incidence in the denser medium should be greater than the critical angle for the pair of media
in contact.
A typical diagram shows the condition of T.I.R.

r1 r2
90º Air (rarer medium)

r Water (denser medium)


C
i2 I>C
i1
Total
Internal Reflected Ray
Source Incident rays
of light

Example 4 :

The critical angle for liquid-air interface is 30°. Find the refractive index of the liquid.
Solution :
We have given,
C = 30°

1 1 1
sin C =  n 
n sin C sin30 
1
and sin 30º =
2
1
Therefore, n  2
1/ 2
 n=2

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Physics - Class X (Level-II) Human Eye and Colourful World 83
Example 5 :

For a ray of light going from a denser medium to rarer medium, what is the value of refractive index of the
medium if the critical angle is equal to 45°?
Solution :
Refractive index of the medium,
1
n 
sin C
where, C  Critical angle = 45°
1 1
n   2
sin 45 1
2
n= 2 = 1.414

APPLICATION OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

The Brilliance of Diamond


The critical angle 24.4° for the diamond - air boundary is extremely small. The diamond - air boundary plays
an important role in the brilliance of a diamond. Having a small critical angle, light has the tendency to become
“trapped” inside of a diamond once it enters into the diamond. Most rays approach the diamond at angles of
incidence greater than the critical angle so a light ray will typically undergo total internal reflection several times
before finally refracting out of the diamond. This gives diamond a tendency to sparkle.
Mirage
Mirage (in desert) is caused due to total internal reflection of light from boundary of rarer medium. On a hot
day in desert, the earth surface is hot hence air close to the earth surface is rarer than the upper air. When
a ray travels from the top of a tree to the earth, it is travelling from denser to rarer medium, hence may suffer
total internal reflection at any layer, hence we can observe the image of tree, without there being water.
Some of you might have noticed that while moving in a bus during a hot summer day, a distant patch of road,
especially on a highway, appears to be wet. But you do not find any evidence of wetness when you reach
that spot. This is also due to mirage.

Tree Atmospheric
refraction E
A

C
T
Denser i
Cold air : r
medium
Hot air : Rarer medium B

Very hot
ground Total internal reflection
of light takes place
(at point B) in the
upward direction

Mirage on a highway
Virtual image D
of tree
Mirage

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84 Human Eye and Colourful World Physics - Class X (Level-II)

Totally Reflecting Glass Prism


It is right angled isosceles prism which turns the light through 90° or 180° as shown in figures given below.
1
For glass the refractive index is 1.5, so that critical angle for the glass-air interface is sin C   42 .
1.5

In totally reflecting glass prisms, angle of incidence is made 45°(>C). Hence light suffers total internal reflection.

R
R
A N
A N Object N
Object N B
P
B B
Image N
P Q
A N
Q
A B
Image
(i) (ii)

(i) Light rays are turned through 90°, (ii) Light rays are turned through 180°
Optical Fibres and Its uses
Optical fibres are consist of several strands of very long fine quality fibres of glass or quartz. These are coated
with a thin layer of material (called cladding) of lower refractive index (than glass or quartz). Light incident on
one end of the fibre at a suitable angle, undergoes multiple total internal reflection inside the fibre. It finally
comes out of the other end without any loss of light even if the fibre is bent or twisted in any form.

Low 'n' Cladding

Core

high 'n'

Light undergoes successive total internal reflections as it moves through an optical fibre.
Uses of optical fibres :
(i) In medical examination, endoscopy
(ii) In transmitting and receiving electrical signals which are converted into light by suitable transducers.
(iii) In telephone and other transmitting cables. Each fibre can carry upto 2000 telephone messages without
much loss of intensity.
Shining of Air Bubble
An air bubble in water shines due to total internal reflection at its outer surface. Here light is propagating from
denser medium (water) to rarer medium (air) and if i > C (49º), T.I.R will take place due to which it shines.

i>C Air

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Try Yourself
1. A ray of light may suffer total internal reflection when it goes from
(1) Air to water (2) Water to glass
(3) Air to glass (4) Oil to air
2. Diamond shines due to
(1) Reflection (2) Refraction
(3) Total internal reflection (4) Polarisation
3. For an angle of incidence of 45° at the top surface of a glass slab as shown in figure, what is

 4
the maximum refractive index of glass for total internal reflection? For water   
 3

Water

45° Glass

4 4 2
(1) (2)
3 2 3
3 3 2
(3) (4)
4 2 4

4 5
4. If the refractive index of water is and that of the slab in previous problem is , then find the
3 3
sine of critical angle of incidence (ic) for the interface of the slab and water
5 4
(1) sin ic  (2) sin ic 
4 5
1 1
(3) sin ic  (4) sin ic 
5 4
5. A ray of light may suffer total internal reflection when it goes from
(1) Air to water (2) Water to glass
(3) Air to glass (4) Glass to water
6. A fish looking up through the water sees that the outside world is contained in a circular horizon.
4
If the refractive index of water is and the fish is 12 cm below the surface of water, the radius
3
of the circle (in centimeter) is
36
(1) 36 5 (2)
5
36
(3) 36 7 (4)
7
[Ans. 1(4), 2(3), 3(2), 4(2), 5(4), 6(4)

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Assignment
10. If a fish views outside from a depth h inside water
SECTION-A of refractive index n, then find the diameter of the
circle through which the outer objects become
Subjective Type Questions :
visible to fish.
1. What are the essential conditions for total internal
reflection? 3
11. A glass prism of refractive index is immersed
2
2. If the critical angle of a material-air interface is to
be 60°. What will be the value of refractive index of 4
in water (refractive index ). A light beam incident
the material? 3

3. What is colour-blindness? What kind of retina cells normally on the face AB is totally reflected to
are lacking in a person suffering from this defect? reach the face BC, as shown in figure. Find the
value of critical angle ic on the face AC.
4. Define the term critical angle. What do you mean
by total internal reflection? State two essential
conditions for total internal reflection to take place B A
with the help of a ray diagram, illustrate an
application of total internal reflection.

5. How does the angle of deviation produced by a


prism change with increase in the angle of
incidence.
12. Light incident normally on the short face of a
6. Draw a curve showing the variation in the angle of
30° – 60° – 90° prism. A liquid is poured on the
deviation with the angle of incidence at a prism
hypotenuse of the prism. If the refractive index of
surface.
prism is 3, find the maximum value of refractive
7. How does the angle of minimum deviation produced
index of the liquid so that light is totally reflected.
by a prism change with increase in

(i) Wavelength of incident light

(ii) Refracting angle of prism?

8. Derive an expression for angle of prism in terms of 60° 30°


refracting angle i.e., A = r1 + r2

9. Show with the help of diagram, how a right angled


isosceles prism can be used to invert the rays.

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13. Find the angle at which a ray must be incident on 4. If critical angle of a material w.r.t. air is 30°, then
a glass prism of refracting angle 75° such that refractive index of the material will be
emergent ray comes out parallel to the face
(1) 1.0 (2) 1.5
through which it comes out. (This is known as
(3) 2.0 (4) 2.5

grazing emergence) g  2  5. A ray is incident at a small angle i on one surface
14. The near point and far point of a person are at of a prism of small angle A and emerges normally
60 cm and 300 cm respectively. Find the power of from the opposite surface of the prism as shown in
lens he should use while reading at 30 cm. With the figure. (For small value of , sin  )
this lens on the eye, what maximum distance is
clearly visible?
A
15. A young boy can adjust the power of his lens
between 50 D to 60 D. If his far point is infinity, i 90°
then find his near point.

SECTION-B
If the refractive index of the material of the prism
Objective Type Questions : is n, then angle of incidence i is equal to

1. Optical fibres are based on the phenomenon of


A A
(1) (2)
(1) Total internal reflection 2n n

(2) Refraction
nA
(3) Total dispersion of light (3) nA (4)
2
(4) Scattering of light
6. The value of critical angle for a material of refractive
2. The cause of mirage observed in a desert is
index 2 is
(1) Refraction
(1) 60° (2) 30°
(2) Reflection
(3) 90° (4) 45°
(3) Scattering
7. Due to which phenomenon of light, an empty test
(4) Total internal reflection tube immersed in water appears silvery white when
viewed from the top?
3. Which of the following are the essential conditions
of TIR? (1) Reflection
A. Ray of light should travel from rarer medium to (2) Refraction
denser medium
(3) Total internal reflection
B. Ray of light should travel from denser medium
(4) Dispersion
to rarer medium
8. The primary colour among the following is
C. Angle of incidence should be greater than the
critical angle (1) Green (2) Cyan

D. Critical angle must be greater than the angle (3) Magenta (4) Yellow
of incidence 9. If yellow light falls on a red object. It appears
(1) A, B, C, D (2) B, D (1) Yellow (2) Green
(3) B, C (4) A, D (3) Red (4) Black

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10. The secondary colour among the following is 16. A ray of light suffers refraction through an
equilateral prism. The deviation produced by the
(1) Cyan (2) Blue
prism don’t depend on
(3) Red (4) Green
(1) Angle of incidence (2) Colour of light
11. A ray of light is inclined to one face of the prism
(3) Material of prism (4) Size of prism
at an angle of 50°. If the angle of prism is 70° and
the ray is deviated through an angle of 46°; then 17. A ray light incident at an angle of incidence i
the angle which the emergent ray makes with the passes an equilateral glass prism such that the
second face of the prism is refracted ray inside the prism is parallel to its base
and emerges at an angle of emergence ’e’. Then
(1) 28° (2) 74°
(1) i = e
(3) 14° (4) 46°

12. A ray of light incident on an equilateral glass prism i


(2) e 
shows minimum deviation of 30°. The speed of 2
light in the glass prism is
(3) e = 2i
(1) 2.12 × 108 m/s (2) 1.5 × 108 m/s
(4) e = 2i – A
(3) 1.414 × 108 m/s (4) 1.73 × 108 m/s
18. A ray of light incident normally on one face of an
13. The critical angle for a glass air surface, if a ray equilateral glass prism. The angle of refraction from
of light which is incident in air on the surface is the first face of the prism is
deviated through 15°, when its angle of incidence
(1) 90°
is 45°, is
(2) 60°
(1) 45° (2) 30°
(3) 45°
(3) 60° (4) 37°
(4) 0°
14. A ray of light incident on horizontal surface of a
glass slab at 60° just grazes the adjacent vertical 19. A scuba diver is wearing a head lamp and looking
surface after refraction. The critical angle for glass- up at the surface of water. If the minimum angle
air interface is to the vertical resulting in total internal reflection is
45°, then the refractive index of water is
–1  2  –1  2 
(1) sin   (2) tan   (1) 1.414
 3  3
(2) 1.23

–1  3  –1  2  (3) 1.73
(3) sin   (4) sin  
4 3 (4) 1.82

15. In refraction of light through a prism, the light ray: 20. Light is confined within the core of a simple optical
fiber by
(1) Suffers refraction only at one face of the prism
(1) Refraction
(2) Emerges out from the prism in a direction
parallel to the incident ray (2) Total internal reflection at the outer edge of the
cladding
(3) Bends at both the surface of prism towards its
base (3) Total internal reflection at the core cladding
boundary
(4) Bends at both the surfaces of prism opposite
to its base (4) Reflection from the fibre’s plastic coating

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SECTION-C SECTION-D

Assertion & Reason Type Questions : Match the Columns Type Questions :
1. Match the following :
In the following questions, a statement of assertion
(A) is followed by a statement of reason (R). Column-I Column-II

(1) If both Assertion & Reason are true and the reason a. Iris (i) Photoreceptor cells
in retina of the eye
is the correct explanation of the assertion, then
that work best in
mark (1).
relatively bright light
(2) If both Assertion & Reason are true but the reason b. Cones (ii) Coloured diaphragm
is not the correct explanation of the assertion, then in the eyeball
mark (2).
c. Rods (iii) Controls the size
(3) If Assertion is true statement but Reason is false, of the pupil to adjust
then mark (3). light intensity

(4) If both Assertion and Reason are false statements, d. Distinguish between (iv) Photoreceptor cells
then mark (4). various colours in retina of the eye
that can function in
1. A : White light splits into its constituent colours less intense light
when passes through a prism.
(1) a(ii), b(i), c(iv), d(i)
R : Dispersion of light occurs as it passes through (2) a(iii), b(i), c(iv), d(i)
a prism.
(3) a(ii, iii), b(iv), c(i), d(i)
2. A : A normal human eye can clearly see all the (4) a(ii, iii), b(i), c(iv), d(i)
objects beyond a certain minimum distance.
2. Match the following :
R : The human eye has the ability to adjust the Column-I Column-II
focal length of its lens to certain extent.
a. Near-sightedness (i) Can see far-off
3. A : A ray of light incident normally on a refracting objects clearly,
surface does not suffer any refraction. nearby objects are
blurred
R : The critical angle for total internal reflection is
greater when a ray of light travels from glass b. Far-sightedness (ii) Can see nearby
to water than when it travels from glass to air. objects clearly, far
off objects look
4. A : Sometimes the rainbow is seen in the sky blurred
after rain. While seeing a rainbow, one’s back
c. Astigmatism (iii) Myopia
should be towards the sun.
d. Cylindrical lens (iv) Not able to focus on
R : Internal reflection from water droplets causes both horizontal as
dispersion. The final ray is in backward well as vertical lines
direction. simultaneously

5. A : A myopic person needs lenses for driving a (1) a(ii), b(i), c(iv), d(iv)
vehicle. (2) a(iii), b(i), c(iv), d(iv)

R : Because focal length of the eye lens (3) a(ii, iii), b(i), c(iv), d(iv)
increases. (4) a(ii, iii), b(iv), c(i), d(iv)

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3. Match the following : 4. Match the following :


Column-I Column-II Column-I Column-II
a. Myopia (i) Concave lens
a. Atmospheric (i) Dispersion
refraction b. Hypermetropia (ii) Convex lens

b. Prism (ii) Twinkling of stars c. Astigmatism (iii) Can see nearby


objects clearly, but
c. Rainbow (iii) Mirage not far off objects
d. Optical illusion (iv) Splitting of white d. Presbyopia (iv) Surface of
light into constituent crystalline lens of
colours the eye becomes
uneven
(1) a(ii), b(i, iv), c(i, iv), d(iii)
(1) a(i), b(ii), c(iv), d(ii)
(2) a(iii), b(i, iv), c(i, iv), d(iii)
(2) a(iii), b(ii), c(iv), d(ii)
(3) a(ii, iii), b(i), c(i, iv), d(iii) (3) a(i, iii), b(ii), c(iv), d(ii, i)
(4) a(ii, iv), b(i, iv), c(i, iv), d(iii) (4) a(i, iii), b(iv), c(ii), d(ii)

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Chapter-3
Electricity

Level-I
(For CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads)
CHAPTER 3
Electricity THIS CHAPTER INCLUDES
z Electric Charge
¾ Properties of Electric Charge
z Conductors and Insulators
What do lightning, a flashlight, an alarm clock battery, and a
z Electric Current (Charges in Motion)
toaster have in common?
Are you still thinking? Here are some more items to add to the list z Electric Potential and Potential Difference
a computer, a car battery, a light bulb, the shock you feel when you z Flow of Charge
shuffle across a carpet and then touch something.
z Ohm’s Law (Resistance and Resistivity)
Their common link isn’t something magical. They are powered by
¾ Verification of Ohm’s Law
a form of energy called ELECTRICITY. It helps us do many things
and this chapter shall help you discover more about it. z Electrical Circuits

ELECTRIC CHARGE ¾ Active Elements


¾ Passive Elements
Charge is the property of matter due to which it
produces and experiences electrical and magnetic ¾ Circuit Symbols
effects.
z Combination of Resistors
There exist two types of charges in nature :
¾ Series Combination
(i) Positive charge
¾ Parallel Combination
(ii) Negative charge
SI unit of charge is coulomb (C). The CGS unit of z Common Measuring Instruments
charge is statcoulomb. z Joule’s Heating Effect of Current
z Practical Application of the Heating Effect of
Properties of Electric Charge
Electric Current
1. Quantization of charge
z Some Important Definitions
Electric charge on a body is always an integral
multiple of the smallest discrete value of charge z Quick Recap
(quanta of charge). A quanta of charge is the z Assignment
magnitude of charge on an electron (e) which has a
value
1. 6 × 10–19 C
Charge on an electron is negative and that on proton is positive but both are equal in magnitude i.e.
1.6 × 10–19 C
So, charge on a body can be written as
Q = ±ne where n = 1, 2, 3..........
™ Remember n cannot be fractional.

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92 Electricity Physics - Class X (Level-I)

2. Conservation of charge
For an isolated system (collection of matter), charge is always conserved. It can neither be created nor
be destroyed. It can only be transferred from one body to another or equal and opposite charges can
appear or disappear.
3. Invariance of charge
Charge invariance refers to the fixed value of the charge of a particle regardless of its speed. For example,
an electron has a charge i.e., 1.6 × 10–19 C which is independent of its speed.
4. Unlike charges attract and like charges repel each other.
5. Charge is a scalar quantity.
6. Additivity of charge: For an isolated system the net charge is the algebraic sum of all the charges
present in the system.

PARTICLE CHARGE MASS


PROTON +1.6 × 10–19C 1.6 × 10–24g
NEUTRON 0 1.6 × 10–24g
ELECTRON –1.6 × 10–19C 9.1 × 10–28g
-PARTICLE +3.2 × 10–19C 6.64 × 10–24g

Magnitude of charge on 1 electron is equal to 1.6 × 10–19 C.

1 C is equivalent to charge contained in 6.25 × 1018 electrons.

ZONE
™ Two atoms bump into each other. One says ‘I think I lost an electron’ The other asks, ‘Are
you sure?’, to which the first replies, ‘I’m positive’.
™ A neutron walks into a bar.
He asks the bartender– ‘How much for a beer’? The bartender looks at him and says
‘For you, no charge’.

Example 1 :

A body is given +1 C charge. How many electrons are added or removed from the body?

Solution :
As the given charge is positive, it is the result of deficiency of electrons which is a result of removal of electrons.
Now, from the quantization of charge
Q = ne
So, the number of electrons removed are
Q 1C
n   6.25  1018
e 1.6  1019 C

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Electricity 93
Example 2 :

From the given set of charges, which charge (s) is/are not possible?
(a) 3.2 × 10–20 C (b) 6.4 × 10–18C
(c) 0.8 × 10–16 C (d) 12.8 × 10–19 C
Solution :
As according to the quantization of charge, charge on a body should be an integral multiple of the charge
on an electron. So, the above set of charges can be written as

2 1
(a) 3.2 × 10–20 C =  1.6  10 19 =  1.6  10 19 C
10 5
(b) 6.4 × 10–18 C = 40 × 1.6 × 10–19 C
1000
(c) 0.8 × 10–16 C =  1.6  10 19 C = 500 × 1.6 × 10–19 C
2
(d) 12.8 × 10–19 C = 8 × 1.6 × 10–19 C
In (a) value of n is fraction, which is not possible so 3.2 × 10–20 C charge is not possible. But in the case
of (b), (c) and (d) the value of n is integer so they are possible.
Study of electricity is divided into two parts :
(i) Static electricity which deals with the physical effects produced by charges at rest.
(ii) Current electricity which deals with the physical effects produced by charges in motion.
Here, in this chapter we shall discuss only the basic features of current electricity.

CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS


(i) Those substances which allow electric charges to flow through them are called conductors. Copper, silver,
graphite, aqueous solution of salts etc. are conductors of electricity.
(ii) Those substances which do not allow charges to flow through them are called insulators. These can be
charged by friction (by rubbing with other body). Rubber, glass, plastic, porcelain, wood etc. are insulators.

ELECTRIC CURRENT (CHARGES IN MOTION)


The rate of flow of electric charges through any cross-section of a conductor is called electric current. If a
net charge Q passes through a cross-section in time t, then electric current I is

Q charge
I 
t time
(i) The current is a fundamental quantity in physics with unit ampere (A). So 1A is the amount of current
flowing in the circuit if 1C of charge moves across it in 1s.
(ii) The conventional direction of current is taken to be the direction of flow of positive charge or opposite to
the direction of flow of electrons.
(iii) A conductor remains uncharged when current flows through it.
(iv) For a given conductor, the current flowing through it does not vary as its cross-sectional area varies.

i3
i1 i2
i1= i2= i3 (conservation of charge)

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94 Electricity Physics - Class X (Level-I)

(v) When one ampere current flows through a conductor, then 6.25 × 1018 electrons per second flow across
any cross-section of the conductor.
(vi) Electric current in a conductor is set up due to the organized motion of free electrons on applying an
external source (source of electrical energy like cell or battery).

Free electrons

+ –

I
+ –

A conductor without a source A conductor with a source


(random motion of electrons) (organised motion of electrons)

DO YOU KNOW?
Electrons were not known at the time when the phenomenon of electricity was first observed. So, electric
current was considered to be the flow of positive charges and the direction of flow of positive charges was
taken to be the direction of electric current.
Symbol I for electric current was first used by the French scientist, Andre-Marie Ampere (1775-1836), after
whom the unit of electric current is named.

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

For flow of charges in a conducting metallic wire, the gravity of course, has no role to play. The electrons
move only due to difference of electric potential called the potential difference. This difference of potential may
be produced by a cell or a group of cells (or battery). The chemical action within a cell generates the potential
difference across the terminals of the cell, even when no current is drawn from it. When it is connected to
a circuit, the free electrons are set in motion which produces electric current. In order to maintain current in
the circuit, cell has to expend its chemical energy stored in it.

Electric potential may be defined as the amount of work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity
to a point under consideration, while the electric potential difference between two points in an electric circuit
may be defined as the amount of work done to move a unit positive charge from one point to another. Thus,
when a charge Q is moved from point A to point B in an electric circuit, and WAB work is done, then potential
difference between them is

WAB +Q C
VB  VA 
Q B A

(i) Electric potential is a scalar quantity with SI unit volt (V), named after Alessandro Volta (1745-1827), an
Italian physicist.

(ii) One volt is the potential difference between two points when, one joule of work is done to move a charge
of one coulomb from one point to the other.

1 joule
1 volt =
1 coulomb

(iii) Electric potential due to charge Q at distance r from it is kQ/r.

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Electricity 95
FLOW OF CHARGE

Consider two identical metallic spheres P and N, carrying equal amounts of positive and negative charges
respectively. A positive charge is to be taken from point B to point A, as shown in the figure given ahead. It
is attracted by the negatively charged sphere N and repelled by the positively charged sphere P. So, to move
the charge towards point A, one has to apply a force on it towards the left. Thus, the work done is positive.
Hence, the potential difference VA – VB is positive. It means VA > VB .

As one moves towards P, the work done increases, so the potential increases. And on moving towards N,
the potential decreases. So, the potential of P is higher than that of N. In general, the potential of a
positively charged body is taken as higher than that of a negatively charged body.
+

+ + B
A – –
P N
+ +
Repulsion Attraction – –
+ +
– –
+

What happens when, a free-to-move charge is placed between the spheres? A positive charge will move
towards the negatively charged sphere. And a negative charge will move towards the positively charged sphere.
That is, a free positive charge moves towards the lower potential and a free negative charge moves
towards the higher potential.

If the two spheres are connected by a metal wire, electrons from the negatively charged sphere (at a lower
potential) will flow towards the positively charged sphere (at a higher potential). Eventually, the flow of electrons
causes the charges on the spheres to become balanced. When that happens, the spheres no longer carry
a net charge and therefore, have equal potential. So, the flow of electrons stops. We can thus say that a
potential difference causes charges to flow.
+ – – –
+ + – –
+ + – –
Electrons flow
+
+ – –
+ + – –
+ + –
+ – –

Higher potential Lower potential

The work done by an electrostatic force on a charge, in moving it from initial position to final position,
is independent of the path taken to go from initial position to final position. It only depends on the
initial and final position of the charge.

Example 3 :
How much work is done in moving a charge of 5 C across two points having a potential difference of 20 volt?
Solution :
The work done W to move a charge Q across two points of potential difference V is
W = VQ = 20 × 5 = 100 J.

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Example 4 :

How much energy should be given to 1 C charge, to pass it through a 2 V battery?


Solution :
We know that the electrical energy is defined as the amount of work required to be done to move a charge
from one point to other. So,
W=V×Q=2×1=2J

Try Yourself
1. The number of electrons constituting 10 C of charge is
(1) 6.25 × 1024 (2) 6.25 × 1019
(3) 6.0 × 1025 (4) 6.0 × 1019
2. Which of the following is not true about an electric charge?
(1) Charge on a body is always an integral multiple of the charge on an electron
(2) Charge is a scalar quantity
(3) Net charge on an isolated system is always conserved
(4) Charge can be converted into energy and energy can be converted into charge
3. A current of 0.5 A is drawn by a filament of electric bulb for 60 s. The amount of electric charge
that flows through the circuit is
(1) 30.0 C (2) 300 C
(3) 3.00 C (4) 30.0 C
4. The work done in moving a charge of 2 C across two points having a potential difference of
12 volt is
(1) 42 J (2) 24 J
(3) 12 J (4) 20 J
5. The potential at a point 0.1 m from an isolated point charge is +100 V. The nature of the point charge
is
(1) Positive (2) Negative
(3) Zero (4) Either negative or zero
6. The work done in moving an electric charge q in an electric circuit does not depend upon
(1) The mass of the charge (2) The potential difference between two points
(3) The magnitude of the charge (4) All of these
7. If 50 joule of work must be done to move an electric charge of 2 C from a point, where potential is
–10 V to another point where potential is V volt. Then, the value of V is
(1) 5 V (2) –15 V
(3) +15 V (4) +10 V
[Ans. 1(2), 2(4), 3(1), 4(2), 5(1), 6(1), 7(3)]

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Electricity 97
OHM’S LAW (RESISTANCE AND RESISTIVITY)
If the physical conditions remain unchanged (such as temperature), the potential difference across the two
ends of a conductor is directly proportional to the electric current flowing through it.
VI

V  RI

where, R is the constant of proportionality and is called the resistance of the conductor.
It is the property of a conductor to resist the flow of charges through it.

Verification of Ohm’s Law

It can be verified with the help of an activity. Set up an electric circuit containing a resistor R (e.g., a metal
wire) as shown below.

+ –

R
A
V

An ammeter (A) and a voltmeter (V) are connected in the circuit so as to measure current across the resistor
and the potential difference across it respectively. Note down the readings of A and V for the values of current
through the resistance and potential difference across it.

Connect one more cell in the circuit and again note the corresponding readings of ammeter and voltmeter.
Repeat the procedure for different number of cells connected in the circuit.

V
Find out the ratio of for every set of readings of the voltmeter and the ammeter. You will see the ratio
I
comes out to be almost the same everytime. This ratio is called the resistance of the wire. Plot a graph
between V and I. The nature of the graph is as shown in the figure below.

V
(i) By definition, the ratio is the electric resistance R of the conductor.
I

V
R = constant
I
V

O I
V-I graph for a conductor

The V-I graph is a straight line that passes through the origin O of the graph as shown in above figure.

(ii) The SI unit of resistance is ohm ().

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(iii) The resistance of a conductor of uniform thickness depends on the length of the conductor (L) and the
area of cross-section (A).
R  length of conductor
1
R
Area of cross-section of the conductor
L L
R or R   ( is pronounced as rho)
A A
where  (constant of proportionality) is called the specific resistance or resistivity of the conductor.
It depends on the nature of the material of the substance, not on its shape and size. It is defined
as the resistance offered by a wire of the material of unit length and unit cross-sectional area or we can
also define resistivity as the resistance of a unit meter cube of that material.
The SI unit of resistivity is ohm-metre (-m). Reciprocal of resistivity is termed as conductivity. The
conductivity or the specific conductance measures material’s ability to conduct electric current.

1
Conductance =
Resistance
It is represented by G and its unit is mho.
(iv) When the length of a conductor is varied, then its area also changes e.g., when you stretch a wire, it
becomes thin. So, let the length of a conductor changes from L1 to L2 and the area changes from
A1 to A2.
During this transformation, the volume of the conductor remains the same. So, we have
A1L1 = A2L2
A1L1
or A2  …(i)
L2
Initially, resistance of the conductor is given as
L1
R
A1
L2
New resistance R  
A2
Using equation (i), we get
L2 .L2
R 
A1L1
2
L1  L2 
 R   
A1  L1 
2
L 
 R  R  2 
 L1 
So, if the length of a conductor of resistance R is changed from L1 to L2, then its resistance becomes
2
 L2 
  R.
 L1 
(v) If the area of cross-section of a given conductor of resistance R is changed from A1 to A2, then its
2
 A1 
resistance becomes   R .
 A2 
(vi) If the radius of a given conductor wire of resistance R is changed from r1 to r2, then its resistance becomes
4
 r1 
  R .
 r2 

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Electricity 99
(vii) Resistance of a material changes with its shape and size but its resistivity remains the same. Resistivity
of different materials is different.
(viii) For a conductor, both resistance and resistivity increases with increase in temperature.
At a particular temperature, the resistivity of various substances are related as
insulators > semiconductors > alloys > metals
(ix) Range of resistivities :
For conductors – 10–8 to 10–6 m
For insulators – 108 to 1016 m
For semiconductors – 10–5 to 10–2 m
Table : Electrical resistivity of some substances at 20°C

Material Resistivity ( m)

Conductors Silver 1.60 × 10–8


–8
Copper 1.62 × 10
–8
Aluminium 2.63 × 10
Tungsten 5.20 × 10–8
–8
Nickel 6.84 × 10
–8
Iron 10.0 × 10
–8
Chromium 12.9 × 10
–8
Mercury 94.0 × 10
–6
Manganese 1.84 × 10
–6
Alloys Constantan 49 × 10
(alloy of Cu and Ni)
Manganin 44 × 10–6
(alloy of Cu, Mn
and Ni)
–6
Nichrome 100 × 10
(alloy of Ni, Cr, Mn
and Fe)
10 14
Insulators Glass 10 – 10
Hard rubber 1013 – 1016
15 17
Ebonite 10 – 10
12 13
Diamond 10 – 10
12
Paper (dry) 10

Example 5 :

A current of 2 A flows in an electrical circuit. How much charge will flow through a point of the circuit in
10 minutes?
Solution :
As Q = It
Here I = 2 A and t = 10 minutes = 600 s
So Q = 2 × 600 = 1200 C

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Example 6 :

The specific resistance of nichrome is 100  cm. What will be the resistance of a nichrome wire of 5 m
length and 0.01 cm2 area of cross-section?
Solution :

l
As R  .
A
here  = 100  cm
l = 5 m = 500 cm
A = 0.01 cm2

500
so R = 100   = 5 × 106  = 5 
0.01

Try Yourself
8. Two wires that are made up of two different materials, whose specific resistances are in the ratio
3 : 2, length 4 : 3 and area 5 : 4. The ratio of their resistances is

5 8
(1) (2)
8 5

10 8
(3) (4)
8 10

9. The specific resistance of a rod of copper as compared to that of a thin wire of copper
(1) Is more
(2) Is less
(3) Is same
(4) Depends upon the length and area of the wire
10. If the length of a conductor is doubled without changing its area, then the value of resistance becomes

1
(1) time (2) 4 times
2

(3) 2 times (4) Remains same


11. The specific resistance of a wire
(1) Varies with its length
(2) Varies with its cross-section
(3) Varies with its mass
(4) Does not depend upon its length, cross-section and mass
12. If a copper wire is stretched to make it 0.1% longer, then the percentage change in its resistance
is approximately
(1) 0.1% (2) 0.2%
(3) 0.4% (4) 0.8%
[Ans. 8(2), 9(3), 10(3), 11(4), 12(2)]

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Electricity 101
ZONE
What is the name of the first electricity detective?
Sherlock Ohms

Interesting
facts

™ An electric eel can generate an electrical potential of 600 volts or more in order to stun prey or zap
predators.

Electric eel
™ The World’s biggest source of energy for producing electricity comes from coal. The burning of coal
in furnaces heats boiler’s water until it becomes steam which then spin turbines attached to generators.
™ Electricity plays a role in the way your heart beats. Muscle cells in the heart are contracted by the
electricity going through it. Electrocardiogram (ECG) machines used in hospitals measure the electricity
going through someone’s heart. When the person is healthy, it usually shows a line moving across a
screen with regular spikes as the heart beats.
™ You may have heard of direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC). The difference between the two
is in the way the electrons flow. In DC, electrons move in a single direction while in AC they change
direction, switching between backwards and forwards. The electricity used in your home is AC, while
DC comes from sources that include batteries.
Back in the 1880’s there was even a “war of currents” between Thomas Edison (who helped invent DC)
and Nikola Tesla (who helped invent AC). Both wanted their system to be used, but AC eventually
winning out due to the fact that it is more economical and can be used over longer distances.

ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

A continuous and closed path of an electric current is called an electric circuit. An electric circuit is a
combination of some active and passive elements forming a closed loop.

Active Elements
Elements of a circuit which provide electrical energy to the circuit are called the active elements i.e., cell,
battery, generator etc.

Passive Elements
Elements of a circuit which consume or store the electrical energy from the circuit are called the passive
elements i.e., resistance, capacitor, inductor etc.

Circuit diagram : A schematic diagram in which different components (or elements) of a circuit are
represented by the symbols are given below.

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102 Electricity Physics - Class X (Level-I)

Circuit Symbols
The various conventional electrical symbols used to represent some of the most commonly used electrical
components in an electrical circuit diagrams are as follows :

Electric cell Battery (group of cells)

Connecting wire
Wire joint (junction)

or

Wires crossing without contact Plug, key or switch (open)

or
Plug, key or switch (closed) Resistance

or
or
Variable resistance Electric Bulb
(Rheostat)

A V
Ammeter Voltmeter

G or
Galvanometer Arrow shows
direction of current
Circuit symbols

COMBINATION OF RESISTORS

Series Combination
(i) Resistors are connected end to end.

R1 R2 R3
(ii) Same current flows through each resistor.
(iii) Combined (equivalent) resistance
Reff = R1 + R2 + R3 +...........
(iv) Applied voltage is equal to the algebraic sum of the potential differences across each resistor
V = V1 + V2 + V3 +..................
(v) If V is the applied voltage across the combination of n resistors, then

Ri
Vi  .V
R1  R2  R3  .....  Rn

Vi is voltage across Ri resistor.

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Electricity 103
Expression for Effective or Equivalent Resistance in Series Combination
Consider three resistors, R1, R2 and R3 are connected in series as shown in the figure.

R1 R2 R3

I V1 V2 V3 I

V K
A battery of V volts has been applied to the ends of this series combination.
Let the potential difference across R1, R2 and R3 be V1, V2 and V3 respectively.
Sum of the potential difference across the three resistors should be equal to the applied voltage,
i.e., V = V1 + V2 + V3 …(i)
Let the effective resistance of the combination is R, and the current flowing through the circuit is I, then
according to Ohm’s law,
V = IR …(ii)
V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2, V3 = IR3
 V = IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 = I(R1 + R2 + R3)

 R  R1  R2  R3

where R is the effective, or equivalent or net or total resistance in series combination.

Bulbs connected in series are used for decoration

When a number of resistors are connected in series then :


1. The sum of potential difference across all the resistors is equal to the applied voltage.
2. The same current flows through each resistor, which is equal to the current flowing in the whole
circuit.
3. The equivalent resistance of the circuit will always be greater than the value of the largest resistor
in the circuit.

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104 Electricity Physics - Class X (Level-I)

Parallel Combination
(i) The resistors are connected between the same two points as shown in figure.
R1
(ii) The potential difference across each resistors is the same. R2
(iii) The combined (equivalent) resistance Reff is given by
P R3 Q
1 1 1 1 R4
    ..........
Reff R1 R2 R3

(iv) The sum of currents flowing through each resistor is equal to the total current entering in combination.
I = I1 + I2 + I3 +.........
(v) If I is the total current entering in parallel combination then

Reff
Ii  I
Ri

Expression for Effective Resistance in Parallel Combination


Consider three resistors R1, R2, R3 connected in parallel with a battery as shown in the figure.
I1 R1

I2 R2

I3 R3
I I

V
The potential difference across each of the resistor is same as the applied voltage, but the value of current
across each resistor is different.
Let I1, I2, I3 be the current flowing through R1, R2 and R3 respectively.
 I = I1 + I 2 + I 3 …(i)
Let the effective resistance of this parallel combination be RP, then using, Ohm’s law

V
I …(ii)
RP

As V is same for all resistor, therefore

V V V
I1  , I2  , I3  …(iii)
R1 R2 R3

Hence, from equations (i), (ii) and (iii), we get

V V V V  1 1 1 
   V    
RP R1 R2 R3  R1 R2 R3 

1 1 1 1
  
RP R1 R2 R3

i.e., the reciprocal of effective resistance in parallel combination is equal to the sum of reciprocals of all the
individual resistances.

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Electricity 105
Comparison or advantage of parallel combination over series combination
(i) In parallel combination we can operate each devices with its individual switch which is not possible in
series combination.
(ii) All equipments work at same voltage.
(iii) As different equipments have different current ratings so they need different current and this possible only
in parallel combination

When a number of resistors are connected in parallel then :


1. Their combined (net) resistance or the equivalent resistance is less than the smallest resistance
in the circuit.
2. The potential difference across each resistor is equal to the applied voltage.
3. The sum of current flowing through each resistor is equal to the total current flowing through the
circuit.

Example 7 :

Three conductors, each having resistance of 3  are joined (i) in series (ii) in parallel. Find the equivalent
resistance in each case.
Solution :
(i) As in series
Reff = R1 + R2 + R3
Here, R1 = R2 = R3 = 3 
So, Reff = 3 + 3 + 3 = 9 
(ii) As in parallel

1 1 1 1
  
Reff R1 R2 R3

1 1 1 1 3
So, R  3  3  3  3
eff

1 1

Reff 1
or Reff = 1 

Example 8 :

Calculate the equivalent resistance between points A and B of the network shown.
10  10 

10 
10

10 

10

10 

A B

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106 Electricity Physics - Class X (Level-I)

Solution :

The given network can be simplified as


10  10  10 

10  10  10 
A B
10 
20 
20
 25 
3
=A B=A B
10  20  5 95

3
=A B
95
 R AB  
3
Example 9 :

When a 12 volt battery is connected across an unknown resistor, there is a current of 2.5 mA in the circuit.
Find the value of resistance of the resistor.
Solution :
Given,
The current in the circuit I = 2.5 mA
= 2.5 × 10–3 A
The voltage across the resistor is V = 12 volt
According to Ohm’s law, V = IR
V
 R …(i)
I
Put the numerical value in equation (i), we get
12 12000
R –3
  4800 
2.5  10 2.5

Example 10 :

How many 176  resistors in parallel are required to carry 5 A current on a 220 V line?

Solution :
Let n resistors each of resistance R(R = 176 ) are connected in parallel, then the value of the effective
R
resistance is
n

IR
Using Ohm’s law, V = IReff =
n
IR
 n
V
5  176
 4
220
 n=4
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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Electricity 107

Try Yourself
13. In the given circuit for what value of X the net resistance between A and B is equal to 50 ?
30  X

60  40 
A B
(1) 60  (2) 40 
(3) 120  (4) 20 
14. The magnitude of l in ampere in the given circuit is
60 
l
1A 1A
15  5

10 
(1) 0.1 (2) 0.3
(3) 0.6 (4) None of these
15. In the circuit given below, the current through 100  resistor is
30 
30  30 
45  10 
90 

l 100 

V = 50 V
(1) 0.5 A (2) 1 A
(3) 0.25 A (4) 2 A
16. The equivalent resistance between A and B is
10 

20 
A B
20 

40 
(1) 10  (2) 50 
(3) 20  (4) 30 
17. The effective resistance between A and B is
R
R
R
A B
R

R
(1) 5R (2) 2R
(3) 3R (4) 4R
[Ans. 13(3), 14(1), 15(1), 16(3), 17(1)]

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108 Electricity Physics - Class X (Level-I)

COMMON MEASURING INSTRUMENTS


The electric current in a circuit is measured by an instrument called the ammeter. It is connected in series
with the circuit carrying the current to be measured. An ideal ammeter has zero resistance. The potential
difference between two points in an electric circuit is measured by a voltmeter. It is connected in the parallel
to the points in the circuit across which voltage is to be measured. An ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance.
You might have seen these meters in voltage stabilizers. In these meters, a needle moving over a graduated
scale gives the value of the measured quantity. Each meter has two terminals. The terminal marked ‘+’ is
connected to the higher potential side of a circuit, while the terminal marked ‘–’ is connected to the lower-
potential side.

(a) (b)
(a) Ammeter, (b) Voltmeter

JOULE'S HEATING EFFECT OF CURRENT


We have seen that when the electric current passes through a resistor, it becomes hot because the electric
energy spent or electric work done in moving the charges is converted into heat energy.
Joule gave the law on heating effect of current known as Joule’s law, which states that the heat produced in
a resistor is directly proportional to the
(i) Square of the electric current for a given resistance, i.e., H  I2.
(ii) Resistance for a given current, i.e., H  R.
(iii) Time for which the current flows through the resistor, i.e., H  t.
So, by this law, we get
H = I2Rt
V2
So, H = I 2 Rt = .t  VIt (Using Ohm’s law)
R
Electrical power is the electrical work done per unit time or the rate at which electric energy is dissipated
or consumed in an electric circuit.
Work done
P
Time taken
W
P
t
If current I flows for time t under a potential difference V, then work done is given as
W = VIt [W = QV and Q = It]
VIt
so, P   VI
t
V2
or P  VI   I 2R (Using Ohm’s law)
R
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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Electricity 109
Note :
™ The SI unit of electrical energy is joule. A joule is the amount of electrical energy consumed when
an appliance of power 1 watt is used for one second.
™ The SI unit of power is watt.
For commercial purposes we use a bigger unit for electrical energy called kilowatt hour.
1 kilowatt hour = 1000 watts for 1 hour

or 1 kilowatt hour = 3.6 × 10 6 J


1kWh = 3.6 × 106 J

Example 11 :

A radio set of 80 watts runs for 5 hours. How many units of electrical energy are consumed?
Solution :
As electrical energy = Power × time
= 80 × 5 watt hour
= 0.4 kilowatt hour

PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

1. The heating effect of current is utilized in the electrical heating appliances such as electric iron, room heaters,
water heaters, etc. All these heating appliances contain coils of high resistance wire made of nichrome alloy.
When these appliances are connected to the power supply by insulated copper wires, then a large amount
of heat is produced in the heating coils, because they have high resistance, but a negligible heat is produced
in the connecting wires because the wires have low resistance.
2. The electric heating is also used to produce light as in an electric bulb. Here the filament must retain as much
of the heat generated as is possible, so that it gets very hot and emits light. It must not melt at such high
temperature. A strong metal with high melting point such as tungsten (melting point 3380°C) is used for making
bulb filaments. The filament should be thermally isolated as much as possible using insulating support.
3. Another common application of Joule’s heating is fuse, which is used in electric circuits. It protects circuit
and appliances by stopping the flow of any unduly high electric current. A fuse is a short piece of wire of
uniform cross sectional area and high resistance made up of material having low melting point. It is usually
made up of an alloy of lead and tin because their melting point is low and resistivity is high. The fuse is
placed in series with the device. It consists of a piece of wire made of a metal or an alloy of low melting
point for example aluminium, copper, iron, lead etc. The fuse wire is usually encased in a cartridge of porcelain
or similar material with metal ends. The fuses for domestic purposes are rated as 1 A, 2 A, 3 A, 5 A, 10 A etc.

Electric fuse Iron

Electric bulb Room heater

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Example 12 :

A wire of resistance 25  is made of manganin alloy and is connected across a car battery of 12 V emf
and negligible internal resistance. How much heat energy is produced in 30 minutes?
Solution :
Heat produced
V2 (12)2
H = I 2 Rt = .t =  30  60
R 25
or H = 10.37 × 103 J

Example 13 :

The maximum power rating of a 20  resistor is 2 kW. A DC source of negligible internal resistance and
emf V volts is connected across the resistor. What is the maximum value of V so that the heat produced
does not melt the resistor?
Solution :

Let Vm is the maximum value, then heat produced per second is

H Vm2

t R
H
Thus, for  2 kW , we must have
t

Vm2  2  10 3  R = 2 × 103 × 20 = 4 × 104

so Vm = 200 volts.

Example 14 :

An electric bulb is rated (60 W, 220 V). If it is operated at 110 V, then find the power consumed by it.

Solution :

As consumed power
2
V 
P   A  Ps
 Vs 
2
 110 
=   .60
 220 
or P = 15 watt

Try Yourself
18. Which will consume more energy a 600 W refrigerator working for 2 hours or a bulb of 100 W working
for 14 hours?

(1) Bulb (2) Refrigerator

(3) Both will consume the same energy (4) Data is insufficient

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Electricity 111
19. A resistance of 12  is connected to a battery of 10 V. The heat energy in joules generated per
minute is
(1) 345 J (2) 415 J
(3) 500 J (4) 575 J
20. A 1500 W electric geyser is used everyday for 2 hrs. Calculate the electrical energy consumed for
a day
(1) 90 kWh (2) 3.0 kWh
(3) 7.50 kWh (4) 10.0 kWh
21. An electric bulb rated 100 volt and 100 watt, is operated on 110 volt. The power consumed will be
(1) 100 watt (2) 120 watt
(3) 110 watt (4) 121 watt
[Ans. 18(1), 19(3), 20(2), 21(4)]

SOME IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS


1. Ammeter : An ammeter is an instrument used to measure the electric current in a circuit.
2. Voltmeter : A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring the potential difference between two points
in an electric circuit.
3. Conductivity : The conductivity or the specific conductance is the reciprocal of resistivity and measures
the material’s ability to conduct electric current.
4. Joule’s heating : It is also known as ohmic heating or resistive heating. It is the process by which the
passage of an electric current through a conductor releases heat.

QUICK RECAP
1. Charge is a fundamental quantity that exhibits the electrical and the magnetic effects. There are two types
of electric charge called positive and negative charge.
2. Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other.
3. The SI unit of charge is coulomb. One coulomb is equivalent to the charge contained in nearly
6.25 × 1018 electrons.
4. The moving charge through a conductor constitutes the electric current.
5. The direction of electric current is opposite to the direction of flow of electrons.
6. SI unit of current is ampere. It is represented by symbol (A).
7. An ammeter is an instrument used to measure the electric current in a circuit. It is always connected
in series combination with the circuit carrying the current to be measured. Its name ammeter is given
since the electric current is measured in amperes. Instruments used to measure smaller currents, in the
milliampere or microampere range, are designated as milliammeter or microammeter.
8. Voltmeter is an instrument used to measure the electric potential (voltage) in a circuit. It is used in parallel
combination with the circuit across which voltage to be measured.
9. The potential difference between two points in an electric circuit carrying current is defined as amount
of work done to move a unit charge from one point to the other.
10. The potential difference (V) between two points = Work done (W)/Charge (Q).
W
V 
Q

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112 Electricity Physics - Class X (Level-I)

11. SI unit of electric potential difference is volt (V), named after Alessandro Volta.
12. 1 V is the potential difference between two points in a current carrying conductor, when 1 J of work is
done to move a charge of 1 C from one point to the other.
13. The resistance is the property of a material (conductor) that resists the flow of electrons in the conductor.
It controls the magnitude of current. SI unit of resistance is ohm.
14. The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its area
of cross-section.

l
15. Mathematically, R   symbols have their usual meanings.
A
16. Ohm’s law : The potential difference across the ends of a conductor is directly proportional to the current
flowing through it, provided its temperature remains constant.
17. The effective resistance of several resistors connected in series is equal to the sum of their individual
resistances,
i.e., RS = R1 + R2 + R3 + .........
18. The electrical energy dissipated in a resistor is given by
H=V×I×t
19. The electrical power is the electrical work done per unit time.

W
i.e., P 
t
20. SI unit of power is watt. 1 watt is the power of an appliance that consumes 1 J of the electrical energy
in one second.

V2
21. Mathematically, power (P )  VI   I 2R
R
22. Commercial unit of electrical energy is (kilowatt-hour) (kWh).

1 kWh  3.6  10 6 J

23. Heat produced in a conductor, H = I 2Rt


where, I  Current flowing through the conductor
R  Resistance of the conductor
t  Time

‰ ‰ ‰

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Assignment
Short Answer Type Questions :
SECTION-A
1. An electric bulb is rated 220 volt and 100 W, what
Very Short Answer Type Questions : will be the power consumption when operated on
1. What is the SI unit of resistivity? 110 volt supply?

2. What type of material is used to make a fuse 2. What are the advantage of connecting the electrical
wire? devices in parallel with the battery instead of
3. What is the resistance of an ideal voltmeter? connecting them in series?

4. What is the commercial unit of electrical energy? 3. How can you achieve the highest and the lowest
5. Define 1 volt. equivalent resistance of four conductors of
resistances 4 , 8 , 12 , 24 . Also find the
6. On what factors the resistance of a conductor
minimum and the maximum value of equivalent
depends?
resistance?
7. How does the resistance vary if the length of a
conductor is doubled? (Assume area of cross- 4. What is the effective resistance between A and B
section is constant) in the given network?
8. Why are coils of electric toasters and electric irons
made of any alloy rather than a pure metal? 1
1 1
9. In which combination the value of resistance is 1
(i) Maximum A B
1
(ii) Minimum
2 3
10. Plot a graph between the voltage and the current
for a substance which do not obey Ohm’s law. 5. The value of the current and the voltage across the
11. Fill in the blanks: given resistor is
(a) The direction of current is _______ to the I (ampere)  1 2 3 4 5
direction of flow of electrons.
V (volt)  5 10 15 20 25
(b) S.I. unit of electrical power is _______.
(c) Resistance of a conductor is directly Plot a V-I graph and calculate the resistance of
proportional to the ______ of the conductor. given resistor.

(d) The value of resistance is maximum when the 6. A wire has a resistance of 12 . It is bent in the
resistances are connected in _______. form of a circle, find the effective resistance
(e) The filament of a bulb is made of _______. between two points on any diameter.

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114 Electricity Physics - Class X (Level-I)

7. What is the equivalent resistance of the following 4. What is the role of a fuse wire in our life? How it
network of resistances? protects us from the high current? Should every
appliance have a fuse wire?
1 1
A
SECTION-B
1 1
1 1 Objective Type Questions :
B
1. The electric charge
8. An electric heater of resistance 100  draws a
current of 10 A from the supply. Calculate the heat (1) Always resides in the conductor
produced by the heater in 2 hours. (2) Always resides on the surface of conductor
9. An electric geyser consumes energy at a rate of (3) Resides on whole body of the conductor
1000 watt, when heating is at the maximum rate.
And 500 watt, when the heating is at the minimum (4) Is normal to the surface of the conductor
rate. The voltage is 220 volt, what are the value of 2. SI unit of power is
the current and the resistance in each case?
(1) kJ/s (2) kWh
10. An electrician puts a fuse of rating 5 A, in that part
of the domestic electrical circuit in which an (3) watt (4) J-s
electrical heater of rating 1.5 kW, 220 volt is 3. Select odd one out
operating. What is likely to happen in this case and
why? What change, (if any) should be made? (1) Mica

Long Answer Type Questions : (2) Glass

1. What are the laws of combination of resistances? (3) Distilled water


With the help of a diagram derive the formula for (4) Graphite
equivalent resistance of three resistors connected
in 4. Which of the following graphs shows Ohm’s law?

(i) Series and


(ii) Parallel I V
On what factors the resistivity of the material (1) (2)
depends? V I
2. (i) Is Ohm’s law universally applicable? If the V-I
graph is not linear for a given material, write
the name of the material. V I
(3) (4)
(ii) For a heater rated (4 kW, 220 volt), calculate
the current, the resistance of the heater and R R
the energy consumed in 2 hours. 5. The electrical resistivity is maximum for
3. A household uses the following electric appliances:
(1) Copper
(i) A refrigerator of rating 400 W for 10 hours each
day (2) Ebonite

(ii) Two electric fans of rating 80 W each for 12 (3) Silicon


hours each day (4) Iron
(iii) Six electric tubes of rating 18 W each for 6
6. The kinetic energy of an electron, which is
hours each day
accelerated in the potential difference of 100 V, is
Calculate the electricity bill of the household for the
month of June, if the cost per unit of the electrical (1) 1.6 × 10–17 J (2) 1.6 × 10–14 J
energy is ` 5.00. (3) 1.6 × 10–10 J (4) 1.6 × 10–8 J

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Electricity 115
7. By increasing the temperature, the specific 13. What will be the reading of a voltmeter connected
resistance of a conductor and a semiconductor across AB?
(1) Increases for both 20 
(2) Decreases for both
20  20 
A B
(3) Increases, decreases
20  1.5 A
(4) Decreases, increases

8. 15 joule of work has to be done to take a charge (1) 10 V


of 0.01 C from A to B. The potential difference (2) 20 V
(VB – VA) is
(3) 30 V
(1) 1500 volt
(4) 40 V
(2) –1500 volt

(3) 0.15 volt 14. A cell converts

(4) None of these (1) The heat energy into the mechanical energy

9. As the temperature of a metallic resistor is (2) The electrical energy into the mechanical energy
increased the product of its resistivity and
(3) The electrical energy into the sound energy
conductivity
(1) Increases (4) The chemical energy into the electrical energy

(2) Decreases 15. The internal resistance of a cell is the resistance of

(3) Remains constant (1) Electrolyte used in cell

(4) May increase or decrease (2) Electrodes of the cell


10. A fuse wire in domestic wiring has (3) Both (1) & (2)
(1) High resistance and high melting point (4) None of these
(2) Low resistance and high melting point
16. A piece of wire of resistance R is cut into n equal
(3) Low resistance and low melting point parts. These parts are then connected in parallel.
If the equivalent resistance of parallel combination
(4) High resistance and low melting point
11. The metal which can tolerate the temperature about R
is R, then   is
3300°C is  R 

(1) Copper (2) Aluminium


1
(3) Tungsten (4) Iron (1)
1
12. The variable resistance is represented by the
symbol n
(2)
(1) 1

(2)
n2
(3)
1
(3)
1
(4) (4)
n

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116 Electricity Physics - Class X (Level-I)

17. In a circuit containing two unequal resistances 18. The effective resistance between A & B is
connected in parallel 10  10 

(1) Same current will flow in both the resistances

(2) A large amount of current flows through the A B


30  30 
large resistor

(3) Voltage drop across both the resistances will 10  10 


be the same 60
(1) 10  (2) 
7
50
(4) Smaller resistance has smaller conductance (3)  (4) 30 
7

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Chapter-3
Electricity

Level-II
(For CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads)
CHAPTER 3
Electricity THIS CHAPTER INCLUDES
z Coulomb’s Law
z Electric Field and Electric Field Intensity
z Electric Lines of Force or Electric Field Lines
COULOMB’S LAW
z Electromotive Force and Terminal Voltage
The electric force of interaction between two charged
particles at rest is directly proportional to the product of z Internal Resistance
two charges ( q1q2) and inversely proportional to the
z Special Cases of Electrical Power
 1
square of distance   2  between them.
 r  z Assignment
q1q2
F 2
r
kq q
F  12 2
r
Where, k is the constant of proportionality and has a
value of 9 × 109 Nm2/C2 (in vacuum).
(i) This force is directed along the line joining the two
charges.
(ii) For like charges, it is repulsive (positive in sign) and
for unlike charges, it is attractive (negative
in sign).
(iii) Coulomb’s force is analogous to the gravitational
force. Both forces vary inversely as the square of the
separation between two particles.

ELECTRIC FIELD AND ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY


Electric field : It is the region around a charge particle in which electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion
can be experienced by another charge.
Electric field Intensity : Electric field intensity due to a charge Q at a point in space around it is defined
as the force that a unit positive charge would experience if placed at that point.
Electric field at a distance r from a charge Q is given as
kQ
E ; where k is a constant. Its value is 9 × 109 Nm2/C2 in vacuum.
r2
Force exerted by charge Q on another charge q at a distance r is
kQq
F (By Coulomb’s law)
r2
 F = Eq
The SI unit of electric field is N/C or V/m.

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118 Electricity Physics - Class X (Level-II)

ELECTRIC LINES OF FORCE OR ELECTRIC FIELD LINES


The electric lines of force are purely a geometrical construction, which help us to visualise the nature of
electric field in the region. They have the following characteristics:
(1) The tangent to electric lines of force at any point gives the direction of electric field at that point.
(2) In free space, they are continuous curves which emerge from positive charge and terminate at negative
charge
(3) They do not intersect each other. If they do so, then it would mean two directions of electric field at the
point of intersection, which is not possible.
(4) The density of field lines represents strength of electric field in the region.
Field Lines in Some Cases
(a) Positive point charge

(Field lines have spherical symmetry)


(b) Negative point charge

(Field lines have spherical symmetry)


(c) Two similar charges of equal magnitude

q E=0 q

(d) Two similar charges of unequal magnitudes

q 4q

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Physics - Class X (Level-II) Electricity 119
(e) Two dissimilar charges of equal magnitudes

q q

(f) Uniform electric field

Field lines are parallel and equispaced

Try Yourself
1. The force of interaction between two charged bodies q1 and q2 separated by a distance r is

q12q2 q1q22
(1) F  – (2) F 
r2 r2

K q1q2 Kq1q2
(3) F  (4) F 
r 2
r3
2. According to Coulomb’s law, which of the following is correct, for the diagram given below?
(1) q1 q2 < 0 F12 F21
(2) q1 q2 > 0 q1 q2
(3) q1 q2 = 0
r
(4) q1 q2 > 100 C
3. Choose the incorrect statement among the following, regarding the electrostatic force of interaction
between two charges.
(1) It is inversely proportional to the distance between the charges
(2) It depends on the value of the given charges
(3) It is analogous to the gravitational force
(4) It is applicable for point charges
4. Two charges Q1 and Q2 are separated by a distance D. If the distance is doubled, the force is
(1) Increased by a factor of 2 (2) Decreased by a factor of 2
(3) Remains the same (4) Decreased by a factor of 4
5. Two charged particles q and 4q are kept at distance 3 m as shown in figure,

1m 2m
q P 4q
The force on a charge Q kept at P is
(1) 5 KQq (2) KQq
(3) 2Kq2 (4) Zero
[Ans. 1(3), 2(1), 3(1), 4(4), 5(4)]

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120 Electricity Physics - Class X (Level-II)

E tra Sho s
Semiconductors : Substances having conductivity lower than conductors, but greater than insulators are
termed as semiconductors e.g., silicon, germanium.
Semiconductors do not obey Ohm’s law i.e., their V-I graph is not a straight line.
I

O V
Superconductivity : It is the phenomenon observed in several metals and ceramic materials when these
materials are cooled to the temperature at which their resistance becomes zero. The temperature at which
electrical resistance is zero is called critical temperature (TC).

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE AND TERMINAL VOLTAGE


™ Electromotive force : When no current is drawn from a cell, i.e., the cell is in an open circuit, the
potential difference between the terminals of the cell is called electromotive force (EMF).
™ Terminal voltage : The potential difference between the two terminals of a cell, when current is drawn
from it, i.e., the cell is in closed circuit, is called its terminal voltage (Vab).

INTERNAL RESISTANCE
The potential difference across a real source in circuit is not equal to the emf. The reason is that charge
moving through the material of any real source encounters resistance. We call this the internal
resistance of the source.
R
V


 = V + Ir (∵ V  IR )
  I (R  r )
(Where R is external resistance r is internal resistance,  is E.M.F. V is terminal potential difference and I
is the current in circuit.)

SPECIAL CASES FOR ELECTRICAL POWER

P1 R1
(i) If two resistors are connected in series, the ratio of the power consumed is 
P2 R2

R1 R2
P1 R2
(ii) If two resistors are connected in parallel, then the ratio of the power consumed is 
P2 R1
R1

R2

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Physics - Class X (Level-II) Electricity 121
(iii) Every electrical appliance has a power rating, which tells us how much power it consumes at a particular
voltage and is denoted as (P, V), where P is the power consumed by an appliance at voltage V. If two
bulbs having power ratings (P 1 , V ), (P 2 , V ) are connected in series to a power source of

voltage V, then the total power P consumed is given by 1  1  1 .


P P1 P2
Proof : Let the resistance of the bulbs having power ratings P1 and P2 be R1 and R2 respectively, then

V2 V2
R1  , R2 
P1 P2

V2
If R is the equivalent resistance and P is equivalent power of combination, then P 
R
In series combination equivalent resistance is given by R = R1 + R2

V2 V2 V2
 
P P1 P2

1 1 1
Hence,  
P P1 P2

P1 P2

V
(iv) If two bulbs having power ratings (P1, V) , (P2, V) are connected in parallel to the power supply of V volts,
then the total power consumed is P = P1 + P2.
Proof : Let the resistance of bulb P1 and P2 be R1 and R2 respectively.

V2 V2
R1  , R2 
P1 P2

V2
If R is the equivalent resistance and P is the power of combination, then P  .
R
In parallel combination the equivalent resistance is given by

1 1 1
 
R R1 R2

P P P
 2
 12  22
V V V

 P  P1  P2

V P1 P2

(v) If a bulb with ratings (Ps, Vs) is connected with a source of VA voltage, then the power (P) consumed is
2
V 
P   A  . Ps
 Vs 

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122 Electricity Physics - Class X (Level-II)

Vs2 V2
Proof : The resistance of bulb Ps is given by Ps  and R  s
R Ps
Power consumed when connected with a source VA is
VA2
P
R
V 2 
 P   A2  Ps
 Vs 
2
V 
Hence, P   A  Ps
 Vs 

Try Yourself
6. Two bulbs P and Q are rated 100 W, 220 V and 50 W, 220 V respectively. They are connected in
parallel across 220 V source. The current in the two bulbs P and Q are respectively

5 5 5 5
(1) A, A (2) A, A
22 11 11 22

10 5 5 10
(3) A, A (4) A, A
11 22 22 11

7. A cell of e.m.f. 10 V and internal resistance 2  is connected across a resistance 8 . Find the
potential difference across battery.

8

10 V, 2 

(1) 4 V (2) 10 V
(3) 6 V (4) 8 V
8. Maximum current produced by a cell of emf 5 V and internal resistance 1  is
(1) 5 A (2) 2 A
(3) 3 A (4) Zero
9. In given network as shown below. emf of battery will be

10 
2A

E, 2 

(1) 24 V (2) 20 V
(3) 4 V (4) 16 V

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Physics - Class X (Level-II) Electricity 123
10. In given network as shown in figure current 1 A and 2 A flow across 6  and 3  resistance the
internal resistance of battery is

3

2A 2

1A 6

24 V, r

(1) 3  (2) 2 
(3) 4  (4) 6 
[Ans. 6(2), 7(4), 8(1), 9(1), 10(2)]

‰ ‰ ‰

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Assignment
6. In the circuit shown below find the current (I)
SECTION-A supplied by the battery.

Subjective Type Questions :


I
1. How the three resistors of resistances 2 , 3 
and 6  be connected so that the equivalent
5
5
resistance becomes? 5V 5 5
(i) 4  and (ii) 1 
5 5
2. How will you connect three resistors each of
resistance 6 , so that the combination has a
resistance of (i) 9 and (ii) 4 ?
3. Two lamps rated (100 W, 220 V) and (60 W, 220 V) 7. In the circuit diagram shown below, what is the
are connected in parallel. Which lamp consumes reading of ideal Ammeter (A)?
more energy and which one gives more brightness?
Find the resistance of each lamp. (Take supply
voltage as 220 V) 3
4. In the given network
3 6

4 16  8 A
2
1.0 A 1.0 A 6

Calculate the value of the current in each resistor.


12 V
5. Compare the power consumed by the 2 
resistance in the following circuits.
8. In the circuit given below, find the potential
1 2 difference between the points G and E.

(i) 4
E F
4
6V A 4 B
2 4 4
4 4

D 24 V
(ii)
4 C
1 4
H G
4V
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Physics - Class X (Level-II) Electricity 125
9. V-I characteristic curve is given for a conductor at (1) 1  (2) 3 
two different temperatures. Explain which one is at
(3) 6  (4) 9 
greater temperature & why?
T1 2. A wire of resistance 9  is bent in a form of
I(A) equilateral triangle. The equivalent resistance
between any two of its vertices will be
T2
(1) 1  (2) 2 
(3) 3  (4) 9 
3. An electric current of 5 A is passing through a
O V (volts) circuit containing three wires of the same material
10. What will be the equivalent resistance between P arranged in parallel. If the length and the radius of
and Q in circuits A and B when the wires are in the ratio 2 : 3 : 4 and 3 : 4 : 5,
(i) Both keys k1 and k2 are open? respectively, then the ratio of current passing
(ii) Both keys k1 and k2 are closed? through wires would be
20  20  20  (1) 3 : 6 : 10 (2) 4 : 9 : 16
(3) 9 : 16 : 25 (4) 54 : 64 : 75
k1 k2
A: P Q 4. An electric refrigerator rated 1 kW operates
5 hours/day. The cost of energy to operate it for
20  20  20  30 days at ` 3.00 per unit is
20  20  20 
P (1) ` 500 (2) ` 300

k1 k2 (3) ` 450 (4) ` 400


B :
5. In the following figure, the effective resistance
Q
20  20  20  between the points A and B is
11. Find equivalent resistance between the points 3
P and Q 3
1.5  2 100  3
P 6 6
3
3 3
6 4 6
A 3 B
10 
(1) 3  (2) 2 
100 
(3) 6  (4) 36 
15  2 6. The equivalent resistance between A and B in the
25 
given network is

Q 1

SECTION-B 1
2
Objective Type Questions : 2 1
1. In the figure given below, the equivalent resistance 1
between points A and B is 1 . What is the value 1
of unknown resistance R?
1 2
A B
R K
A B
(1) 3  (2) 2 
1 2 (3) 10  (4) 5 
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126 Electricity Physics - Class X (Level-II)

7. What is the power consumed across AB? 12. The ratio of resistance of conductor A & B given
in graph is
A 7
A
1A 7 I(A)
7 7 B B
1A
7 °
60
30°
(1) 2 W (2) 4 W O V (Volts)
(3) 6 W (4) 8 W (1) 1 : 3 (2) 3 : 1
8. The net resistance of two resistors in parallel
combination is 2  and in series combination is (3) 1: 3 (4) 3 :1
9 . The two resistances are
13. A battery of internal resistance 1  is connected
(1) 6 , 9  (2) 6 , 2  with 3 , 6  and 4  resistance as shown below.
(3) 6 , 3  (4) 2 , 9  What will be emf of battery when 2 A of current
flows across 3  resistor
9. In the electric circuit given below, the reading of
the ammeter is
E 3 6
2A
10 V 10  10  10  10  10 
4
A
(1) 21 V (2) 24 V
(1) 1 A (2) 2 A
(3) 18 V (4) 0 V
(3) 3 A (4) 5 A
14. A semicircular loop of diametre d is made by using
10. Each of the resistance in the network given below
a conducting wire of resistance per unit length r
is equal to 10 . A battery of emf 10 V is
which is connected with ideal battery of emf E as
connected across P and Q. The current drawn
shown in figure then heat dissipated per unit sec
from the battery by the network is
by semi circular wire is
(1) 0.5 A
(2) 1.0 A
(3) 1.5 A P
Q
(4) 2 A
E
11. In the given circuit, for what value of X the
2
equivalent resistance between A and B is 20 ? E E2
(1) (2)
C rd 2rd
X
10  40  2E 2 2E 2
(3) (4)
rd rd
A B
15. In the given network, the value of R will be
20  40 
R 2A
D
5
(1) 10 
15 V
(2) 20 
(3) 40  (1) 5  (2) 2.5 
(4) 60  (3) 4  (4) 10 

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Physics - Class X (Level-II) Electricity 127
16. A inifinite ladder network of resistance is
constructed with 1  resistance as shown in SECTION-C
figure. Effective resistance between A and B is
Assertion & Reason Type Questions :
1 1 1
A
In the following questions, a statement of assertion
1 1 1 (A) is followed by a statement of reason (R).
B (1) If both Assertion & Reason are true and the reason
1 5 is the correct explanation of the assertion, then
(1) 1  5 (2) mark (1).
2
(2) If both Assertion & Reason are true but the reason
1 5 is not the correct explanation of the assertion, then
(3) (4) 1  3
2 mark (2).
17. Two resistor X and Y, first connected in parallel (3) If Assertion is true statement but Reason is false,
and then in series. Heat produces by parallel then mark (3).
combination is equal to heat produces by 2 
resistor. The equivalent resistance of series (4) If both Assertion and Reason are false statements,
then mark (4).
combination is 9 . Then, resistance of X and Y
are (If, X > Y) 1. A : On changing the dimensions of a conductor,
(1) 6 , 3  (2) 3 , 6  its resistivity remains the same.
(3) 5 , 4  (4) 2 , 8 
R : The resistivity of a conductor depends on the
18. 1 and l1 are the specific resistance and length of nature of material of the conductor and is
wire, connected with other wire of length l2 and
independent of its dimensions.
specific resistance 2 as shown below. Effective
specific resistance of combination of wires is 2. A : The brightness of a light bulb in a room
decreases when a heavy current appliance is
l1 l2 switched on.
1l1l 2 21l1  2 l 2 R : There will be no change in the brightness of the
(1)    (2)
1 2 l1  l 2 bulb if the source and connecting wires are
1l1  2 l 2 l1  l 2 ideal.
(3) l1  l 2 (4)  l   l
11 2 2
3. A : When the resistors are connected in parallel,
19. When three identical bulbs of 60 watt – 220 volt the potential difference across them is equal.
rating are connected in series to a 220 volt battery,
the power drawn by them will be R : The current gets divided in the ratio of their
(1) 20 watt (2) 60 watt resistances.
(3) 10 watt (4) 180 watt 4. A : If the length of a given conductor of resistance
20. Power dissipated by across 10  resistor in the R is changed from l1 to l2, keeping the area of
circuit shown here is 2.5 W. The power dissipated cross-section constant, then its resistance
in the 3  resistor is
 l2 
becomes   R .
2 3  l1 

R : R is directly proportional to length of the


conductor.

10  5. A : A positive charge always moves from a higher


potential point to a lower potential point.
(1) 2 W (2) 3 W
(3) 5 W (4) 10 W R : The electric potential is a vector quantity.

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128 Electricity Physics - Class X (Level-II)

b. 100 W bulb (ii) The second highest


SECTION-D potential difference
Match the Columns Type Questions : c. 60 W bulb (iii) The third highest
potential difference
1. Match the following :
d. 40 W bulb (iv) The lowest
Column-I Column-II potential
a. The charge of a (i) Obstruction in the difference
body is independent flow of current (1) a(iv), b(i), c(iii), d(ii) (2) a(i), b(iv), c(iii), d(ii)
of its speed
(3) a(i), b(iv), c(ii), d(iii) (4) a(iv), b(i), c(ii), d(iii)
b. Resistance (ii) Charge is invariant
4. Two bulbs A and B consume the same power
c. Resistances are (iii) Net resistance is when operated at voltage VA and VB respectively.
connected in more than the Bulbs are connected with a supply of DC source,
parallel largest individual then
resistance
Column-I Column-II
d. Resistances are (iv) Net resistance is
RA
connected in series less than the a. In series connection, (i)
smallest individual RB
resistance the ratio of potential
difference across
(1) a(ii), b(i), c(iv), d(iii) (2) a(i), b(ii), c(iii), d(iv)
A and B
(3) a(i), b(ii), c(iv), d(iii) (4) a(ii), b(i), c(iii), d(iv)
VA2
2. Match the following : b. In series connection, (ii)
VB2
Column-I Column-II the ratio of power
a. The rate of flow of (i) Resistance consumed by
the charge A and B
b. The opposition offered (ii) Electric current RB
c. In parallel connection, (iii) R
by a conducting or a A

nonconducting the ratio of current


material during the flowing through
flow of current A and B
V2
c. The work done to (iii) Filament d. In parallel connection, (iv) B2
VA
move a unit charge the ratio of power
from one point to consumed in A and B
other (1) a(i, ii), b(i ,ii), c(iii, iv), d(iii, iv)
d. The material which (iv) Potential (2) a(i, ii), b(iii ,iv), c(i, ii), d(iii, iv)
do not melts easily difference (3) a(iii, iv), b(iii, iv), c(i, ii), d(i, ii)
at high temperatures
(4) a(iii, iv), b(i, ii), c(iii, iv), d(i, ii)
(1) a(i), b(ii), c(iii), d(iv) (2) a(ii), b(i), c(iv), d(iii)
5. Match the following :
(3) a(i), b(iii), c(iv), d(ii) (4) a(ii), b(i), c(iii), d(iv)
Column-I Column-II
3. Four bulbs having powers 25 W, 40 W, 60 W and
a. Electromotive force (i) ohm metre
100 W are connected in series and this
(emf)
combination is connected across the mains.
Match the following : b. Resistance (ii) ohm–1 metre–1
Column-I Column-II c. Resistivity (iii) ohm
a. 25 W bulb (i) The highest d. Conductivity (iv) volt
potential (1) a(iv), b(iii), c(i), d(ii) (2) a(iii), b(iv), c(i), d(ii)
difference (3) a(iv), b(iii), c(ii), d(i) (4) a(iii), b(iv), c(ii), d(i)

‰ ‰ ‰

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Chapter-4
Magnetic Effects of Electric Current

Level-I
(For CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads)
Magnetic Effects of
CHAPTER 4
Electric Current THIS CHAPTER INCLUDES

z Magnetic Field and Its Unit

z Magnetic Field Lines

¾ Properties of Magnetic Field Lines


When a credit card is “swiped” through a card reader, theinformation
coded in a magnetic pattern on the back of the card is transmitted z Magnetic Effects of Current
to the card-holder’s bank. Why is it necessary to swipe the card ¾ Magnetic Field Due to a Long Straight
rather than holding it motionless in the card reader’s slot? Current Carrying Wire

¾ Magnetic Field Due to a Circular Coil


Carrying Current

¾ Magnetic Field Due to a Current in a Long


Solenoid

¾ Electromagnet

z Force on a Moving Charge in a Magnetic Field

z Force on a Current Carrying Conductor Placed


in a Magnetic Field

MAGNETIC FIELD AND ITS UNIT z Electric Motor

¾ Principle of Electric Motor


The space or region around a magnet or a current
carrying conductor in which its influence can be felt by z Electromagnetic Induction
any magnetic substance is called magnetic field.
Magnetic field is represented by field lines. It is a path z Fleming’s Right Hand Rule
either straight or curved, the tangent to which at any
z Electric Generator
point gives the direction of the magnetic field at that
point. z Household Electric Circuit
(i) The SI unit of magnetic field intensity is tesla (T) or z Domestic Wiring
Weber per square metre (Wb m–2).
z Electrical Problems
(ii) The CGS unit of magnetic field intensity is gauss (G)
[1 T = 104 gauss]. z Quick Recap
(iii) Magnetic field is a vector quantity, because its
z Assignment
complete specification needs both direction as well
as magnitude.
The pattern of a magnetic field in a region can be
shown with help of magnetic field lines.

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130 Magnetic Effects of Electric Current Physics - Class X (Level-I)

S N
S N
Compass needle
N S
S N

Drawing a magnetic field line with the Field lines around a bar magnet
help of a compass needle
(iv) The magnetic field perpendicular to the plane in outward direction is denoted by . On the other hand,
the magnetic field perpendicular to the plane in the inward direction is denoted by .

E tra Sho s
When we wish to determine our position in relation to other geographical areas, we use a map. A field
map is used to describe the forces exerted on any magnet placed in a magnetic field. If we place a test
magnet (compass needle) inside an existing magnetic field created by another magnet, the two magnet
will experience a force of attraction or repulsion. Just as your road map helps you to determine the
direction in which you should travel, a magnetic field map tells you both the relative strength and direction
of a magnetic force on a test magnet. A force field is analogous to an aroma emanating from somewhere
inside your home. In figure given below, a “field of aroma” in the three-dimensional space around a source
is detected by a test object some distance away.

Sniffing
test duck

Source
of field

An “aroma field” is created by the soup. The field lines point


in to show the direction in which the test duck is drawn

The closer the test object gets to the source of the field (i.e., the soup), the stronger the field (i.e., the
aroma) becomes. In magnetic field map, the relative strength of the magnetic field is indicated by the
distance between the field lines. The stronger the force field, the closer are the field lines to each other.

MAGNETIC FIELD LINES

Magnetic field lines represents the magnetic field, it is a path either straight or curved, the tangent to which
at any point gives the direction of the magnetic field at that point.

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Magnetic Effects of Electric Current 131
Properties of Magnetic Field Lines

(i) These are always closed loops.

(ii) The lines point from north pole to south pole outside the magnet and from south pole to north pole inside
it.

(iii) The magnetic field lines never cross each other. If they do so, then at the point of intersection there will
be two tangents which give two directions of magnetic field at the same point which is not possible.

(iv) The density of the lines is proportional to the strength of the magnetic field.

(v) In the region of stronger field the lines converge and in the region of weaker field the lines diverge.

MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF CURRENT

A current flowing in a wire produces a magnetic field around it. This is called the magnetic effect of electric
current. The importance of magnetic effect of current lies in the fact that it gives rise to mechanical forces.
Various electric equipments utilize the magnetic effect of current. Oersted was the first person who discovered
the magnetic effect of electric current. He found that when a wire AB carrying current I is held over and parallel
to a magnetic needle NS, the north pole of the needle gets deflected. On holding the same wire below the
needle, deflection of the needle is reversed.

I
A B
S N

The direction of the deflection of compass needle in the magnetic field produced due to a current carrying
wire may be determined by using Ampere’s Swimming Rule which states that :

“Imagine a man swimming along the conductor in the direction of current, facing a magnetic compass kept
near and below the conductor. Then, the north pole of the needle will be deflected towards his left hand.”

Magnetic Field Due to a Long Straight Current Carrying Wire

The magnetic field lines around a straight conductor carrying current are concentric circles on planes
perpendicular to the direction of current.

(a) The direction of magnetic field due to straight current carrying wire can be obtained by ‘Right Hand
Thumb Rule’.

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132 Magnetic Effects of Electric Current Physics - Class X (Level-I)

Magnetic field lines


caused by current Thumb points in the
direction of the current
Fingers curl around
in direction of field Right hand

Right-hand thumb rule : Imagine yourself grasping a current-carrying conductor with your right-hand,
so that the thumb lies along the conductor in the direction of the current, then the fingers of your hand
will be encircling the conductor in the direction of the magnetic field lines caused by the current

Note : The magnitude of magnetic field is produced at a given point increases as the current through wire
increases and decreases as the distance from it increases.

Magnetic Field Due to a Circular Coil Carrying Current


(a) The magnetic field lines around a circular current carrying coil are as shown in the figure below. Every
point on the wire carrying current would give rise to the magnetic field appearing as straight lines at the
center of the loop.
Circular Current

T
Magnetic
Field Lines

(b) The direction of magnetic field at the centre of a current carrying circular coil can be obtained by the right
hand thumb rule. It appears as a straight line at the centre of the loop as shown in figure below.

Thumb indicates
direction of current

Fingers indicate direction


Direction of field at
of field inside coil
the centre of the coil

Right-hand thumb rule can be used to identify the direction


of the magnetic field lines through the coil and thus the locations
of the N-pole and the S-pole of the coil

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Magnetic Effects of Electric Current 133
(c) Looking at a face of the coil, if current is flowing in clockwise direction, the face develops south polarity.
If it is in anti-clockwise direction, the face develops north polarity.

Direction of Direction of
current current

Coil carrying current Coil carrying current in


in clockwise direction anti-clockwise direction

Magnetic Field Due to a Current in a Long Solenoid

(a) A solenoid is a long cylindrical coil containing a large number of closely spaced turns of insulated copper
wire.
(b) The magnetic field produced by a current carrying solenoid is similar to the magnetic field produced
by a bar magnet.
Field lines
Direction of
current

The pattern of the field lines around a solenoid is


very similar to the pattern of field lines around a bar magnet
A careful observation of this figure shows that field lines are parallel straight lines inside the solenoid. It
means, the magnetic field is nearly uniform (almost same at all points) well inside the solenoid.

Electromagnet

If a core of ferromagnetic material, such as soft iron, is placed inside a solenoid, the magnetic field strength
inside the solenoid is greatly increased. Because of the permeability of the iron, the field lines within the
solenoid crowd into the iron core. This has two effects. First, the crowding concentrates the field lines due
the solenoid; the closer together the field lines, stronger is the field. Second, the field lines from the solenoid
induce a magnetism inside the iron core, so that the ferromagnetic material becomes a magnet whose field
supplements the field of the solenoid. Electromagnets are widely used as components of electrical devices
such as motors, generator, electric bell etc.
Fingers circle core
in the direction of current

S N

I
Thumb points to N-pole Electromagnet in an
of electromagnet electric bell

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134 Magnetic Effects of Electric Current Physics - Class X (Level-I)

Try Yourself
1. Magnetic field lines are always
(1) Straight lines (2) Zig-zag lines
(3) Hyperbola (4) Closed loops
2. Looking from one side towards the face of a coil, the current in it flows in clockwise direction. On
looking from the opposite side towards the second face of the coil, the face has ________ polarity.
(1) North (2) South
(3) Both (1) & (2) (4) No polarity will be formed
3. Magnetic field lines pattern of a bar magnet are given by

(1) N S (2) N S

(3) N S (4) N S

4. Choose the correct option


The magnetic field inside a long straight solenoid carrying current is
(1) Zero (2) Nearly uniform
(3) Increases as we move towards its ends (4) Fluctuates continuously
[Ans. 1(4), 2(1), 3(4), 4(2)]

FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD


Experiments on various charged particles moving in a magnetic field give the following results :
™ The magnitude FB of the magnetic force exerted on the particle is proportional to the charge q on the
particle, the speed v of the particle and the intensity of the magnetic field.
™ The direction of FB depends on the direction of the velocity of the charged particle and the direction of
the magnetic field B.
™ When a charged particle moves parallel (either in the same direction or in opposite direction) to the
magnetic field, the magnetic force acting on the particle is zero.
™ When a charged particle enters into a magnetic field making an angle  with the magnetic field [  0°
or 180°], the magnetic force acts in a direction perpendicular to both V and B, that is FB is perpendicular
to the plane having V and B (shown in figure (a)).

v FB

v
FB
B

B
+q  FB

v
(a) (b)

The direction of the magnetic force FB acting on a charged particle moving with
a velocity v in the presence of a magnetic field B. (a) The magnetic force is perpendicular
to both v and B. (b) Oppositely directed magnetic forces FB are exerted on two oppositely
charged particles moving at the same velocity in a magnetic field.

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Magnetic Effects of Electric Current 135
™ The magnetic force exerted on a positive charge is in the direction opposite to the direction of the magnetic
force exerted on a negative charge moving in the same direction (shown in figure (b)).

FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR PLACED IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

™ If a magnetic force is exerted on a single charged particle when the particle moves through a magnetic
field, it should not surprise you that a current-carrying wire also experiences a force when placed in a
magnetic field. This follows from the fact that the current is a collection of many charged particles in
motion; hence, the resultant force exerted by the field on the wire is the sum of the individual forces
exerted on all the charged particles making up the current. The force exerted on the particles is
transmitted to the wire when the particles collide with the atoms making up the wire.

Bin Bin Bin

I=0 I I

(a) (b) (c) (d)


(a) A wire suspended vertically between the poles of a magnet.
(b) The setup shown in part (a) as seen looking at the south pole of the magnet, so that the
magnetic field (crosses) is directed into the page. When there is no current in the wire, it remains vertical.
(c) When the current is upward, the wire deflects to the left.
(d) When the current is downward, the wire deflects to the right.

™ John Ambrose Fleming (1849-1945), suggested a rule for finding the direction of the force experienced
by a current-carrying wire placed in a magnetic field that is perpendicular to the current in the wire.

If the forefinger, the second finger and the thumb of the left hand are stretched at right angles
to each other, with the forefinger pointing in the direction of the field and the second finger in
the direction of the current then the thumb indicates the direction of the force. It is called
Fleming’s left hand rule.

Movement (Force) N
i
W E

S
Field
Field
Current

(a) (b)
Fleming’s left-hand rule for finding the direction of the force
on a current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field

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136 Magnetic Effects of Electric Current Physics - Class X (Level-I)

Suppose a vertical wire carries a current in the upward direction and a magnetic field exists from east
to west. To apply Fleming’s left-hand rule to this situation, stretch the forefinger, second finger and thumb
of your left hand at right angles to each other. Keep the hand such that the forefinger points west and
the second finger points upwards (shown in figure (b)). You will find that the thumb points towards the
south. So, the force on the wire is towards the south.

ZONE
“Get back in
here and finish
your lunch”

Try Yourself
5. A beam of -particles is projected into a magnetic field. If the direction of magnetic field is along
the velocity of charged particles, the particles get
(1) Accelerated (2) Decelerated

(3) Deflected (4) No change in velocity


6. An electron is moving in the north direction. It experiences a force in the vertically upward direction.
The magnetic field at that region is towards
(1) East (2) West

(3) North (4) South


7. A vertical wire carrying a current in the upward direction is placed in a horizontal magnetic field
directed towards east. The wire will experience a force directed towards
(1) East (2) West

(3) North (4) South


8. Which of the following is not true in case of motion of a charged particle which is projected
perpendicularly in a magnetic field?

(1) Its kinetic energy remains constant (2) Its momentum remains constant

(3) Its speed remains constant (4) Its velocity will change
[Ans. 5(4), 6(1), 7(3), 8(2)]

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Magnetic Effects of Electric Current 137
ELECTRIC MOTOR
Electric motor is a device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Electric motor is used
to run many electrical appliances like fans, washing machines, refrigerators, mixers etc.
A commonly used electric motor uses direct current so it is also called ‘DC motor’.

Principle of Electric Motor


An electric motor works on the principle that when a rectangular coil is placed in a magnetic field, and current
is passed through it then two equal and opposite forces acting on the two sides of the coil tend to rotate it
continuously.
B
Remains
as it
Rectangular before
coil

Force S

nt
N
rre
Cu
Magnetic
Field
Force

Commutator

Carbon
Brushes Field Magnets
+ –

An electric motor consists of a rectangular insulated copper wire wound on a soft iron core called armature
(or Rotor) which can freely rotate about its axis. The coil is mounted between the poles of a permanent magnet.
Two ends of the coil are connected to commutator (See figure) which reverses the direction of current flowing
through the coil, every time the coil passes the vertical position during a revolution. When current is passed
through the coil, two equal and opposite forces act on the two sides of the coil and rotate the coil. The battery
supplies current to the coil via carbon brushes which always remain in contact with rotating rings of the
commutator. The following is a schematic diagram to better explain the working of a motor.
Regular
Rotation axis Regular
I=0
Rotor

N BI S N S N BI S
I B I
I
Brush Regular
Commutator
I I I I I I
+ + +

(a) Brushes are aligned with (b) Rotor has turned 90° (c) Rotor has turned 180°
commutator segments
 Current flows into the bold  Each brush is in contact with  The brushes are again
side of the rotor and out of the commutator segments, so aligned with commutator
regular side. the current bypasses the segments. This time the
rotor altogether. current flows into the regular
side of the rotor used and out
of the bold side.
Schematic diagram of a simple dc motor is given above.

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138 Magnetic Effects of Electric Current Physics - Class X (Level-I)

To improve the electric motor :


(i) An electromagnet is used in place of a permanent magnet.
(ii) Large number of turns are used in the current carrying coil.

Example 1 :

Which electrical device converts electrical energy into mechanical energy?

Solution :

An electric motor is a device which converts electric energy into mechanical energy.

Example 2 :

What is the role of split ring in an electric motor?

Solution :

Split ring is a device which reverses the direction of flow of current in the rectangular loop (rotor). It is also
known as commutator.

Try Yourself
9. For a DC motor, choose the correct option.
(1) The split rings acts as a commutator
(2) The reversing of the current is repeated at each half rotation
(3) Soft iron core on which the coil is wound, plus the coil is called armature
(4) All of these
10. A charged particle is moved along a magnetic field line. The magnetic force on the particle is
(1) Zero (2) Along its velocity
(3) Opposite to its velocity (4) Perpendicular to its velocity
11. In a DC motor, current in armature changes its direction of flow in every _____ rotation of armature.
(1) 90° (2) 360°
(3) 180° (4) 50°

12. An elastic circular wire of length x carries a current i. It is placed in a uniform magnetic field B
(out of paper) such that its plane is perpendicular to the direction of B. Force experienced by the
wire is
B
(1) Compressive force
(2) Stretching force B B
(3) Torque B

(4) No force B
13. In a D.C. motor, current in armature charges its direction of flow every _______ rotation of armature.
(1) 90° (2) 360°
(3) 180° (4) 50°
[Ans. 9(4), 10(1), 11(3), 12(2), 13(3)]

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Magnetic Effects of Electric Current 139
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
When a conductor is moved in a magnetic field or the magnetic field associated with a coil changes, then
an emf or an electric current is produced. This emf is called induced emf and electric current is called
induced current. The phenomenon of production of emf or current in a conductor by continuously changing
the magnetic field associated with it is called electromagnetic induction.

Illustration :

Take a coil C1 and connect the ends of the coil to a galvanometer and move the north pole of a bar magnet
towards the coil as shown in the below figure.

C1
Magnet is moving towards the coil

N S

You will observe that there is a momentary deflection in the needle of the galvanometer. This indicates the
presence of a current in the coil (C1). The deflection becomes zero the moment the motion of the magnet
stops. Now, if you draw the north pole of the magnet away from the coil (C1) as shown in the given figure.

C1
Magnet is moving away from the coil

N S

The galvanometer is deflected in opposite as it was in the previous situation, showing that the current is now
set up opposite to the previous case.
In the above example, the magnetic field associated with the coil (C1) or the number of magnetic field lines
of the magnet passing through the coil is known as magnetic flux. So, we can define magnetic flux as the
number of magnetic lines passing through a given area. Magnetic flux is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is Weber
(Wb) and its CGS unit is Maxwell.

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140 Magnetic Effects of Electric Current Physics - Class X (Level-I)

DO YOU KNOW?
Electromagnetic induction was first studied by English physicist Michael Faraday. In 1831, he discovered
that how a moving magnet can be used to generate electric current which correlated Oersted’s principle
that moving charge produces a magnetic field.
The figure given below summarizes the relationship between Oersted’s principle and Faraday’s principle.

Oersted’s principle

Current through a conductor


Current Magnetic
(moving charge) Changing magnetic field field
around a conductor
Faraday’s principle

Oersted’s and Faraday’s principles complement each other

Note :
A galvanometer is an instrument that can detect the presence of a current in a circuit. The pointer
remains at zero (the centre of the scale) for zero current flowing through it. It can deflect either to
the left or to the right of the zero mark depending on the direction of current.

Knowledge Cloud
Answer to the Chapter Opening Question
As the magnetic stripe of the card moves through the card reader, the coded pattern of magnetization in the
stripe causes a varying magnetic flux and hence an induced current in the reader’s circuits. If the card does
not move, there is no induced emf or current and none of the card’s information is read.

FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND RULE

Fleming’s right-hand rule gives the direction of the induced current when a section of a loop passes through
a magnetic field perpendicular to it.
Direction of Direction of
induced current induced current
B
B
Field
S N S Field N
A A
Galvanometer
Galvanometer

(a) (b)

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Magnetic Effects of Electric Current 141
If the forefinger, second finger and thumb of the right hand are stretched at right angles to each
other, with the forefinger in the direction of the field and the thumb in the direction of the motion
of the wire then the induced current in the wire is in the direction of the second finger.

Figure illustrates the rule for the situation shown in previous figure (a). The forefinger and thumb are in the
directions of the field and motion of the loop respectively. The stretched second finger gives the direction of
the induced current.

Motion

Field

Induced current

Fleming’s right-hand rule

ELECTRIC GENERATOR

Electric generator is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
1. Principle of electric generator : “The electric generator is based on the principle of electromagnetic
induction i.e., when a conductor or a coil moves in a magnetic field and cut the magnetic field lines then
a current is induced in it.”
In an electric generator a rectangular coil is made to rotate, in a magnetic field produced by a horse shoe
type magnet. As the moving coil cuts the magnetic field lines, its magnetic flux changes due to which
a current is induced in the coil. The direction of induced current can be obtained by Fleming’s right hand
rule. This current can be used to run the various electrical appliances.

Direction of motion
of edges of the coil
Direction
of rotation

(–)
(+)

Axis of Field
rotation direction

When a coil is rotated in a magnetic field, the edges of the


coil cut the magnetic field lines to induce an emf in the coil

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142 Magnetic Effects of Electric Current Physics - Class X (Level-I)

2. There are two types of electric generator


(i) DC generator (or dynamo)
(ii) AC generator (or alternator)
Direction of motion of edge of
the coil at the labelled positions
(B)
Axis of rotation

R
(C)
(A)
Q
Direction
of rotation
(D)
S Direction of
the magnetic
Slip-ring field Voltage
P
(A) (A)
B1
Brushes
(B) (B)
Time
B2 (D)

Slip rings (C) (C)

(a) (b)
When the armature PQRS of a generator is rotated between the poles of the field magnets fig.(a), an
alternating voltage is developed across the brushes. Its variations for position A, B, C and D are shown
in fig.(b)
An electric generator consists of a rectangular coil wounded over a soft iron core called armature. The
two ends of the coil are connected to the two copper half rings (or split rings) in DC generator and to
two slip rings in AC generator and two conducting stationary brushes (B1 and B2) are kept pressed on
the rings. From the carbon brushes we can take output to various electrical appliances.

Direction of motion of edge of


the coil at the labelled positions
(B)
Axis of rotation

(C)
(A)

Direction
of rotation
(D) Direction of
the magnetic
field
Voltage
Split rings
C A C
A

Brushes
Split-ring Time
commutator B D B
(a) The split ring commutator is used in a DC generator,
(b) Voltage developed across the brushes is a pulsating DC

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Magnetic Effects of Electric Current 143
3. As the coil rotates in magnetic field, due to cutting of magnetic field lines electric current is produced
in the coil. In DC generator due to split rings, output of the generator is a direct current (DC). While in
AC generator, the output is an alternating current (AC) due to slip rings.

Note : The current which always flows in the same direction is called a direct current (DC) and the current
which changes its direction after equal intervals of time is called alternating current (AC).

HOUSEHOLD ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

We use different electrical appliances in our houses which work on electricity supplied from a power distribution
station. Electricity generated at a power plant is distributed to consumers from distribution station. In most
places in India, the household power supply is AC. The supply is at a potential difference 220 V, and a
1
frequency 50 Hz. By 50 Hz frequency we mean, the AC changes its direction after every second.
100
The electric power is supplied to our house through three wires.
™ Live wire – red in colour.

™ Neutral wire – black in colour.


™ Earth/ground wire – green in colour.

The live wire is at 220 V. The ground wire is maintained at zero potential by connecting it to a large metallic
plate buried in the ground. And the neutral wire is also maintained at almost zero potential. Current enters
through the live wire and returns through the neutral wire. The earth wire normally doesn’t carry current.

E tra Sho s
As per new insulation colours for electrical wiring
Live – Brown
Neutral – Light blue
Earth – Green or yellow

DOMESTIC WIRING

Live Wire Meter Main Switch


Fuse S Fuse
L 2006
kWh To Fan
N

Neutral Wire

E Bulb

Earth Connection
Switch For Bulb Switch For
Socket
Socket

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144 Magnetic Effects of Electric Current Physics - Class X (Level-I)

(i) Usually, there are two separate circuits in a house, the ordinary lightning circuit with a fuse of about
5 A capacity and the power circuit with a fuse of about 13-16 A capacity.
(ii) Each distribution circuit should have a separate fuse so that short-circuiting in a particular circuit may
not affect whole circuit.
(iii) All the switches are put in the live wire.
(iv) To avoid the risk of electric shocks, the metal body of an electrical appliance is earthed. (i.e. connected
to the ground through an earth wire).
(v) Electric fuse in domestic wiring is a wire of high resistance and low melting point. It is used to avoid
damages due to short circuiting and over-loading. Generally it is made of tin-lead alloy. It works on heating
effect of current.
Glass tube Metal caps

Symbol of an electric fuse


Fuse wire used in circuit diagrams
Fuse used in electrical appliances

ELECTRICAL PROBLEMS

Electric wires become heated when current passes through them. If, due to some reason, excessive heating
takes place, the wires may catch fire. A fault like a short circuit or an overload can cause overheating of the wires.
Overload
Different types of wires can safely carry currents up to a certain limit, say 10 A or 20 A, before they start
overheating. If the total current drawn through a wire by the appliances connected to it exceeds the safety
limit for that wire, it gets overheated. We say that the overheating is due to overloading. For example,
suppose a live wire entering the switchboard of a room can carry a maximum current of 10 A without
overheating. The board has several switches for the fans and lights in the room, and it has a few sockets
too. If we switch on all these appliances, and a heater, a toaster and an iron are connected to the sockets,
the total current through the live wire entering the board will exceed 10 A. The overloaded wire will then get
overheated. Overloading can also occur due to an accidental hike in the supply voltage.
Short circuit
Consider the situation shown in figure (a). A bulb is connected across the live and the neutral wires of the
domestic supply. The current flowing through the circuit depends on the resistance of the bulb. Now consider
the situation shown in figure (b), in which the live and the neutral wires have come in contact accidentally.
Live Live

Neutral Neutral

Contact between live and neutral wires


completes the circuit without the bulb

(a) (b)

(a) Normal electric circuit, (b) Short circuit


A very large current passes through the circuit, because the resistance between the wires is now almost zero.
Such an event is called short circuit. The large current due to the short circuit leads to overheating, which
may even cause a fire. A short circuit may happen due to many reasons, including the insulations on
neighbouring wires getting worn out, a conductor such as a screw falling across the live and the neutral
terminals of a socket, and so on.

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Magnetic Effects of Electric Current 145
Precautions in the Use of Electricity
To avoid the hazards like electric shocks or electric fires, we should observe the following precautions.
(i) If a person accidently touches a live wire or if an electric fire starts in a house, the main switch should
be turned off.
(ii) To avoid the risk of electric shocks, metallic body of electric appliances should be earthed.
(iii) The fuse should always be connected in live wire.
(iv) All the switches should be connected in live wires.
(v) For wiring, good quality insulator wires should be used.

E tra Sho s
Physics in Medical Science
A boy was diagnosed with a brain tumour. While most of the tumour could be removed by surgery, some
of it was too deeply imbedded in his brain stem for removal. The doctors decided that they would need to
monitor these cells for any sign of growth. This could not have been done with X-rays, because X-rays do
not produce good detailed images of soft tissues.
Instead, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is used. An MRI machine is just a large
doughnut-shaped electromagnet. The nuclei of the hydrogen molecules in our tissues
act like tiny magnets and become aligned with the magnetic field of the MRI machine.
When these nuclei are subjected to low-energy radio waves, they are nudged out of
alignment. When the radio waves are turned off, the nuclei snap back into alignment
and give off a tiny electromagnetic pulse. Computer analysis transforms these pulses
into detailed images of the tissue. Each image is a thin cross-section, so a series
of these cross-sections creates a three-dimensional picture. After observing these
images carefully the doctors came to know that over the years, the boy’s tumour had
not grown.

Advantage of AC over DC
(i) AC can be transmitted over long distance with a very low loss of energy in comparison to DC
(ii) AC can be easily stepped up or down as per requirement.
(iii) AC can be easily converted into DC with a device having very low cost. But for conversion of DC to
AC we need a costly device.

Example 3 :

What is the working principle of AC generator?

Solution :

AC generator is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction.

Example 4 :

What is the frequency for alternating current in India?

Solution :

It is 50 hertz.

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146 Magnetic Effects of Electric Current Physics - Class X (Level-I)

Example 5 :

What is the role of a fuse in electric circuits?


Solution :
A fuse is a safety device having a short length of a thin wire made of tin-lead alloy which has a lower melting
point. This wire melts and breaks the circuit if the current exceeds the safe value. This saves costly electric
appliances and buildings from damage.

Try Yourself
14. When a charged particle enters in a uniform magnetic field, its kinetic energy
(1) Remains constant (2) Increases
(3) Decreases (4) Becomes zero
15. When a positive charged particle enters in a uniform magnetic field normally, then the path of the
particle will be
(1) Circular (2) Elliptical
(3) Helical (4) Straight
16. How many times does an alternating current (AC) with frequency 50 Hz changes its direction?
(1) 25 (2) 75
(3) 50 (4) 100
17. Identify the correct plotting of magnetic field lines.

(1) (2)
N S

(3) (4)
S N

[Ans. 14(1), 15(1), 16(4), 17(4)]

QUICK RECAP
1. A compass needle is a small magnet. Its one end which points towards north, is called a north pole and
the other end which points towards south is called a south pole.
2. Magnetic field is the space around a magnet or a current carrying conductor in which a small magnet
experiences the force.
3. Magnetic field lines are continuous imaginary curves used to represent magnetic field.
4. Magnetic field line is the path either straight or curved along which a hypothetical free north pole would
tend to move. The direction of magnetic field at a point is given by the direction of a north pole placed
at that point. Field lines are crowded where the magnetic field is greater.

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Magnetic Effects of Electric Current 147
5. A current carrying conductor produces magnetic field. The field lines around the straight wire consists
of a series of concentric circles whose direction is given by the right-hand thumb rule.
6. The pattern of magnetic field around a conductor due to current flowing through it depends on the shape
of the conductor.
7. Magnetic field due to a long straight solenoid is uniform (inside the solenoid) and similar to a bar magnet.
8. An electromagnet consists of a core of soft iron wrapped around with a coil of insulated copper wire.
9. When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force. If the direction
of current and field are mutually perpendicular to each other, then the force acting on the conductor will
be maximum and perpendicular to both current and the field and is given by Fleming’s left hand rule.
10. Electric motor is a device which converts electrical energy into mechanical work.
11. Electromagnetic induction is the phenomenon of generating electric current by changing magnetic field
lines across the coil. The direction of induced current is given by Fleming’s right hand rule or Lenz’s law.
12. Electrical generator is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. It is based on
electromagnetic induction.
13. In domestic purpose we receive AC electric supply of 220 V, 50 Hz.
14. Fuse is an important safety device, used for protecting the circuits due to short circuiting or overloading
of the circuits. It is connected in series with the live wire.

‰ ‰ ‰

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Assignment
(d) Magnetic field inside a solenoid carrying
SECTION-A current is nearly _________.
(e) In an electric motors, the _________ acts as
Very Short Answer Type Question :
a commutator.
1. The north pole of a magnet is placed near a (f) A positive charged particle enters in a uniform
stationary negatively charged body. Will the pole magnetic field, then it experiences a force which
experience any force? is given by Fleming’s _________ hand rule.

2. When a charged particle is moving along the (g) AC generators work on the principle of
_________ induction.
direction of magnetic field. How much force is
experienced by the charged particle? (h) Magnetic field lines of a bar magnet form
_________ loops.
3. Name one device which works on the magnetic
(i) The magnetic field due to a current carrying
effect of current.
loop is _________ at its centre.
4. What is the nature of magnetic field lines due to
(j) The magnetic field lines inside a bar magnet
current in a long straight conductor?
start from the _________ pole.
5. Which rule will give the direction of force
experienced by a current carrying linear conductor Short Answer Type Question :
placed perpendicular to the magnetic field? 1. What is the nature of magnetic field produced by
a current flowing in a circular coil? Name the rule
6. What type of force acts between two parallel wires
to find the direction of the magnetic field.
carrying current in the same direction? What
happens if one of the current is reversed? 2. Does a constant magnetic field exert a force on a
stationary charge? Explain.
7. An -particle enters at right angles to the
3. Why two magnetic field lines do not intersect each
magnetic field with constant speed. What will be
other?
the path of the -particle?
4. An electron is not deflected while passing through
8. What is the basic principle of an electric motor? a certain region of space. Is it sure that there is no
9. Fill in the blanks: magnetic field in this region?
(a) Magnetic field lines _________ intersect each 5. What are Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
other. induction?
(b) SI unit of magnetic field is _________. 6. When does a charged particle moving in a
(c) An electric motor is a rotating device which magnetic field experience no force.
converts _________ energy into mechanical 7. What precautions one should take in the use of
energy. electricity?

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Magnetic Effects of Electric Current 149
8. A current through a horizontal overhead power line 4. What is an electromagnet and what are its uses?
flows in east-west direction. What is the direction (i) Draw a labelled diagram to show how an
of magnetic field lines at a point (i) just above (ii) electromagnet is made.
just below the line?
(ii) What is the purpose of soft iron core used in
9. Consider a thick copper wire PQ connected in making an electromagnet?
series through a battery, a plug key and a
resistance as shown in figure. A magnetic 5. Draw magnetic field lines due to a
compass needle is brought near the wire, the (i) Circular coil carrying current
magnetic compass needle shows a deflection. (ii) Long straight solenoid carrying current
Discuss the reason for the deflection in the
compass needle. (iii) Bar magnet

N 6. Give reasons
Magnetic
(i) A freely suspended magnet stay at north south
compass
P Q direction.
(ii) Current is induced in a coil rotating in a
uniform magnetic field.
(iii) When two circular coils are placed close to
+ – 2 each other and current in one of the coil is
Plug key Resistor changed, some current is induced in the other
Battery coil.
If you switch off the current, you will observe that (iv) Earth wire is used in electrical appliances.
compass needle returns back to its original
position. Give the reason.
10. A motor converts one form of energy into another.
SECTION-B
Name the two forms.
Objective Type Questions :
11. List three sources of magnetic fields.
1. Choose the correct option which represents
12. When will the force experienced by a current magnetic field lines due to uniform magnetic field.
carrying conductor placed in the magnetic field be
maximum?
13. Explain different ways to induce current in a (1) (2)
closed coil.
14. State Fleming’s left hand rule. (3) (4)
15. Explain the rule which gives the direction of
2. Magnetic field is produced by the flow of current in
induced current.
a straight wire. This phenomenon was discovered
16. Give the properties of a solenoid. by

Long Answer Type Question : (1) Faraday (2) Maxwell

1. What is electromagnetic induction? On what (3) Coulomb (4) Oersted


factors does the value of induced current produced 3. Magnetic field inside a current carrying solenoid is
in a circuit depend? Name and state the rule used
(1) Directly proportional to its length
for determination of direction of induced current.
State one application of this phenomenon in (2) Directly proportional to the current
everyday life. (3) Inversely proportional to number of turns
2. Draw a labelled diagram of AC generator. Explain (4) Inversely proportional to the current
the principle and working of AC generator.
4. SI unit of magnetic field intensity is
3. Draw a labelled diagram of electric motor. Explain
(1) tesla (2) gauss
the principle and working of an electric motor.
What is the role of split ring in an electric motor? (3) weber (4) Both (1) & (2)

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150 Magnetic Effects of Electric Current Physics - Class X (Level-I)

5. Magnetic field in a region is directed into the page. 11. As shown in the figure when the switch S is
A wire placed in that region which carrying a current closed, if current in coil A is clockwise, then
in vertically upward direction will experience a force induced current in coil B is
(1) Zero (2) Due right A B
(3) Upwards (4) Downwards
6. An electric generator converts
G
(1) Electric energy into mechanical energy
S
(2) Mechanical energy into electrical energy (1) Zero (2) Clockwise
(3) Kinetic energy into potential energy (3) Anticlockwise (4) None of these
(4) Electrical energy into sound and light energy 12. The magnetic field inside a straight current carrying
7. Choose the correct magnetic field pattern due to solenoid is independent of
current through a long straight conductor. (1) Number of turns in the solenoid
I I (2) Current flowing through it
(3) The radius of the solenoid
(4) Length of the solenoid
(1) (2)
13. Which of the following is most suitable for the core
of electromagnet?
I (1) Air
(2) Soft iron
(3) Steel
(3) (4) Both (1) & (2)
(4) Cu-Ni alloy
14. The incorrect statement regarding the magnetic field
8. An electron projected towards north is deflected lines is
towards west by a magnetic field. The direction of (1) Magnetic intensity is a measure of field lines
the field is passing through unit area held normal to it
(1) Upward (2) Downward (2) Magnetic field lines form closed loops
(3) Eastward (4) Southward (3) Inside a magnet, magnetic field lines move
9. A long solenoid is shown in figure. If BA, BB, BC from north to south pole
and BD are magnetic fields at internal points A, B, (4) Magnetic field lines do not intersect each other
C and D respectively. Then
15. A current carrying wire can give magnetic poles
C A B when it is
(1) Placed in an external magnetic field
I I
(2) Bent into the form of circular ring
D (3) Suspended freely in air
(1) BA = BB = BC (2) BA > BC
(4) All of these
(3) BD > BA (4) All of these
16. The main difference between an AC generator and
10. An electric motor a DC generator is that
(1) Is based on the principle that force acts on a (1) AC generator has an electromagnet while
current carrying coil in a magnetic field DC generator has permanent magnet
(2) Converts electrical energy into mechanical (2) DC generator generates high voltage
energy (3) AC generator generates high voltage
(3) Is based on magnetic effect of current (4) AC generator has slip rings while DC generator
(4) All of these has a split ring commutator

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Magnetic Effects of Electric Current 151
17. Which of the following devices should be used for 23. If a charged particle moves through a magnetic
protecting the circuits due to short circuiting or field perpendicular to it, then
overloading of the circuits? (1) Both momentum and kinetic energy of the
(1) Switch particle change
(2) Socket (2) Both momentum as well as kinetic energy of
the particle are constant
(3) Fuse
(3) Kinetic energy is constant but momentum
(4) Resistance
changes
18. An -particle enters a magnetic field at right angle
(4) Momentum is constant but kinetic energy
to it as shown in the figure given below. The
changes
direction of force acting on the -particle will be
24. When a current carrying conductor is placed in a
Magnetic uniform magnetic field it experience a force. The
field
direction of the force is given by

(1) Fleming’s left hand rule
(2) Fleming’s right hand rule
(1) To the left (2) To the right
(3) Right hand thumb rule
(3) Into the page (4) Out of the page
(4) Left hand thumb rule
19. An electron projected towards west is deflected
25. An electron enters a magnetic field at right angle
towards south by a magnetic field. The direction of
to it, as shown in the figure. The direction of force
magnetic field is
acting on the electron is
(1) Towards north
(2) Towards south
Magnetic field
(3) Downward
(4) Upward Electron
20. The usual colour code followed for connecting live, (1) Into the page (2) Out of the page
neutral and earth wires respectively are (3) To the left (4) To the right
(1) Red, green, yellow 26. Two different loops are concentric and lie in the
(2) Red, black, green same plane. The current in the outer loop is
clockwise and increases with time. The induced
(3) Red, green, black current in the inner loop then is
(4) Green, red, black (1) Clockwise
21. Magnetic field at a point due to a long straight (2) Zero
current carrying conductor depends upon
(3) Counter-clockwise
(1) Current passing through the conductor
(4) In a direction that depends on the ratio of the
(2) Distance of the point from the current carrying loops radii
conductor 27. In the given figure the electron enters into the
(3) Either (1) or (2) magnetic field. It deflects towards
(4) Both (1) & (2) y
22. Two -particles moving along the parallel lines with
× × ×
different velocities, will (neglect electrostatic e
repulsion) × × ×
(1) Attract each other × × ×
(2) Repel each other x
(3) Neither attract nor repel (1) Positive x-direction (2) Negative x-direction
(4) Move towards its left (3) Positive y-direction (4) Negative y-direction

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152 Magnetic Effects of Electric Current Physics - Class X (Level-I)

28. Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a coil 30. If a coil of metal wire is kept stationary in a
changes, an induced e.m.f. is produced in the changing magnetic field, then
circuit. The e.m.f. lasts
(1) Only e.m.f. is induced in the coil
(1) For a short time
(2) Only current is induced in the coil
(2) For a long time
(3) Forever (3) Neither e.m.f nor current is induced
(4) As long as the change in the flux continues (4) Both e.m.f. and current is induced
29. The given figure shows the coil of an AC generator 31. At the time of short circuit, the current in the
circuit
N S
(1) Reduces substantially
A
B
(2) Does not change
What is connected to the ends A and B of the coil?
(1) Split ring (2) Brushes (3) Increases heavily

(3) Slip rings (4) Voltmeter (4) Vary continuously

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Chapter-4
Magnetic Effects of Electric Current

Level-II
(For CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads)
Magnetic Effects of
CHAPTER 4
Electric Current THIS CHAPTER INCLUDES
z Magnetic Field Due to Various Current
Carrying Conductors
z Motion of Charged Particle in Magnetic Field
MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO VARIOUS CURRENT z Force on a Current Carrying Conductor Placed
CARRYING CONDUCTORS in a Magnetic Field

(a) The magnitude of field at a point due to a long z Force between Two Parallel Current Carrying
straight current carrying wire is directly proportional Wires
to the
z Electromagnetic Induction in Various
(i) Current passing through the wire. Situations
(ii) Reciprocal of the perpendicular distance of that
point from the wire. z Lenz’s Law
These two points, i.e., (i) and (ii) can be z Assignment
mathematically expressed as
I
so B
r
 0I
B
2r

here B = Magnetic field


0 = Permeability of free space
22
 = Constant =  3.14
7
I = Current in the wire
r = Perpendicular distance of the point from the wire conductor
(b) Magnetic field at point P due to section of wire
0I 
BP  [sin   sin ]
4r I 
L r P

I
 0 [cos   cos ] 
4r
0IL

2r L2  4r 2
In electromagnetism, permeability is the measure of the ability of a material to support the formation of
a magnetic field within itself. In other words, it is the degree of magnetization that a material obtains in
response to an applied magnetic field. Magnetic permeability is typically represented by the Greek letter
. The term was coined in September, 1885 by Oliver Heaviside.
In SI units, permeability is measured in the newton per ampere squared (NA–2). The permeability constant
(0), also known as the magnetic constant or the permeability of free space. The magnetic constant has
the exact (defined) value 0 = 4 × 10–7 NA–2 or 0 = 4 × 10–7 Tm/A.

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154 Magnetic Effects of Electric Current Physics - Class X (Level-II)

(c) The magnitude of the magnetic field at the centre of the coil is proportional to the
(i) Current flowing in the coil
(ii) Reciprocal of the radius of the coil.
I
so B
r
 0I
or B
2r
here B = Magnetic field
0 = Permeability of free space
I = Current flowing in the coil
r = Radius of the coil

 0 NI
Note : If the coil contains N identical loops each of radius r, then B = .
2r
This is because the current in each circular loop has the same direction and the field due to each
loop then just adds up.

Looking at a face of the coil, if current is flowing in clockwise direction, the face develops south polarity.
If it is in anti-clockwise direction, the face develops north polarity.

Direction of Direction of
current current

Coil carrying current Coil carrying current in


in clockwise direction anti-clockwise direction
(d) The strength of magnetic field inside a current carrying solenoid is proportional to

(i) Number of turns per unit length in the solenoid.

(ii) Magnitude of current in the solenoid.

or B  nI

0 NI
or B  0 nl 
L

where B = Magnetic field

N = Number of turns

L = Length of solenoid

n = Number of turns per unit length

l = Current

0 = Permeability of free space

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Physics - Class X (Level-II) Magnetic Effects of Electric Current 155

0 nI
Note : For a short thin solenoid the magnetic field at centre is 0nI and at the ends is .
2

If core material other than vacuum or air is used then,

B  nI

where  = permeability of the core material

Example 1 :

The radius of a circular loop is 0.4 m and the current is 12 A. What is the magnitude of magnetic field at
the centre of the loop? (Given 0 = 4 × 10–7 Tm/A)

Solution :

 0I
As B 
2r
Here 0 = 4 × 10–7 T-m/A; I = 12 A; r = 0.4 m

4  10 7  12
So, B 
2  0 .4
= 6 × 10–6
= 18.86 × 10–6 T

Example 2 :

A long straight wire carrying 5 A current lies in the plane of the paper as shown in the given figure. Find the
magnitude and direction of the magnetic field at point P. [Given 0 = 4 × 10–7 Tm/A]

Solution :

Magnitude of the magnetic field at point P


 0I
B =
2r 5A
7
4  10  5 4  5  10 7 P
=  2m
2  2 4
B = 5 × 10–7 T
Direction of the magnetic field at point P can be determined by using “Right-hand thumb rule”.
The magnetic field at point P will be perpendicular to the plane of the paper in upward direction.

Example 3 :

Find the ratio of magnetic fields at point A and point B inside a long solenoid as shown in the given figure.

I
A B

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156 Magnetic Effects of Electric Current Physics - Class X (Level-II)

Solution :

We know that magnetic field is uniform (almost same at all points) well inside a long solenoid.

 BA = BB [BA - Magnetic field at point A and BB - Magnetic field at point B]

BA 1
 
BB 1

Example 4 :

What is the magnitude of magnetic field at the point P due to a current carrying wire of length 4 m and
having a current of 4 A as shown in the figure? [Take 0 = 4 × 10–7 Tm/A]

5m 30°
4m P
60°

Solution :
Magnitude of magnetic field at point P
0 i
B [sin   sin ]
4r
0 i
 [sin30  sin 60]
4  5

4  4  10 –7  1 3
B
4  5
  4
 2 2 
 
3  1  10 –8 T

= 11 × 10–8 T

Try Yourself
1. A long wire carries a steady current it is bent into a circle of one turn and magnetic field at centre
of coil is B. It is then bent into a circular loop of n-turns. The magnetic field at center of coil will
be
(1) nB (2) n2B
(3) 2nB (4) 2n2B
2. A wire as shown in the figure carries a current 2 A. The semicircle has radius 4 cm the magnetic
field at the center C will be

r
C

3 4
(1)  10 –7 T (2)  10 –7 T
2 3

 6
(3)  10 –5 T (4)  10 –5 T
2 5

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Physics - Class X (Level-II) Magnetic Effects of Electric Current 157
3. The magnetic field outside a long solenoid is
(1) Half the value of field inside (2) Double the value of field inside
(3) Equal to the value of field inside (4) Zero
4. Which of the following graphs shows magnetic field due to a current in a long solenoid?

Magnetic field

Magnetic field
(1) (2)

O Current O Current

Magnetic field
Magnetic field

(3) (4)

O Current O Current
[Ans. 1(2), 2(3), 3(4), 4(1)]

MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

The magnitude of the magnetic force is

FB = | q | vB sin 

If  = 0° or 180° charged particle does not experience any force. But when  = 90° charged particle
experiences maximum force and follows a circular path.

B
q v r

F=0 v
Straight line q mv 2
Fmax = qvB = r
(Circular path)

The necessary centripetal force is provided by the magnetic force hence, if r be the radius of the circular
path, then

mv 2  mv 2 
 qvB   centripetal force and m  Mass of the charged particle 
r  r 

mv P 2mKE P is momentum and


 r    KE is kinetic energy 
qB qB qB  

2r 2m
Time period T  
v Bq

When a charged particle moves with a velocity v through a magnetic field, the field can alter the direction
of the velocity vector but cannot change the speed or kinetic energy of the particle. It is because FB
always acts perpendicular to the particle’s velocity, hence does zero work on it.

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FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR PLACED IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force and the magnitude
of magnetic force is

F  BIL sin 

where

B = Magnitude of magnetic field

I = Current flowing in the wire

L = Effective length of the wire

 = Angle between the direction of current and magnetic field

FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL CURRENT CARRYING WIRES

When two current carrying conductors are kept parallel and close to each other they experience a force
of interaction between them.

When the current is in the same direction in both of these conductors, they attract each other.

Similarly, when the current is in opposite direction in both of these conductors, they repel each other.

F12 F
21

F12 F21

I1 I2 I1 I2

r r
Fig. (a) Fig. (b)
Force of interaction between them per unit length is given by

F  0 I1I2
 [For a pair of very long straight current carrying wires]
L 2r

Example 5 :

A wire of length 1.5 m placed in a magnetic field of 2 T as shown in the given figure, experience a force of
15 N. Find the value of current flowing through the wire.
Solution :

Force acting on the wire,

F = lLB sin

 15 = I × 1.5 × 2 sin 30° 30°


m
1.5

1
 15  I  1.5  2 
2
B
15
 I  10 A
1.5

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Physics - Class X (Level-II) Magnetic Effects of Electric Current 159
Example 6 :

An electron enters a magnetic field of intensity 5 T with a velocity 2 × 107 m/s in a direction at an angle
90° with the field. Calculate the force on the electron. [Charge on electron is –1.6 × 10–19 C]
Solution :
Force on the electron F = qvB sin 
= 1.6 × 10–19 × 2 × 107 × 5 × sin 90°
= 1.6 × 10 × 10–19 × 107 × 1
= 1.6 × 10–11 N

Try Yourself
5. Which of the following graphs shows the variation of magnetic induction B with the distance r from
a long straight wire carrying current?

B B
(1) (2)

O r O r

B B
(3) (4)

O r O r
6. An electron and a proton having equal momentum enter in a uniform magnetic field normal to the
field lines. If the radii of their circular paths be re and rp respectively, then

re me re me
(1) r  m (2) r  mp
p p p

re mp re 1
(3)  (4) 
rp me rp 1

7. Two parallel conductors A and B of equal lengths carry currents i and 2i, respectively, in the opposite
direction. Then
(1) A and B will repel each other with same force
(2) A and B will attract each other with different force
(3) A and B will repel each other with different force
(4) A and B will attract each other with same force
8. Two parallel current carrying conductors carrying the same current l in the same direction are
separated by a distance r. Force experienced per unit length by each conductor would be

0I 2 0 2I 2
(1) Repulsive and F  (2) Attractive and F 
4r 4r

0 2I 2 0I 2
(3) Repulsive and F  (4) Attractive and F 
4r 4r
[Ans. 5(3), 6(4), 7(1), 8(2)]

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160 Magnetic Effects of Electric Current Physics - Class X (Level-II)

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION IN VARIOUS SITUATIONS


Electromagnetic induction can also take place if we can change the magnetic flux by the following
methods :
(i) A conductor moves in a magnetic field and cut the magnetic field lines.

l v

(ii) A change in the current in a coil induces an emf in another coil held close to it.
Coil-1 Coil-2

I1 I2
k I
G
()
I1-changing current I2-induced current
(iii) Area of a coil placed in magnetic field changes.
B

(iv) A coil rotates in magnetic field about the axis along the plane of the coil.

B

LENZ’S LAW
In 1835, Russian physicist of Baltic German ethnicity, Heinrich Lenz formally noted the relationship
between the direction of movement of the inducing magnetic field and the direction of induced current flow.
Applying the law of conservation of energy to electromagnetic induction, he put forward a law called Lenz’s
law which states that the direction of the induced current creates an induced magnetic field that opposes
the cause that produces it.
The operative word in Lenz’s law is opposes, not repels.
For example :

N S N S

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Physics - Class X (Level-II) Magnetic Effects of Electric Current 161
When the north pole of a magnet moves towards the loop, a current is induced in the loop, in such a
way that it opposes the motion i.e., the current is induced in anti-clockwise direction (as seen from the
side of magnet). When north pole of the magnet is moved away from the loop, a current is induced in
the loop in such a way that it opposes the motion i.e., attracts the magnet towards it. The current is
induced in clockwise direction in the coil (as seen from the magnet).
When conducting loop is subjected to an increasing or decreasing magnetic field B, the current induced
in the loop has the direction such that the current’s magnetic field opposes the change in magnetic field.
™ According to Lenz’s law, the direction of induced current is such that it opposes the very cause
that produces it.
Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction
First Law
Whenever amount of magnetic flux linked with a coil changes, an emf is induced in the coil. The induced
emf lasts so long as the change in magnetic flux continues.
Second Law
Magnitude of emf induced in the coil is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux linked
with the coil.

Induced emf = – ,  is change in magnetic flux and t is time interval.
t

Example 7 :

Predict the direction of momentary induced current in the following figure :

z y

x
(When the switch is closed)
Solution :

Direction of the induced current will be along xyz.

Example 8 :

Two circular coils A and B are placed close to each other. If the current in the coil A is changed, will some
current be induced in the coil B. Give reason.
Solution :
Consider two coils A and B are held close to each other as shown in the figure.

I G

A B
Whenever the current in coil A changes, magnetic flux (or magnetic field of coil A) associated with the coil
B changes, and coil B opposes this change which means current will be induced in the coil B.

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162 Magnetic Effects of Electric Current Physics - Class X (Level-II)

Try Yourself
9. When a magnet moves away from the loops as shown in the figure, the direction of induced current
as seen from the magnet’s side is

S N

(1) Clockwise (2) First clockwise then anticlockwise


(3) Anti-clockwise (4) First anti-clockwise then clockwise
10. If the current is flowing anti-clockwise in a circular coil placed in the plane of the paper as shown
in the figure, then the direction of lines of force inside the coil is

(1) Away from you


(2) Towards you
(3) Towards the centre of the coil along the radius
(4) Away from the centre of the coil along the radius
11. When a bar magnet with north pole pointing downward is dropped through a circular coil, and viewed
from up side, the induced current in coil is
(1) Clockwise at all times
(2) Anticlockwise at all times
(3) First clockwise then anticlockwise
(4) First anticlockwise then clockwise
12. A small bar magnet is falling vertically downward from certain height through a conducting coil as
shown in figure. The acceleration of bar magnet will be
S
(1) Equal to acceleration due to gravity

(2) Greater than acceleration due to gravity N

(3) Less than acceleration due to gravity

(4) First less than then greater than acceleration due to gravity
13. A current carrying wire is placed in a magnetic field as shown in the figure. The direction of force
acting on it is best represented by

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Physics - Class X (Level-II) Magnetic Effects of Electric Current 163

F F

(1) (2)
I I

(3) F (4)
I I
F
14. Lenz’s law is a consequence of the law of conservation of
(1) Charge (2) Mass
(3) Momentum (4) Energy
[Ans. 9(3), 10(2), 11(4), 12(3), 13(1), 14(4)]

Magnetic Field of Earth


It is believed that the magnetic field of earth is due to magnetic effect of current which is flowing in the
liquid core at the centre of the earth. Thus earth is a huge electromagnet. That’s why a freely suspended
magnet always points in the north-south direction even in the absence of any other magnet.
1
The shape of earth’s magnetic field resembles that of a bar magnet of length th of earth’s diameter buried
5
at its centre.

‰ ‰ ‰

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Assignment
8. What is the net magnetic field at point O for the
SECTION-A current distribution shown here?

Subjective Type Questions :


1. The magnetic field at a distance r from a long wire
carrying current I is 0.4 T. What will be the i
4i
magnetic field at a distance 2r? r
O
2. Write the formula for magnetic force per unit length
between two parallel current carrying long 2r
conductors separated by a distance r.

3. A solenoid of length 50 cm, having 100 turns


carries a current of 2.5 A. Find the magnetic field 9. Four particles enter a region of uniform magnetic
in the interior of the solenoid. field. Their trajectories are shown in figure. What
are the signs of the charge of all four particles?
4. A horizontal overhead power line carries a current
of 90 A in east to west direction. What is the
magnitude and direction of the magnetic field due
to this current at a point 1.5 cm below the line? D
B
A
5. What is an electromagnet? Write the expression of
the magnetic field produced due to an C
electromagnet. B
A
6. An electric oven of 2 kW power rating is operated
in a domestic circuit (220 V) that has a current
rating of 5 A. What result do you expect? Explain.
SECTION-B
7. Find the magnetic field at the centre O of the loop
shown in the figure.
Objective Type Questions :
1. A wire of length 0.02 m is placed perpendicular to
i a uniform magnetic field of magnitude 0.60 T. The
4R force on the wire, when current through it is 5 A,
R will be
O
(1) 0.12 N (2) 0.06 N

(3) 0.03 N (4) 0.24 N


2R
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Physics - Class X (Level-II) Magnetic Effects of Electric Current 165
2. A particle with charge 2 C and moving with
velocity 2 × 106 m/s, enters normally in a magnetic
field of 4 T. The force experienced by it is

(1) 4 N
(1) The wire is attracted towards the loop
(2) 8 N
(2) The wire is repelled from the loop
(3) 12 N

(4) 16 N (3) The wire does not experience any force

3. A long straight wire of diameter 0.5 mm carrying a (4) The wire will have attraction or repulsion
current of 1 ampere is replaced by another wire of depending on the magnitudes of the currents
1 mm diameter carrying the same current. The
6. A proton and an -particle, moving with the same
strength of magnetic field far away is
velocity, enter into a uniform magnetic field, acting
(1) Twice the earlier value normal to the plane of their motion. The ratio of the
radii of the circular paths described by the proton
(2) One half of the earlier value
and -particle is
(3) One quarter of the earlier value
(1) 1 : 2
(4) Same as the earlier value
(2) 1 : 4
4. A rectangular conducting coil moves in a uniform
magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the (3) 1 : 16
paper directed downward (shown in the figure).
(4) 4 : 1
Then
7. A charged particle is released from rest in a region
of steady and uniform electric and magnetic fields
which are parallel to each other. The particle will
V move in a

A B (1) Circle

(2) Helix

D C (3) Cycloid

(4) Straight line

8. The value of the magnetic field at a distance x from


(1) Current is induced along ABCD a long straight current carrying conductor is
(2) Current is induced along ADCB proportional to

(3) No current will be induced in the coil (1) x

(4) The current will be induced but the direction (2) x2


cannot be predicted
1
5. A current carrying loop is placed near a long (3)
x
straight wire which also conducts a current. The
direction of currents are shown in figure, then 1
which of the following options is correct? (4)
x2

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166 Magnetic Effects of Electric Current Physics - Class X (Level-II)

9. A charge particle moves in a uniform magnetic 13. Two protons enter a region of transverse magnetic
field. The velocity of the particle at some instant field. What will be ratio of time period of
makes right angle with the magnetic field. The
revolution if the ratio of energy is 2 2 : 3 ?
path of the particle will be

(1) A straight line (2) A circle (1) 2 2 : 3

(3) Any curved path (4) Zig-zag


(2) 3:2 2
10. Two ions having masses in the ratio 1 : 1 and
charges 1 : 2 are projected from the same points (3) 3 : 8
into a uniform magnetic field with speed in the ratio
(4) 1 : 1
2 : 3 perpendicular to field. The ratio of radii of
circles along which the two particles move is 14. Two long conductors, separated by a distance d
carry current i1 and i2 in the same direction. They
(1) 4 : 3 (2) 2 : 3 
exert a force F on each other. Now the current in
(3) 3 : 2 (4) 3 : 4 one of them is increased to two times and its
direction is reversed. The distance is also
11. Magnetic force on a charged particle in a magnetic
increased to 3d. The new value of the force
field does not depend on
between them
(1) Mass of the charged particle
 
2F F
(2) Charge on the particle (1)  (2)
3 3
(3) Magnitude of the magnetic field

 F
(4) Velocity of the charged particle (3) 2F (4) 
3
12. An electron at point A in figure has a speed v0 of
magnitude 1.41 × 106 m/s. It enters into a uniform 15. Two long parallel conductors A and B are placed at
magnetic field and follows a semicircular path in it right angles at x-axis at points (3, 0) and (9, 0), as
as shown. shown in the given figure.

v0 y-axis A B

–x x-axis
0 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

A B
10.0 cm –y-axis

The magnitude of the magnetic field that will cause They carry currents of 1 A and 2 A respectively in
the electron to follow the semicircular path from A same direction. They will produce zero magnetic
to B is field at

(1) 1.60 × 10–4 T (1) (4, 0)

(2) 1.6 × 10–2 T (2) (4.5, 0)

(3) 1.6 T (3) (5, 0)

(4) 1.6 × 10–3 T (4) (6, 0)

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Physics - Class X (Level-II) Magnetic Effects of Electric Current 167
b. Direction of force on (ii) Fleming’s right hand
SECTION-C -particle entering rule
right angles to
Assertion & Reason Type Questions :
magnetic field is
In the following questions, a statement of given by
assertion (A) is followed by a statement of reason
(R). c. Direction of induced (iii) Lenz’s law
(1) If both Assertion & Reason are true and the reason current in a closed
is the correct explanation of the assertion, then conducting loop when
mark (1). magnetic field lines
across the coil
(2) If both Assertion & Reason are true but the reason
is not the correct explanation of the assertion, then changes is given by
mark (2).
d. Direction of current (iv) Right hand thumb
(3) If Assertion is true statement but Reason is false, when a closed coil is rule
then mark (3). moved in a magnetic
(4) If both Assertion and Reason are false statements, field is given by
then mark (4).
(1) a(iv), b(i), c(iii), d(ii)
1. A : A charged particle enters perpendicular into a
magnetic field. Its kinetic energy remains (2) a(i), b(ii), c(iii), d(iv)
constant, but momentum changes.
(3) a(iii), b(ii), c(iv), d(i)
R : Force acts perpendicular to velocity of the
particle. (4) a(ii), b(iv), c(i), d(iii)
2. A : Magnetic force does not do any work on a
moving charge. 2. Match the following :

R : Magnetic force is always perpendicular to its Column-I Column-II


displacement.
a. Magnetic field (i) Moving charge
3. A : The magnetic field of a long current carrying
solenoid is proportional to the number of turns b. Magnetic force (ii) Current carrying
per unit length in the solenoid. conductor
R : If solenoid is sufficiently long, the field within it
is uniform. c. Net force of attraction(iii) Two protons moving
parallel to each other
4. A : Magnetic field interacts with a moving charge
in the same
and not with a stationary charge.
direction
R : A moving charge produces a magnetic field.
d. Net force of (iv) An electron beam
repulsion and proton beam
SECTION-D
moving parallel to
Match the Columns Type Questions : each other in the
same direction
1. Match the following :
Column-I Column-II (1) a(i, ii, iii, iv), b(i, ii, iii, iv), c(iii), d(iv)
a. Direction of magnetic (i) Fleming’s left hand (2) a(i, iii, iv), b(i, ii), c(iv), d(iii)
field at a point due rule
to a long straight (3) a(i), b(iii, iv), c(ii), d(ii)
current carrying
conductor is given by (4) a(ii, iv), b(i), c(ii, iii), d(iv)

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168 Magnetic Effects of Electric Current Physics - Class X (Level-II)

3. Match the following : 4. Match the following :


Column-I Column-II Column-I Column-II
a. Fleming’s left hand (i) Application of
a. Solenoid (i) TV picture tubes
rule electromagnetic
induction b. Split rings (ii) Production of
b. Fleming’s right hand (ii) Direction of magnetic magnetic field
rule force on a current c. Magnet and coil (iii) To produce induced
carrying conductor are stationary current in one
in uniform magnetic
direction
field
c. Solenoid (iii) Magnetic pattern d. Electromagnet (iv) No deflection in
similar to that of a galvanometer
bar magnet (1) a(i), b(iii), c(iv), d(ii)
d. Electric generator (iv) Direction of induced
(2) a(ii), b(iii), c(iv), d(i)
current
(1) a(ii), b(iii), c(iv), d(i) (2) a(ii), b(iv), c(iii), d(i) (3) a(i), b(iv), c(iii), d(ii)

(3) a(iv), b(iii), c(i), d(ii) (4) a(iii), b(i), c(ii), d(iv) (4) a(ii), b(iv), c(i), d(iii)

‰ ‰ ‰

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Chapter-5
Sources of Energy

Level-I
(For CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads)
CHAPTER 5
Sources of Energy THIS CHAPTER INCLUDES

z Sources of Energy
¾ Renewable Sources of Energy
¾ Non-renewable Sources of Energy
Energy is an essential requirement of our life. Different forms of
energy govern our lives in daily routines. Heat energy obtained by z Nuclear Energy
burning fuels like wood, coal, kerosene or cooking gas is used to
z Nuclear Fission
cook food at home. The energy from fuels like petrol and diesel is
used to run vehicles. Electrical energy operates bulbs, tubes, fans, z Nuclear Fusion
radio, television and other household equipments. The universe is
z Quick Recap
fulfilled with various sources of energy. We can use this energy by
converting it to other useful forms. The current chapter deals with z Assignment
different categories of sources of energy and the related topics.

Electricity

Solar Oil
Wind

Nuclear
Geothermal

Natural
Water Hydrogen gas
Biomass
Coal
Energy Sources

SOURCES OF ENERGY
A source of energy is the one which can provide adequate amount of energy in suitable form over a long period
of time.
Characteristics of a good source of energy
A good source of energy should have the following characteristics :
(i) It should supply enough amount of useful energy.
(ii) It should be easily stored and should occupy less space for storage.
(iii) It should be easily transported.
(iv) It should be economical.
(v) It should be easily available and accessible.
(vi) It should cause minimum environmental pollution.
Sources of energy are categorised in two types – renewable and non-renewable sources of energy.

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170 Sources of Energy Physics - Class X (Level-I)

Renewable Sources of Energy


Sources of energy which are being produced continuously in nature and are inexhaustible, are called renewable
sources of energy. Some of the renewable sources of energy are listed as follows :

(a) Solar energy

(b) Wind energy

(c) Hydro energy (energy from water)

(d) Bio-fuels (wood, bio-gas and alcohol)

(e) Energy from oceans (Tidal energy, sea wave energy etc.)

(f) Geothermal energy

(a) Solar Energy

(i) Sun is the ultimate source of many forms of energy available on earth. The energy obtained from the
sun is called solar energy.

(ii) Solar energy is the result of nuclear fusion reactions taking place inside the sun.

(iii) The solar energy trapped by land and water bodies at the earth causes many phenomena in nature
like winds, storms, rain, snowfall, sea-waves etc., and the plants utilize solar energy to prepare food
by the process of photosynthesis.

(iv) The solar energy reaching unit area per second at outer edge of earth’s atmosphere exposed perpendicularly
to the rays of the sun at the average distance between the sun and the earth is known as ‘solar
constant’ and its value is approximately 1400 W/m2 (1.4 kilojoules per second per square metre).

Solar energy received by Earth in given time.

Solar energy = Solar constant × Area × Time


Solar Energy Devices : In order to utilize solar energy for practical purposes, we must have some ways
to collect solar energy over a large area or large time or both. The various devices commonly used for
utilizing sun’s energy are : Solar cooker, solar water heater, solar cell and solar concentrator etc.
All the solar energy devices can be classified into two categories :
(i) Solar heating devices - in which solar energy is collected in the form of heat.
(ii) Solar cells - in which solar energy is converted directly into electricity.
Solar Cookers : A solar cooker is a device used to cook food by utilizing the sun’s energy. The solar
cookers are designed so as to collect as much solar energy as possible. It consists of
1. An insulated box painted black from inside.
2. A thick glass sheet to cover the box, and
3. A plane mirror reflector.
These are based on the fact that :
(i) Under similar conditions, black surface absorbs more heat as compared to white or reflecting surface.
(ii) Glass sheet allows the heat and sunlight to enter it, but does not allow heat to escape from it (Green
house effect). The rays coming from sun have all the wavelengths of infrared light and it is a property
of glass that it is transparent to infrared of smaller wavelengths, but opaque for infrared of larger
wavelengths. So, sun rays can enter in the glass and heat up the objects inside the cooker and
increases the temperature of objects, so the objects also radiate radiations, but of larger wavelengths
which is blocked by the glass sheet.

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Sources of Energy 171

Sun Sun ra Reflector


ys
(plane mirror)

Glass sheet
Box painted black
(for producing
from inside
greenhouse effect)

Solar cooker
Advantages of solar cooker are that it can be used for cooking food, it saves fuel, it does not produce
smoke and food nutrients do not get destroyed. But, its disadvantage is that it cannot be operated
at night times and under cloudy atmosphere.
Solar Cells : The devices which convert solar energy directly into electricity are known as solar
cells. About hundred years ago, it was seen that when sunlight falls on a thin layer of selenium element,
then electricity is produced.
(i) The first practical solar cell was made in 1954. It could convert about 1% of solar energy falling onto
its surface into electricity.
(ii) Solar cells made from semiconductors have efficiency of about 25%. Generally, silicon is used to
fabricate solar cells. Because, it is environment friendly and is also available in abundance.
(iii) To make a solar cell, the wafers (thin layers) of semiconductor (like silicon) containing impurities are
arranged in such a way that when sunlight falls on them, then a potential difference is produced
between the two regions of the semiconductor wafers. And this potential difference produces electric
current.
(iv) The group of solar cells is called a solar cell panel. A solar cell panel contains a large number of
solar cells joined together in a definite pattern.
(v) A typical cell develops a voltage of 0.5 – 1 V and can produce about 0.7 W of electricity when
exposed to the sun.
Su
nr
ay
s

Solar cell

Solar cell panel

Battery

Solar cell panel


Solar Cells are Used for
(i) Controlling the operation, providing electricity (power) in artificial satellites and space-probes.
(ii) Street lights and traffic signals.
(iii) Operating electronic watches and calculators.
(iv) Providing electricity to light houses situated in sea etc.

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Solar panels have hundreds


of tiny solar cells that convert
sunlight into electricity, which
provides power for the satellite

ZONE

I NOTICE
DESMOND
HAS BECOME
A SOLAR
BEAR

Example 1 :

What percentage of solar energy reaches the surface of the earth?

Solution :

About 47% of solar energy reaches the earth’s surface.

Example 2 :

What is the value of solar constant?

Solution :

1400 W/m2.

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Sources of Energy 173
Example 3 :

What are the disadvantages of a solar cooker?


Solution :
The main disadvantages of a solar cooker are :
(i) It cannot work at night and in cloudy atmosphere.
(ii) The direction of reflector of solar cooker has to be changed from time to time to keep it facing the sun.

Example 4 :

What are the uses of solar cells?


Solution :
Solar cells are used for
(i) Street lightning and traffic signals.
(ii) Operating electronic watches and calculators.
(iii) Providing electricity to light houses situated in sea.
(iv) Operating artificial satellites and space probes.

Try Yourself
1. Reflector type solar cooker can be used for cooking
(1) Chapatis (2) Rice
(3) Fry eggs (4) All of these
2. In box type solar cooker a thick glass sheet is used to
(1) Absorb all radiations from sun
(2) Produce greenhouse effect
(3) Reflect all radiations from sun
(4) Transmit all radiations of box
3. Solar cell is a device which converts light energy into
(1) Electrical energy
(2) Mechanical energy
(3) Magnetic energy
(4) Sound energy
4. In a photovoltaic solar cell, the elements used are
(1) Metal
(2) Semi-conductor
(3) Insulator
(4) Plastic
[Ans. 1(4), 2(2), 3(1), 4(2)]

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174 Sources of Energy Physics - Class X (Level-I)

(b) Wind Energy : Moving air is called wind, which possesses kinetic energy. Wind is another solar related
source of energy because, solar energy is responsible for the blowing of wind. Wind energy is a renewable
form of energy. Sailboats and windmills are the examples of utilization of wind energy.

Windmills : A windmill consists of a fan with some wind blades mounted on a large pole. The blades
are free to rotate. When wind strikes across the blades, they start rotating. The rotational motion of blades
can be used to drive a large number of machines like water pump, flour mills and electric generators.

The energy output of a single wind mill is quite low and is not sufficient enough to be used for commercial
purposes. Therefore, a number of wind mills are fixed over a large area, and their outputs are coupled
together for commercial applications. Such a set of wind mills is called a wind energy farm.

Wind energy farms cannot be established everywhere. The wind energy farms can be established only
at those places, where wind blows for most part of the year. The minimum wind speed necessary for
satisfactory working of a wind generator is about 15 km/h. The setup of wind energy farms is very
expensive.

ZONE

DO YOU
MIND?

(c) Hydro Energy (energy from water) : Water possesses mechanical energy. The energy of fast moving
water in rivers has been traditionally used for rotating the wheels of water mills. Rotating wheel of water
mills drives various machines. The energy of flowing rivers is also used in transporting heavy logs of wood.
By establishing hydroelectric power-plants, hydro energy is converted into electric energy. The energy of
flowing water is trapped by using a kind of water wheels called water turbines.
(i) When water collected in a reservoir or dam is allowed to fall on blades of a turbine, kinetic energy
of flowing water gets converted into kinetic energy of turbine, which further rotates shaft of generator
to produce electricity.

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Sources of Energy 175

Water
reservoir
or dam Turbine rotates

Shaft
Flowing
water Electric
Turbine
generator

(ii) The generation of electricity from water energy does not produce any environmental pollution. Water
energy is a renewable source of electric energy which will never get exhausted. The energy of water
(or hydro energy) is infact an indirect source of solar energy.
Construction of big dams have following disadvantages associated with them.
(i) Constructing a dam is quite expensive.
(ii) Dams can be constructed only in suitable places like hilly terrains.
(iii) A number of people become homeless as a large agricultural and residential area get submerged.
(iv) Aquatic life gets disturbed due to change in ecosystem.
(v) The vegetation submerged under water, rots and produces methane which is a greenhouse gas.
(vi) Constructing dams is an anthropogenic factor leading to natural calamities like earthquakes and land
slides.
Opposition to the construction of Tehri Dam on the river Ganga and Sardar Sarovar Project on Narmada are
due to all these reasons.

Example 5 :

What type of energy is possessed by wind?


Solution :
Kinetic energy.

Example 6 :

Give the advantages of using wind energy.


Solution :
(i) It is free of cost.
(ii) It is a renewable source of energy.
(iii) It is a pollution free source of energy.

Example 7 :

What is the principle of generation of hydroelectricity?


Solution :
The water stored in a dam has potential energy in it. When this stored dam water is allowed to fall down,
the potential energy of stored water is converted into the kinetic energy of flowing water. When this fast moving
water falls on turbine, its kinetic energy is transferred to turbine. By gaining the kinetic energy, the turbine
starts rotating rapidly and also rotates the armature of the generator fixed on its shaft. The armature then
converts kinetic energy into electrical energy.

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(d) Bio-fuels (wood, bio-gas and alcohol)


Bio-Energy : By the process of photosynthesis solar energy gets converted into chemical energy in green
plants. This energy is stored in different parts of the plant in the form of biomass. Thus biomass is
another form in which solar energy manifests itself. The human being and other animals use the
bio-energy stored in the bio-mass of plants to maintain their life. The excreta of living organisms and their
bodies after death, also contribute to the biomass.
Biomass is a renewable source of energy because, it is obtained from plants or animals and can be
produced again and again.

Photosynthesis
H2O Rain
CO2

Gasifier

Bio-Waste

Minerals
Ash

Biomass Energy
Biomass as Fuel : The waste and the dead parts of living things is called biomass. Biomass contains
carbon compounds and it is the oldest source of heat energy for domestic purposes. The most important
examples of biomass being used as a fuel are wood, cattle dung or animal dung and agricultural wastes
like bagasse.
(i) Charcoal : When a complex material containing compounds of carbon (such as wood or coal) is
heated strongly in a closed vessel in the absence of air or oxygen, it decomposes into simpler
substances. This process is called ‘destructive distillation’. Charcoal is prepared by this process.
When wood is heated strongly in the absence of air, the volatile substances present in it are expelled
and a black residue called charcoal, is left behind.

Wood gas
Wood pieces

Water
Burner (dissolves methyl
alcohol and acetic acid)
Tar

Experimental setup for the destructive distillation of wood to prepare charcoal


The combustible gas obtained from wood is called wood gas. The deep black liquid, obtained under
water during destructive distillation is called tar.
Charcoal produces more heat on burning than an equal mass of wood. Charcoal does not
produce smoke while burning.
(ii) Animal Dung : Animal dung contains important elements like nitrogen and phosphorus (called
nutrients), which are required by the soil to support crops.
In our villages, animal dung cakes are burned in chulhas for producing heat. However, it is not good
to burn animal dung because, burning destroys the useful nutrients which can otherwise be used as
a manure in agriculture. Dung cakes produce lot of smoke and do not burn completely, they produce
lots of ash as residue. Dung cakes have low heat producing value.

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(iii) Bio-gas : Bio-gas is a mixture of gases produced during decay of biomass in the absence of oxygen.
The decomposition which takes place in the absence of oxygen is called anaerobic degradation.
Anaerobic degradation is carried out by anaerobic bacteria.

Constituents of bio-gas are methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide out of which
about 75% is methane.

Bio-gas plants : There are two types of bio-gas plants being used in our country to produce
bio-gas. These are as (i) Fixed dome type bio-gas plant, (ii) Floating gas holder type bio-gas plant.

In these plants we mainly use cattle dung or gobar, so they are also called gobar-gas plants.

Fixed dome type bio-gas plant : It consists of a well shaped underground tank T called digester,
which is made of bricks, and has a dome shaped roof D also made of cement and bricks. The dome
of the digester tank acts as a gas-holder for the bio-gas. On the left hand side of the digester tank
is sloping inlet chamber I and on the right side is a rectangular outlet chamber O, both made of bricks.
The inlet chamber is used for introducing fresh dung slurry into the main digester tank, whereas outlet
chamber is used for taking out spent dung slurry after the extraction of bio-gas.

Working: The slurry of cattle dung and water is made in the mixing tank from where it is fed into
the digester. The digester tank is filled with dung slurry upto the cylindrical level shown in the figure.
Anaerobic micro organisms that do not require O2, decompose or breakdown the complex molecules
in the presence of water. The dung and water slurry is left in digester initially for a period of 50 to
60 days. The dung undergoes anaerobic degradation in the presence of water with the gradual
evolution of bio-gas. The bio-gas starts collecting in the gas tank above the digester from which it
is drawn through pipe for use.

Advantages of Bio-gas Plant

(i) It gives us a clean fuel ‘Bio-gas’.

(ii) It gives us good manure.

(iii) It gives us safe method to dispose off animal and plant wastes.

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178 Sources of Energy Physics - Class X (Level-I)

(iv) It burns without smoke and hence, does not cause air pollution.
(v) It has high calorific value.
(vi) No storage problem for bio-gas as it is supplied through pipes directly from the gas plant.
(vii) It is odourless.
Important Uses of Bio-gas
(i) It is used as a fuel for cooking food.
(ii) It is used as fuel to run engines.
(iii) It is used for generating electricity.

Example 8 :

What is bio-gas? How can bio-gas be obtained?


Solution :
Biogas is a fuel which is a mixture of four gases, viz., methane, carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen and hydrogen-
sulphide. It can be obtained by anaerobic decomposition of animal dung at the bio-gas plant.

Example 9 :

How charcoal is better fuel than wood?


Solution :
This is because
(i) Charcoal has a high calorific value than wood.
(ii) Charcoal does not produce smoke while burning whereas wood produces a lot of smoke on burning.
(iii) Charcoal is a compact fuel which is easy to handle and convenient to use.

Try Yourself
5. Which of the following is not a biomass?
(1) Sun (2) Rice husk
(3) Wood (4) Cattle dung
6. Decomposition which takes place in the absence of oxygen is called
(1) Selective distillation (2) Anaerobic degradation
(3) Destructive distillation (4) Combustion
7. Wind possesses
(1) Radiation energy (2) Kinetic energy
(3) Heat (4) Light energy
8. The minimum wind speed necessary for the satisfactory working of a wind generator is
(1) 20 km/h (2) 25 km/h
(3) 15 km/h (4) 10 km/h
9. The main component of the bio-gas is
(1) Methane (2) Ethane
(3) Propane (4) Butane
[Ans. 5(1), 6(2), 7(2), 8(3), 9(1)]

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Sources of Energy 179
(e) Energy from ocean

(i) Ocean Energy Systems : Oceans are huge reservoirs of water and energy. The energy from oceans
can be obtained mainly in three forms :

1. Tidal forms

2. Ocean waves energy (or sea-waves energy)

3. Ocean thermal energy

1. Tidal energy : The rise of ocean water due to gravitational force of attraction of mainly the moon
on the spinning earth is called ‘high tide’ whereas the fall of ocean water is called ‘low tide’.
The tidal waves rise and fall twice a day. The movement of water between high tides and low
tides provides a large source of energy. The tidal energy can be utilized by constructing a tidal
barrage or tidal dam.

(a) At high tide, water flows from sea into reservoir and turns the turbine,
(b) At low tide, stored water flows out from reservoir into sea and turns the turbine

2. Ocean waves energy : Due to the blowing of wind on the surface of ocean, very fast sea-
waves move on the surface. The sea waves possess very high kinetic energy which can be utilized
to generate electricity by setting up floating generators.

3. Ocean thermal energy : In ocean there is always a temperature difference between surface
and deeper levels. The temperature of the surface water is always more than the temperature
of deeper water. The energy available due to this temperature difference is called ocean thermal
energy. The ocean thermal energy can be converted into “usable form” of energy like electricity
by setting up “ocean thermal energy conversion power plants”. OTEC power plants operate as
long as the temperature between the warm surface water and the cold deep water differs by about
20°C (36°F). The warm surface water is used to boil a volatile liquid like ammonia. The vapours
produced are then used to run the turbine of generator. The cold water from the depth of the
ocean is pumped up and condense vapour again to liquid. The temperature difference between
surface and deep water is greatest in the tropics.

Note : The energy potential from the sea is quite large, but efficient commercial exploitation is difficult.

(f) Geothermal Energy : Geothermal energy is the heat energy obtained from hot rocks present inside the
earth. It is one of the few sources of energy that do not come directly, or indirectly from solar energy.
Due to geological changes, molten rocks formed in the deeper hot regions of earth’s crust are pushed
upward and trapped in certain regions called ‘hot spots’.

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180 Sources of Energy Physics - Class X (Level-I)

Mist
Eliminator
Turbine

Generator

Steam

Condenser

Re-injection
Pump

Hot Bed

Geothermal power generation


Underground water in contact with these hot spots gets turned into steam at high pressure. This steam
is drilled out to run turbines to produce electricity. The production of electricity by this method is cheap
and environment friendly.
Environmental consequences : Exploiting any source of energy disturbs the environment into some way
or the other. In any given situation, the source we choose depends on factors such as the ease of
extracting energy from that source, the economics of extracting energy from the source, the efficiency
of the technology available and the environmental damage that will be caused by using that source.
Though we talk of clean fuels like CNG (Compressed Natural Gas), it would be more exact to say that
a particular source is cleaner than the other. In some cases, the actual operation of a device like the
solar cell may be pollution free, but the assembly of the device would have caused some environmental
damage. Research continues in these areas to produce long lasting devices that will cause less damage
throughout their life.

Example 10 :

What is geothermal energy and how is it useful?

Solution :

The energy available from the hot spots under some rocks of earth is known as geothermal energy.
(i) It is available throughout the year.
(ii) The cost of production of electricity from this source of energy is very less.
(iii) It is pollution free source of energy.

Example 11 :

What are the limitations of energy that can be obtained from the oceans?

Solution :

The energy potential efficiency from the ocean (tidal energy, wave energy and ocean thermal energy) is quite
large but efficient commercial exploitation is difficult.

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Sources of Energy 181
Example 12 :

The tidal energy is not considered to be a potential source of energy. Why?

Solution :
This is because of the following reasons :
(i) There are very few sites around the world which are suitable for building tidal dams.
(ii) The rise and fall of sea water during high and low tides is not enough to generate electricity on a large scale.

Non-renewable Sources of Energy


The sources of energy accumulated in nature over a very long time and which cannot be produced quickly
when exhausted are called non-renewable sources of energy. Some of the non-renewable sources of energy
are listed below :
(a) Fossil fuels
(i) Coal
(ii) Petroleum
(iii) Natural gas
(b) Radioactive materials (Nuclear fuels)
As fossil fuels is a common name given to coal, petroleum, natural gas therefore these should be included
in it and not to categorized further as parts.
(a) Fossil Fuels : Coal, petroleum and natural gas are classified as fossil fuels. Fossils are the remains of
the prehistoric animals or plants, which were buried under the earth, millions of years ago. Fossil fuels
are classified as non-renewable sources of energy. Energy of fossil fuels may be considered to be the
solar energy that was trapped through natural processes millions of years ago.

Thermal power plant : In thermal power plants, coal is used to generate the heat to heat up water and
convert it into steam which further runs the turbine to produce the electricity. The thermal power plants
are setup near the coal or oil fields because, the transmission of electricity is more cost efficient than
transporting coal or petroleum over the same distance. Since, fuel is burnt to produce heat energy which
is converted to electrical energy, so we name the power plant as thermal power plant.

(i) Coal : Coal is a complex mixture of compounds of hydrogen and carbon known as hydrocarbons.

It also contains small amounts of other compounds of carbon containing oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur.
Percentage of carbon present in a sample of coal determines its quality, which also forms the basis for
its uses and classification. There are four varieties of coal on the basis of their carbon content :

Type Carbon content

Peat upto 60% carbon

Lignite (soft coal) upto 70% carbon

Bituminous (Household coal) upto 85% carbon

Anthracite (Hard coal) upto 95% carbon

Anthracite is considered to be the best quality of coal. When coal is burnt, the carbon present in it reacts
with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide. A lot of heat is produced as this is an exothermic reaction. Coal
is used as a source of energy in industries, domestic purposes and to produce electricity. For many of
these purposes, coal is first converted into coke by its destructive distillation.

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(ii) Petroleum : The petroleum is a dark coloured, viscous and foul smelling crude oil. It is called petroleum
because it is found under the crust of earth trapped in rocks. These rocks are called source rocks. The
crude oil petroleum is a complex mixture of several solid, liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons mixed with
water, salt and earth particles. It also contains small amounts of other carbon compounds containing
oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur. Petroleum is lighter than water and insoluble in it. Petroleum is extracted
from reservoirs under impervious rocks through wells driven in them by cutting through the cap of
impervious rocks. Petroleum extracted from its wells is a thick black liquid called crude oil. The
process of separating crude petroleum oil into more useful fractions is called refining. The refining of
petroleum is done by the process of fractional distillation.
The useful components of petroleum obtained after refining are
(i) Asphalt
(ii) Lubricating oil
(iii) Paraffin wax
(iv) Fuel oil
(v) Diesel
(vi) Kerosene
(vii) Petrol and
(viii) Petroleum gas
Fuel oil is mostly used in industries for boilers and furnaces. Petrol and diesel are used as fuels in vehicles.
Kerosene is used for domestic purposes as a source of heat and light. Special grades of kerosene is
also used as aviation fuel in jet engines.
Petroleum Gas : The main constituent of petroleum gas is butane (C4H10) though it also contains smaller
amounts of propane and ethane. It can also be produced by the cracking of petrol. Can be easily liquefied
under pressure. The petroleum gas which has been liquefied under pressure is called LPG. In
domestic gas cylinders a strong smelling substance called ethyl mercaptan (C2H5SH) is added to help
in the detection of gas leakage as it is a colourless and odourless gas. It is most essential to observe
certain precautions while using LPG, as it catches fire easily.
(iii) Natural Gas : Natural gas is another fossil fuel found in oil wells with petroleum. Natural gas consists
mainly of methane with small quantities of ethane and propane. In fact 95% of natural gas is methane
and the remaining being ethane and propane. Natural gas occurs deep under the crust of the earth either
alone or along with oil above the petroleum deposits. Some wells dug into the earth produce only natural
gas and others produce natural gas as well as petroleum oil.
(i) Natural gas is formed under the earth by the decomposition of vegetable matter lying under water.
This decomposition is carried out by anaerobic bacteria in the absence of oxygen.
(ii) Natural gas is used
™ As domestic and industrial fuel
™ As a fuel in transport vehicles (CNG)
™ As a source of hydrogen gas needed in fertilizer industry.
™ As a source of carbon used in tyre industry.
™ As a fuel in thermal power plants for generating electricity.
Advantages of Natural Gas
(i) It is a complete fuel in itself, so it can be used directly for heating purposes in homes and industries.
There is no need to add anything else to it.
(ii) It has a high calorific value of about 50 kJ/g.
(iii) It burns without smoke and causes no pollution.
(iv) It can be supplied directly from the gas wells to homes and factories for burning through a network
of underground pipe lines.
(b) Radioactive materials (Nuclear fuels) : It is discussed in detail in upcoming sections.

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Sources of Energy 183
Example 13 :

What are the disadvantages of using fossil fuels?


Solution :
(i) Fossil fuels cause more pollution on burning due to release of polluting gases in the air.
(ii) Fossil fuels are a non-renewable source of energy. These fuels cannot be replenished (i.e., they cannot
be generated at the rate at which they are being consumed) and therefore their quantity is decreasing
very fast.

Example 14 :

Why are many thermal power plants setup near coal or oil fields?
Solution :
(i) Coal or petroleum are used to heat water to produce steam for running the turbines in thermal power plants.
(ii) Cost of transportation is reduced if the thermal power plants are setup near coal or oil fields.

Example 15 :

Why is there a need for energy?


Solution :
The ability of a body to do work is called energy. No activity will occur without energy. So, energy is required
in all walks of life.

Example 16 :

List four forms of energy that you use from morning, when you wake up till you reach the school.
Solution :
Solar energy, electrical energy, wind energy, heat energy.

Choice for a Good Fuel


Some of the qualities we should look at while choosing the most suitable fuel are

(i) Easy availability

(ii) Low cost

(iii) No problem in storing and transport

(iv) A high calorific value

(v) An ignition temperature that is well above the normal room temperature.

(vi) A controllable rate of combustion for different purposes.

(vii) Low rate of evaporation at room temperature.

(viii) Low content of non-combustibles.

(ix) No combustion products that are poisonous or environmental pollutants.

(x) Should burn smoothly.

(xi) Should not be more valuable for some other purpose than a fuel.

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184 Sources of Energy Physics - Class X (Level-I)

Conventional and Non-conventional Sources of Energy


Conventional sources of energy are traditional sources of energy used from ancient times and these are familiar to
most people. The main conventional sources of energy are wood and fossil fuels (like coal, petroleum and natural
gas). Even dung cakes is a conventional source in our country.
With; increase in technology, our basic requirements are also increasing, so the demand for useful energy increases.
We could develop the technology to use the available or known sources of energy more efficiently and also look to
new sources of energy. The latest sources of energy that we seek to tap and the technology designed to capture
and store energy from that source are non-conventional sources of energy. Some examples are solar energy,
energy from the sea etc.

NUCLEAR ENERGY
When the nucleus of an atom undergoes a change forming new atoms it releases a tremendous amount of
energy, this energy is termed as nuclear energy.
The nuclear energy is generated by nuclear fission or nuclear fusion.
A reaction, that alters the energy, composition, or structure of an atom is called a nuclear reaction.
For example, 12Mg
24 + 2He4  14Si
27 + 0n1
In such reactions, the sum of atomic masses and the sum of atomic numbers on both the sides must be same.

NUCLEAR FISSION
The process in which an unstable nucleus of a heavy atom (like uranium) splits up into two medium weight
nuclei with the liberation of an enormous amount of energy, is called nuclear fission. The nuclear fission was
discovered in 1938, by “Otto and F. Strassman”.
The particles used to bombard the nuclei of atoms for causing nuclear reactions, are called projectiles. Neutrons
are the best projectiles for carrying out nuclear reactions as they are neutral and are not repelled by the
nucleus. Uranium-235 is one of the elements which undergoes fission easily by the action of slow moving
neutrons (or thermal neutrons). These are low energy neutrons, which can produce nuclear fission.
An example of fission reaction for U235 is

92U
235 + 0n1  56Ba
144 + 36Kr
89 + 30n1 + Large amount of energy
The energy released in different nuclear reactions is often expressed in terms of electron volt or eV in short.
1 eV is equal to 1.602 × 10–19 joules and 1 MeV is equal to 1.602 × 10–13 J.
The energy released in U235 fission is about 0.8 MeV per nucleon. Thus energy released per atom is about
0.8 × 235 ~
 200 MeV.

Note : The energy produced in a nuclear reaction can be calculated by using the famous equation,
E = mc2
first derived by Albert Einstein in 1905.
where, m is the difference between the mass of original nucleus and sum of the masses of the
individual products, while c is the speed of light (in vacuum).

Chain Reaction
A reaction in which the particle which initiates the reaction, is also produced during the reaction to carry on
the reaction further and further, is called a chain reaction. The fission of uranium-235 by means of slow moving
neutrons is a chain reaction.

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Sources of Energy 185
Ba

n
Ba U
235 n
M n
o Slow
n d
n e Kr
n
U235 r
Slow n a Ba
t
neutron o Slow
Kr r 235
nn
U
Fission n
product
Kr
Chain reaction
We may observe when one neutron hits the nucleus of uranium, three neutrons are produced, so within few
seconds millions of neutrons will be produced resulting an explosive reaction with a release of very large
amount of energy. This explosive reaction is called an uncontrolled chain reaction. Initially this uncontrolled
chain reaction was used for destructive purposes. Atom bomb is an explosive device based on uncontrolled
chain reaction. By the advancement in technology now we can easily produce a controlled chain reaction by
absorbing the excess neutrons.

E tra Sho s
Julius Robert Oppenheimer (April 22, 1904 – February 18, 1967) was an
American theoretical physicist and professor of physics at the University of
California, Berkeley. He is best known for his role as the scientific director
of the Manhattan Project, the World War II project that developed the first
nuclear weapons, for which he is often referred to as the “father of the
atomic bomb”. In reference to the Trinity test in New Mexico, where the
first atomic bomb was detonated, Oppenheimer famously recalled the
Bhagavad Gita : “If the radiance of a thousand suns were to burst at once
into the sky that would be like the splendour of the mighty one... Now, I am
become Death, the destroyer of worlds.”

Example 17 :

How much energy per atom is released in 235


92U fission reaction?

Solution :

 200 MeV

NUCLEAR FUSION
It is the process just the reverse of fission. The process in which two nuclei of light atoms combine to form
a heavy, more stable nucleus with the liberation of a large amount of energy is called nuclear fusion.
1H
2 + 1H2  2He3 + 0n1 + Enormous amount of energy
(i) The fusion reactions can be carried out in the laboratory by accelerating the light nuclei in a particle
accelerator.
(ii) The fusion reactions can also be carried out by heating the light nuclei to extremely high temperatures
of millions of degree celsius.
(iii) The sun gives us heat and light from the fusion of hydrogen nuclei into helium nucleus inside it.

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Advantages of Nuclear Fusion Over Fission


(i) In fusion more energy is liberated per unit mass than in fission.
(ii) The products formed in fusion are not radioactive.
(iii) The fusion reaction would create less pollution than a fission reaction.
The biggest disadvantage of a nuclear fusion reaction is that it has not been possible to have a
controlled fusion reaction so far. To achieve nuclear fusion in practice extremely high temperature (108 K)
and extremely high pressure is required.
This is very difficult to acheive practically
Hazards (Dangers) of Nuclear Reactions and Safety Measures
All the radioactive substances are dangerous to human health because of the nuclear radiations emitted by
them. The gamma radiation is the most dangerous radiation because of its high penetrating power and high
energy.
(i) In general, the ill effects produced by nuclear radiations may be somatic (immediate ) and genetic.
(ii) Processing of nuclear fuels may cause pollution.
(iii) Leakage from a nuclear reactor may also cause pollution.
(iv) The waste materials produced during the various steps of the nuclear energy production e.g., process
like mining of uranium ore, enrichment of uranium ore and fission of uranium inside the reactor may cause
pollution.
The suggested methods of disposing off nuclear wastes are
(i) Sealing the nuclear wastes in strong containers and storing in deep mines which are not in use.
(ii) Enclosing the nuclear wastes in containers made of concrete and then dumping them in the sea.
(iii) Fusing the nuclear wastes into glass and, then sealing them deep inside hard-rock formations.

Example 18 :

Define nuclear fusion.


Solution :
It is the process in which two nuclei of light atoms combine to form a heavy and more stable nucleus and
liberate large amount of energy.
Example :

1 H2  1H2 
fusion
 2He3  0 n1  energy

Example 19 :

What is the disadvantage of fusion reaction?


Solution :
Nuclear fusion reactions have not been controlled so far.

Try Yourself
10. Which of the following is a fossil fuel?
(1) Biogas (2) Wood
(3) Petrol (4) Hydrogen

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Physics - Class X (Level-I) Sources of Energy 187
11. LPG is the abbreviation for
(1) Low pressure gas (2) Liquid pressure gas
(3) Lignite processed gas (4) Liquefied petroleum gas
12. Coke contains carbon upto
(1) 60% (2) 80%
(3) 90% (4) 98%
13. Source rocks are the rocks where
(1) Rivers originate (2) CNG is formed
(3) Petroleum is formed (4) Coal is formed
14. The best quality coal is
(1) Lignite (2) Bituminous
(3) Anthracite (4) Peat
15. During a nuclear fission reaction
(1) A heavy nucleus breaks into two fragments by itself
(2) A light nucleus bombarded by thermal neutrons breaks up
(3) A heavy nucleus bombarded by thermal neutrons breaks up
(4) Two light nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus
16. Mass is converted into energy by formula

1
(1) E  mv 2 (2) E = mc2
2
1
(3) E = mgh (4) mgh  mv 2
2
[Ans. 10(3), 11(4), 12(4), 13(3), 14(3)15(3), 16(2),]

QUICK RECAP
1. Energy is conserved, i.e., it can neither be created nor be destroyed but it can only be transformed from
one form to another.
2. Our energy requirement increases with our standard of living. In order to fulfill our energy requirement,
we try to improve the efficiency of energy usage and also try to exploit new sources of energy.
3. We are looking for new sources of energy because, the conventional source of energy like fossil fuels
are in danger of getting exhausted soon.
4. The energy source we select depends upon the factors like the ease and cost of extracting energy from
the source, the efficiency of technology available for using that source and now environmental friendly it
is.
5. Renewable source of energy : Those sources of energy which are being produced continuously in
nature and are inexhaustible. e.g., wood, solar energy, wind energy, hydro energy, geothermal energy.
6. Non-renewable source of energy : Those sources of energy which have accumulated in nature over
a very-very long time and cannot be quickly replaced when exhausted. e.g., fossil fuels, petroleum, natural
gas.
7. Solar cooker is a device which is used to cook food by utilizing the energy radiated by the sun.
8. Wind mill is a machine which works with the energy of blowing air or wind.

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188 Sources of Energy Physics - Class X (Level-I)

9. Nuclear fission : Nuclear fission is the process in which an unstable nucleus of a heavy atom splits up
into two light nuclei with the liberation of large amount of energy.
10. Chain reaction : The nuclear reaction in which the particle which initiates the reaction, is also produced
during the reaction to carry on the reaction further and further. These are of two types, controlled chain
reaction (nuclear reactor) and uncontrolled chain reaction (nuclear bomb).
11. Nuclear fusion : Nuclear fusion is the process in which two nuclei of light atoms combine to form a heavy
and more stable nucleus with the liberation of large amount of energy.
12. Nuclear reactor is a kind of furnace for carrying out the controlled fission of a radioactive material like
U235 for producing atomic power.

‰ ‰ ‰

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Assignment
6. Name any two products of petroleum which are not
SECTION-A used as fuels.
7. Mention two disadvantages of producing
Very Short Answer Type Questions
hydroelectricity.
1. Name any two conventional sources of energy. 8. What is meant by ocean thermal energy?
2. How will you identify a good source of energy? 9. What is the source of heat contained in
3. On what principal hydro power plants work? geothermal energy?
4. Where is the largest wind energy project 10. What is biomass? Give three examples of biomass.
established in India? 11. Name the varieties of coal found in nature. Which
5. Express 1 atomic mass unit in kg. one is best and why?
6. How many electron volts (eV) make up one joule? 12. What is meant by a nuclear reaction?
7. Name the two substances used as moderator. 13. Define chain reaction.
8. Name a source of energy that does not come 14. What is nuclear fission? Give a suitable example.
directly or indirectly from solar energy. Long Answer Type Questions :
9. Give Einstein’s mass energy relation.
1. Explain how, sun is considered to be the ultimate
10. Fill in the blanks: source of fossil fuels.
(a) A plane mirror in a solar cooker is used as a 2. Describe the working of a fixed dome type bio-gas
_________. plant with the help of labelled diagram.
(b) The energy of the sun is due to nuclear 3. How is charcoal prepared? Explain why, charcoal
_________ reaction. is a better fuel than wood.
(c) Biogas is an excellent fuel which contains 4. Explain all the components of a box-type solar
upto 75% _________. cooker with the help of labelled diagram. Write its
(d) Geothermal energy is the _________ source advantages and disadvantages.
of energy.
(e) Control rods have the ability to capture the SECTION-B
slow neutron. It is made of _________.
Short Answer Type Questions : Objective Type Questions :
1. Out of two solar cookers, one was covered by a 1. Which of the following is renewable source of energy?
plane glass slab and other was left open. Which of (1) Coal (2) Petroleum
two solar cookers will be more efficient and why? (3) Natural gas (4) Hydrogen
2. Why many thermal power plants are set up near 2. The energy available due to the difference in the
coal or oil field? temperature of water at the surface of the ocean
3. Justify that hydro power is a renewable source of and at deeper level is called
energy. (1) Tidal energy (2) Wind energy
4. Distinguish between renewable and non-renewable (3) Sea waves energy (4) Ocean thermal energy
source of energy. 3. The waste material of living things is called
5. What should be the qualities of an ideal source of (1) Geo-mass (2) Tidal mass
energy? (3) Bio-mass (4) Micro-mass
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190 Sources of Energy Physics - Class X (Level-I)

4. The raw materials used in bio-gas plant is a 15. In India, nuclear power stations are located at
mixture of (1) Tarapur near Bombay
(1) Wood and Charcoal (2) Air and coal (2) Rawatbhata near Kota
(3) Cattle dung and water (4) Flesh and bones (3) Kalpakkam near Chennai
5. Which is not present in domestic LPG cylinder? (4) All of these
(1) Butane (2) Propane 16. The nuclear energy produced in nuclear reactor is
(3) Ethyl mercaptan (4) Benzene used to run
6. How much solar energy will be received by 1 m2 (1) AC motor (2) Induction motor
area on earth’s atmosphere in one hour if the solar (3) Electric generator (4) DC motor
constant were 1.4 kilowatt per square metre? 17. One milligram of matter converted into energy will
(Assume the rays are falling perpendicular to give
earth’s atmosphere) (1) 90 J (2) 9000 J
(1) 50 kJ (2) 5040 kJ (3) 9 × 10 J5 (4) 9 × 1010 J
(3) 100 kJ (4) 3600 kJ 18. Select the incorrect statement
7. Crude oil does not contain (1) We can make thousands of sun by initiating
(1) Petrol (2) Diesel nuclear fusion reaction
(3) Natural gas (4) Kerosene (2) Chain reaction can be controlled as well as
8. Natural gas can be used as uncontrolled
(1) A source of hydrogen (3) Nuclear fusion reaction is also known as
thermonuclear reaction
(2) A source of carbon
(4) We use nuclear fusion reaction in nuclear
(3) Fuel in transport vehicles
reactors
(4) All of these
19. Fission of a nucleus is easily achieved by
9. The reaction involved in the making of atom bomb bombarding it with
is (1) Protons (2) Neutrons
(1) Nuclear fission (2) Nuclear fusion (3) Electrons (4) X-rays
(3) Thermionic emission (4) All of these 20. In hydrogen bomb we use the process of
10. In which of the following reactions energy released (1) Fusion (2) Fission
per gram is maximum?
(3) Both (1) & (2) (4) None of these
(1) Nuclear fission (2) Nuclear fusion
21. Fusion reaction is initiated with help of
(3) Inorganic reactions (4) Organic reactions
(1) Any particle (2) Neutrons
11. The temperature of the core of sun is about (3) Low temperature (4) High temperature
(1) 0 K (2) 273 K 22. Which of the following on combustion produces
(3) 2730 K (4) 107 K less pollutants?
12. In fission and fusion reactions, energy is released (1) Petrol (2) Diesel
due to (3) Coal (4) Natural gas
(1) Chemical reaction 23. A solar panel is made by combining a large
(2) Conversion of kinetic energy number of
(3) Conversion of mass into energy (1) Solar cookers (2) Solar cells
(4) Conversion of gravitational energy (3) Solar water heaters (4) Solar concentrators
13. The vast amount of energy released by sun is due 24. Most of the energy released during fission is in the
to form of
(1) Nuclear fission (2) Nuclear fusion (1) Electrical energy (2) Heat energy
(3) Combustion (4) None of these (3) Radiation energy (4) None of these
14. Nuclear reactors may be used for 25. Geothermal energy is feasible in the regions that
(1) Power generation (1) Are near the sea
(2) Production of radio isotopes (2) Have thermal plants
(3) Production of nuclear fuel (3) Have coal mines
(4) All of these (4) Are over hotspots in the crust

‰ ‰ ‰
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Chapter-5
Sources of Energy

Level-II
(For CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads)
CHAPTER 5
Sources of Energy THIS CHAPTER INCLUDES

z Composition of the Sun’s Energy


z Solar Concentrator
z Solar Water Heater
COMPOSITION OF SUN’S ENERGY
z Floating Gas Holder Type Bio-gas Plant
(i) Earth’s surface receives three types of electromagnetic
z Alcohol as Fuel
waves : ultra-violet rays, visible rays and infrared rays,
all having different range of wavelengths. z Hydrogen

(ii) In spectrum of solar radiations, the rays which have z Fuel


wavelength range approximately between 400 nm and z Nuclear Reactor
700 nm are called visible rays. In visible region there
are seven visible colours arranged as VIBGYOR in z Hydrogen Bomb
increasing order of wavelength. The rays beyond z Assignment
the red-end of the spectrum are called infrared rays
while the rays below the violet end are called ultraviolet
rays.
400 nm 700 nm
Ultraviolet Visible spectrum Infrared
V I B G Y O R
increasing wavelength
increasing frequency
(iii) About one-third of the energy that we receive from the
sun consists of infrared rays. Infra-red rays present in sunlight heat up the earth and the water on the
surface of the earth.

(iv) Invisible ultraviolet rays darken the photographic plate or fluorescent paper. The exposure of our body
to ultraviolet rays can produce a change in the colour of our skin. Too much ultraviolet radiation is
dangerous to our health.

SOLAR CONCENTRATOR

A solar energy device, which is designed to reflect and concentrate energy of sunlight from over a large area
into a small area, is called solar concentrator.
(i) A solar concentrator or heater for domestic purpose consists of a large curved reflector mounted on a
stand. It is mounted such that, its concave reflecting surface faces direct sunlight. The solar energy falling
at its reflector gets concentrated at its focus, which can be utilized to heat up water and to cook food.

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192 Sources of Energy Physics - Class X (Level-II)

Su
nr
ay
s
Curved reflector
Fo (concave)
cus

F
This region
becomes too hot

Solar concentrator
(ii) The solar concentrator can produce quite high temperatures. So, we can cook even those food materials
which require strong heating. We can also bake chapatis and fry eggs in it.

SOLAR WATER HEATER

Solar water heater is a device in which water is heated by using sun’s energy (solar energy).

Solar water heater consists of an insulated box painted black from inside and copper tubes painted black
from outside. The box is covered with a glass lid to prevent the loss of heat.

Cold water Storage tank

ys
ra
n
Su

Hot water

Copper tubes

Solar water heater

FLOATING GAS HOLDER TYPE BIO-GAS PLANT

Construction is almost similar to the fixed dome type except that the drum type gas holder is used for
collecting the bio-gas. It can move up or down and its movement is controlled by a control pipe P.

Working : It is similar to that of fixed dome type bio-gas plant.

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Physics - Class X (Level-II) Sources of Energy 193

Bio gas is an excellent fuel and burns without producing smoke. It is used in industries and at homes.
Bio-gas can be used for heating, lighting as well as for generating electricity. The slurry left behind is rich in
nitrogenous and phosphorus compounds, that is used as manure.

ALCOHOL AS FUEL
Alcohol can burn easily reacting with oxygen and produces carbon dioxide and water. This is an exothermic
reaction which produces heat.
Advantages of alcohol as fuel
(i) It can be obtained from an organic substance ‘sugar’ and hence, it is a renewable source of energy.
(ii) It is a clean fuel and does not produce any pollution.
The only disadvantage of alcohol as a fuel is its low calorific value. So, it produces much less heat on
burning as compared to an equal mass of petrol.
However, a mixture of alcohol and petrol is being used in some countries as fuel in automobiles. At present
there are some technical and practical problems in the use of alcohol as a fuel on large scale. Scientists
are working to solve these problems and make alcohol another good fuel for the future.

Example 1 :

Name the different types of bio-gas plants.


Solution :
There are two types of bio-gas plants which are
(i) Floating gas holder type bio-gas plant.
(ii) Fixed dome type bio-gas plant.

HYDROGEN
Hydrogen as a fuel : Hydrogen reacts with oxygen to produce water. This reaction takes place with an
explosion in which a large quantity of heat is released. It is known that burning of hydrogen produces
maximum heat as compared to that obtained by the same mass of any other fuel.
Advantages of hydrogen as fuel
1. It has the highest calorific value.
2. Its burning does not cause any pollution.

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194 Sources of Energy Physics - Class X (Level-II)

3. It can be easily prepared by the electrolysis of water.

Disadvantages of hydrogen as fuel


1. It burns with an explosion. So, its use is very much unsafe.
2. It is very expensive to produce hydrogen from electrolysis of water
3. It is very difficult to store and transport hydrogen because it is explosively inflammable.
Generally, hydrogen (liquid) is used as a fuel in space ships and in oxy-hydrogen flame for producing very
high temperature needed for cutting and welding metals.

Example 2 :

What are the important uses of hydrogen gas?

Solution :
It is used in oxy-hydrogen flame for producing very high temperatures needed for cutting and welding metals.
Liquid hydrogen is used as a fuel in spaceships.

Example 3 :

Name the substance which is mixed with alcohol to be used as a fuel in cars.

Solution :

Petrol is mixed with alcohol and the mixture known as ‘gasohol’ is used as a fuel in automobiles e.g., cars.

FUEL
The materials which are burnt to produce heat energy are known as fuel. Since a variety of fuels are available
to us, we should have some means of deciding which fuel is best for our purpose. For this purpose following
are the characteristics of a fuel.
™ Calorific value of fuels : The amount of heat produced by burning a unit mass of the fuel completely
is known as its calorific value. The common unit of measuring calorific value is kilojoules per gram. Table
given below shows the calorific value of some common fuels.

Fuel Calorific value


Dung cake (Upla) 6 to 8 kJ/g
Wood 17 kJ/g
Coal 25-33 kJ/g
Charcoal 33 kJ/g
Alcohol (Ethanol) 30 kJ/g
Diesel and fuel oil 45 kJ/g
Kerosene oil 48 kJ/g
Petrol 50 kJ/g
Bio gas 35-40 kJ/g
Natural gas 33-50 kJ/g
Butane (LPG) 50 kJ/g
Methane 55 kJ/g
Hydrogen gas 150 kJ/g

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Physics - Class X (Level-II) Sources of Energy 195
When wood is burnt, only carbon and hydrogen atoms contained in it burn and produce heat, oxygen
atoms do not produce any heat. All the fuels which contain oxygen burn readily but produce less heat
per unit mass (low calorific value).

™ Ignition temperature : A substance begins to burn only after it has attained a certain minimum
temperature. This minimum temperature is known as the ignition temperature.

Combustion : The burning of a substance in oxygen or air in which heat and light are produced is known
as combustion. Oxygen (or air) is necessary for combustion to take place so it is called supporter of
combustion. There are three necessary conditions for combustion to take place.

(i) Presence of a combustible substance (a substance which can burn)

(ii) Presence of a supporter of combustion (like air or oxygen)

(iii) Heating the combustible substance to its ignition temperature.

Example 4 :

Define calorific value of a fuel.

Solution :

It is defined as heat produced by burning a unit mass of the fuel completely.

Let Q is the heat produced by burning x grams of the fuel. Then the calorific value is given by

Q
Calorific value  (kJ/g)
x

DO YOU KNOW?
The energy released by 1 kg uranium fission = 8 × 1013 joules or 2.3 × 107 kWh which is equivalent to
400 tons of TNT (Trinitrotoluene) explosion. The nuclear bomb dropped at Hiroshima had 50 kg uranium
(equivalent to 20,000 tons of TNT).

NUCLEAR REACTOR

The nuclear reactor is a kind of furnace for carrying out the controlled fission of a radioactive material like
uranium-235 for producing atomic power. The fuel is enriched uranium. Natural uranium contains
approximately 99.3% U238 and about 0.7% U235. The U235 content is increased to 3% or more. Thus, fuel
in nuclear reactor is 3% U235 enriched.

The main parts of a nuclear reactor are

(i) Fuel : The easily fissionable material e.g., enriched U235.

(ii) Moderator : A substance which slows down the speed of neutrons in the reactor to a level appropriate
to cause the fission of uranium-235 effectively, is called moderator. The commonly used moderators are
graphite and heavy water.

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196 Sources of Energy Physics - Class X (Level-II)

Control rods
Steam
Power ouput

Turbine
Reactor core
fuel element

Water
Safety rods

Radiation
absorber Pump Coolant

Nuclear reactor

(iii) Control Rods : They should have the ability to capture the slow neutrons. To control the chain reaction
from becoming violent, rods of boron or cadmium (called control rods) are inserted in the holes of reactor
core, to desirable lengths.

Ba Ba
Cd Cd
n n
Fast Fast
n n Slow n n
U235 Moderator U235 Moderator
Fast n Fast Slow
Slow
neutron Fast n
Fast
Cd Cd
Kr Kr

Schematic representation of a role of moderator and control rods

(iv) Coolant : It is used to remove the heat produced and transfer it from the core of the nuclear reactor
to the surrounding. At ordinary temperatures water and heavy water can serve as coolants, but at high
temperatures, generally liquid sodium is used as a coolant. The coolant takes up the thermal energy
produced in nuclear fission and passes this energy to water in a heat exchanger. As a result, superheated
steam is produced which drives a turbine to produce electricity.

(v) Shielding : The whole reactor is protected with concrete walls which are 2 to 2.5 metres thick so that
radiations emitted during nuclear reactions may not produce harmful effects.

In India, nuclear power reactors are located at Tarapur (Maharashtra), Rana Pratap Sagar (Rajasthan),
Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu), Narora (U.P.), Kakrapar (Gujarat) and Kaiga (Karnataka).

Example 5 :

What is the disadvantage of fusion reaction?


Solution :
Nuclear fusion reactions have not been controlled so far.

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Physics - Class X (Level-II) Sources of Energy 197
HYDROGEN BOMB

It is an another explosive device based on thermonuclear reaction (fusion reaction which occur at very
high temperature).
The hydrogen bomb consists of heavy isotopes of hydrogen called deuterium and tritium along with an
element lithium-6 (Li6).
When atom bomb is exploded, then its fission reaction produces lots of heat. This heat raises the
temperature of deuterium and tritium to 107 degree centigrade in a few microseconds. At this temperature,
fusion reactions of deuterium and tritium take place and produce enormous amount of energy in very short
time, which causes destruction of life and property.
™ Hydrogen bomb is much more powerful than an atom bomb.
™ It is an uncontrolled nuclear fusion process.
™ The sources of energy of hydrogen bomb and that of sun’s energy is the same but only difference
is that, the sun’s energy supports life on earth, whereas the energy of hydrogen bomb can destroy
life on earth.

Try Yourself
1. In the energy received from the sun, the maximum fraction is of
(1) Ultraviolet rays (2) Visible rays
(3) Infrared rays (4) X-rays
2. The critical mass of fissionable material is
(1) 1 kg equivalent
(2) Minimum mass needed for chain reaction
(3) The mass is equivalent to 1020 joules
(4) 75 kg
3. The energy liberated in explosion of hydrogen bomb is mainly due to
(1) Nuclear fission (2) Nuclear fusion
(3) Chemical reaction (4) Radioactive disintegration
4. The energy liberated in nuclear fusion is often called
(1) Electromagnetic energy (2) Atomic energy
(3) Mechanical energy (4) Thermonuclear energy
[Ans. 1(3), 2(2), 3(2), 4(4)]

‰ ‰ ‰

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Assignment
4. Which of the following is used as a fuel in
SECTION-A spaceships?

Subjective Type Questions : (1) Helium (2) Nitrogen

1. What is the range of visible spectrum? (3) CO2 (4) Hydrogen

2. State two advantages of alcohol as a fuel. 5. It is very difficult to store and transport hydrogen
gas because
3. Why are cadmium or boron rods inserted into
nuclear fuel in a nuclear reactor? (1) It is lighter gas

4. Explain the working of a nuclear reactor. (2) It can react with vessel

(3) It forms water when react with carbon dioxide


5. Why should nuclear fission precede nuclear fusion?
present in air

(4) It is explosively inflammable


SECTION-B
6. In the fission of a uranium nucleus, the energy
Objective Type Questions : released is about

1. Which of the following radiation has longest (1) 50 MeV (2) 60 MeV
wavelength?
(3) 120 MeV (4) 200 MeV
(1) Ultra-violet rays (2) Visible light
7. The moderator used in nuclear reactor among the
(3) Infra-red rays (4) X-rays following is

2. Among the following which has the highest calorific (1) Cadmium (2) Boron
value?
(3) Heavy water (4) Copper
(1) Dung-cake (2) Wood
8. In the following nuclear reaction, X is
(3) Petrol (4) Methane
13 Al27  2He 4 14 Si30  X
3. Which is not the condition for combustion to take
place? (1) Proton (2) Neutron

(1) Presence of a combustible substance (3) -particle (4) -particle

9. The nucleus 238


(2) Presence of a supporter of combustion (O2 or air) 92U has all the following except

(3) Heating upto its ignition temperature (1) 92 protons (2) 146 neutrons

(4) Substance should be in liquid state (3) 238 nucleons (4) 146 electrons

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Physics - Class X (Level-II) Sources of Energy 199
10. Complete the following reaction (3) If Assertion is true statement but Reason is false,
then mark (3).
27
Al13  ? 
 Si14
27
 n01
(4) If both Assertion and Reason are false statements,
1 2 then mark (4).
(1) H 1
(2) H 1
1. A : A good source of energy is the one which is
(3) H13 (4) -particle easy to transport.
11. If the nuclei of masses ‘X’ and ‘Y’ fused together R : Easily transferrable source produces large
to form a nucleus of mass ‘m’, which heat.
accompanied the release of some energy. Then
2. A : Infra-red rays are emitted by all hot objects.
(1) X + Y > m (2) X + Y < m
R : The wavelength of light less than 700 nm is
(3) X + Y = m (4) X – Y = m
called infra-red.
12. In many racing cars ________ is used as fuel
3. A : The solar cooker cannot be used to cook the
instead of petrol
food during night time.
(1) Ethanol (2) Hydrogen
R : A solar cooker is a device which is used to
(3) Nitrogen (4) Oxygen
cook food by utilizing the energy radiated by
13. In a nuclear reactor, material used for control rods the sun.
is
4. A : Moving air is called wind.
(1) Uranium
(2) Graphite R : The aeroplanes make use of wind energy to
manipulate their upward and downward
(3) Liquid
movements.
(4) Cadmium
5. A : The energy of water is an indirect source of
14. Which of the following is not used as a nuclear
solar energy.
fuel?
(1) Uranium R : It is the solar energy which recirculates water
in nature in the form of water cycle.
(2) Thorium
(3) Plutonium
(4) Titanium
SECTION-D
15. The reaction involved in a nuclear reactor is Match the Columns Type Questions :
(1) Nuclear fusion (2) Nuclear fission
1. Match the following :
(3) Thermionic emission (4) Secondary emission
Column-I Column-II

SECTION-C a. Nuclear fusion (i) Nuclear reactor

b. Uncontrolled chain (ii) Atom bomb


Assertion & Reason Type Questions :
reaction
In the following questions, a statement of
assertion (A) is followed by a statement of reason c. Controlled chain (iii) Hydrogen bomb
(R). reaction
(1) If both Assertion & Reason are true and the reason (1) a(i), b(i, ii, iii), c(iii)
is the correct explanation of the assertion, then
mark (1). (2) a(iii), b(ii, iii), c(i)
(2) If both Assertion & Reason are true but the reason (3) a(i), b(iii), c(ii)
is not the correct explanation of the assertion, then
mark (2). (4) a(ii), b(i, ii), c(iii)

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200 Sources of Energy Physics - Class X (Level-II)

2. Match the following : (1) a(i), b(ii), c(iii), d(iv) (2) a(ii), b(i), c(iv), d(iii)
Column-I Column-II
(3) a(iii), b(i), c(ii), d(iv) (4) a(iv), b(i), c(iii), d(ii)
(Types of coal) (Carbon content)
4. Match the following :
a. Peat (i) Upto 85% carbon
b. Lignite (ii) Upto 95% carbon Column-I Column-II
c. Bituminous (iii) Upto 60% carbon a. Hydro power plants (i) Remains of dead
d. Anthracite (iv) Upto 70% carbon plants and animals
(1) a(iii), b(iv), c(i), d(ii) (2) a(i), b(ii), c(iii), d(iv) b. Nuclear fission (ii) Wind
(3) a(ii), b(i), c(iv), d(iii) (4) a(iv), b(i), c(ii), d(iii)
c. Nuclear fusion (iii) Electricity from
3. Match the following :
flowing water
Column-I Column-II
a. Visible light (i) Non-renewable d. Renewable source (iv) Nuclear reactor
source of energy of energy
b. Uranium-235 (ii) Renewable source of e. Fossil fuels (v) Solar reactions
energy
(1) a(iii), b(iv), c(v), d(ii), e(i)
c. Bio-fuels (iii) The wavelengths
ranges from 400 nm (2) a(i), b(ii), c(iii), d(iv), e(v)
to 700 nm
(3) a(v), b(iv), c(iii), d(ii), e(i)
d. Solar energy (iv) The energy obtained
from the sun (4) a(ii), b(i), c(iii), d(iv), e(v)

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Additional Topics for NTSE (Stage-I)
(For some states only - as per their syllabus)
Heat 1
CHAPTER

Heat
 Whenever any body is heated, its internal kinetic energy increases due to increase in the random motion of
molecular motion. Hence, the temperature of the body increases. Temperature is the physical state of the body
that decides the direction of flow of the heat.
 When two bodies at different temperatures are kept in contact, heat flows from the body at higher temperature
to the body at lower temperature.
 When two bodies are at the same temperature, flow of the net heat stops and the bodies are then said to
be in thermal equilibrium.
 Temperature may also be defined as the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. It is the effect of
heat. Temperature is a scalar quantity and is one of the seven fundamental quantities.
 Since heat is a form of energy, hence S.I. unit of heat is joule (J). Heat is also measured in calorie (cal).
1 cal = 4.186 J (or 4.2 J approx.)
 S.I. unit of temperature is kelvin. The temperature measuring instrument is called thermometer.
 A thermometer may be graduated in the following scales :
(i) Celsius scale : The upper fixed point (UFP) and lower fixed point (LFP) of this scale are 100°C and 0°C
respectively and fundamental interval is 100.
(ii) Fahrenheit scale : The UFP and LFP of this scale are 212°F and 32°F respectively and fundamental
interval is 180.
(iii) Kelvin scale : The UFP and LFP of this scale are 373.15 K and 273.15 K (approximated as
273 K) respectively and the fundamental interval is 100.
These scales are related to each other as
C F  32 K  273.15
 
100 180 100
 The change in temperature has the same magnitude in Celsius and Kelvin scale.

Heat Capacity (Thermal Capacity), C


 Some objects require less heat to raise their temperature by unity while others require more heat to do so.
This property of a substance is measured in terms of its heat capacity or thermal capacity.
 The heat capacity of a body is the amount of heat energy required to raise its temperature by 1°C or 1 K.
It is denoted by C. Thus

Q  Amount of heat supplied 


 
T  Rise in temperature 
C =

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202 Heat Additional Topics for NTSE (Class-X)

 Its S.I. unit is J K–1. Other common unit is calorie °C–1 (or cal K–1).

 If the heat capacity of a substance is 50 J K–1, it means that the heat energy required to raise the temperature
of that substance by 1 K is 50 J.

Specific Heat Capacity (c)


 The specific heat capacity of a substance is defined as the amount of heat absorbed or rejected to change
the temperature of its unit mass by one unit.

 The unit of specific heat is J/kg K or cal/g C°.

 The value of specific heat depends on


(i) The nature of the material.
(ii) The initial temperature and the temperature interval.
(iii) The process or conditions under which heat transfer takes place.

 Heat capacity of a substance depends on its mass but specific heat capacity of a substance is independent
of its mass.

 Molar Specific Heat Capacity (C) : If the amount of substance is specified in terms of number of moles n
(instead of mass m), we define heat capacity per mole of the substance by following expression.
 1 Q 
C  n  T  ………… (molar specific heat capacity)
 
That is, the molar heat capacity of a substance is defined as the amount of heat absorbed or rejected to
change the temperature of one mole of it by one unit.
Unit of C is J mol–1 C°–1 or cal mol–1 C°–1.
Let M be the molecular mass of the substance of total mass m, then the number of moles n contained in it
is given by

m
n=
M

 M Q
C   Mc ………… [Relation between c and C]
m T

Relation between Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity


 Heat capacity = Specific heat × Mass of a substance
C = m × c

Principle of Mixtures (or Principle of Calorimetry)


 Calorimetry means “measuring heat”. The basic principle of measuring heat (also known as principle of
calorimetry) is very simple. When heat flow occurs between two bodies that are isolated from their
surroundings, the amount of heat lost by one body must be equal to the amount of heat gained by
the other.

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Additional Topics for NTSE (Class-X) Heat 203
 Heat lost by a body at higher temperature = Heat gained by the other body at lower temperature

m1c1 (T1  T )  m2c2 (T  T2 ) ……… [Principle of Calorimetry or the Principle of Mixtures]


m1, c1 and T1 are the mass, specific heat capacity and temperature of the body at higher temperature
respectively whereas m2, c2 and T2 are respective quantities for the body at lower temperature. Here T is the
final temperature of the two bodies in thermal equilibrium.
 Principle of calorimetry is actually conservation of energy.

Natural Phenomena involving Specific Heat and Consequences of High Specific Heat Capacity
of Water
 Blowing of Sea Breeze and Land Breeze : The specific heat capacity of water is about five times more
than the specific heat capacity of land. Therefore, during the day, when the sun is bright, the land gets heated
faster than the sea. The air above the land becomes hot and rises up. This makes cool sea breeze to blow
from the sea where it is cool, towards the land. During night, land cools faster than sea. The air above the
sea being wet and warm rises up. Cool air from the land starts blowing towards the sea thereby setting up
the land breeze.
 Water is used as a Coolant.
 Farmers protect their fields from frost formation in winters by watering the fields.
 Juice and wine bottles are kept under water in colder regions.
 Presence of large amount of water in plants and animals.
 Central heating of rooms in colder regions.

Change of State
 The transition of a substance from one state to another at a definite temperature and pressure is called a
change of state or phase transition.
Melting Point : The temperature at which a solid changes to liquid state without any change in its temperature,
is called its melting point.
 It depends on the pressure. The melting point at standard atmospheric pressure is called normal melting point.
 The melting point of substances which contract on melting (like ice, cast iron, antimony, bismuth,
brass etc.) decreases with increase in pressure.
To lower melting point of ice by 1°C, an increase in pressure of nearly 133 atm is required.
The melting point of other substances which expand on melting (like wax, glass, gold, silver, copper etc.)
increases with increase in pressure.
 Melting point decreases on adding impurity.
 Cooling a liquid below freezing point without turning it to solid is called supercooling. Water can be supercooled
up to –12°C.

Vaporisation and Condensation


 The phase transition from liquid to gas (or vapour) is called vaporisation and from gas to liquid is called
condensation. Vaporisation is also called evaporation.
 Boiling Point : The temperature at which a liquid changes to gaseous (or vapour) state without any change
in its temperature, is called its boiling point.

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204 Heat Additional Topics for NTSE (Class-X)

Important Points
 At a given pressure the boiling and condensation temperature are always the same. At this temperature the
liquid and gaseous phases can coexist in phase equilibrium.
 The boiling point always increases with increase in pressure. Hence, the cooking in a pressure cooker is faster
but cooking becomes difficult on hills.
 Normal boiling point of water is 100°C. It decreases by decrease in pressure i.e., with an increase in
elevation above the Earth’s surface.
 Water can be made to boil at 0°C if the surrounding pressure is extremely low.

 Impurity increases the boiling point.

 Sublimation : There are some substances which normally pass from the solid state to the vapour state
directly and vice-versa. The process of changing from solid state to vapour state without passing through
the liquid state is called “sublimation” and the solid is said to sublime.

Latent Heat
 Latent heat of a substance is defined as the amount of heat absorbed or given out by it during the
change of its state at a constant temperature. It is of two types:
(i) Latent heat of fusion
(ii) Latent heat of vaporisation
(i) Latent heat of fusion : “The latent heat of fusion of a substance is the quantity of heat absorbed by
(or removed from) the substance during its phase transition from solid state to liquid state (or from liquid state
to solid state), while temperature remains constant”. It is also called heat of fusion.
Latent heat when expressed for unit mass of a substance, is called the specific latent heat. It is denoted
by Lf and has S.I. unit of J/kg

Heat energy exchanged for the change of phase


Lf =
Mass

Lf can also be measured in cal/kg or cal/g.


The specific latent heat of fusion for water at normal atmospheric pressure is
Lf = 3.33 × 105 J/kg = 79.6 cal/g
It is roughly written as 80 cal/g.
If a quantity of heat Q is absorbed by (or removed from) a mass m of a material during its phase transition
from solid to liquid (or vice versa), then its specific latent heat of fusion is

Q
Lf 
m

or, Q  mLf
(ii) Latent heat of vaporisation : “The latent heat of vaporisation of a substance is the quantity of heat
absorbed by (or removed from) the substance during its phase transition from liquid state to gaseous state
(or from gaseous state to liquid state), while temperature remains constant”. It is also called heat of
vaporisation.

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Additional Topics for NTSE (Class-X) Heat 205
Latent heat of vaporisation expressed for unit mass of a substance is called is specific latent heat of
vaporisation. It is usually denoted by LV.
Q
Lv 
m

or, Q  mLv

Lv = 22.6 × 105 J/kg = 539 cal/g


Roughly it is written as 540 cal/g.
 Graph of temperature versus time for water initially in the solid phase (ice) :

Gas phase
(steam)
125
Temperature (°C)

D E
100 Boiling point

75

50 Liquid phase
(water)
25
B C
0 Melting point

A Solid phase (ice)


–25 Time
 Summary of Shortcuts
(i) When ice is dominant i.e. the ratio of mass of ice at 0°C and mass of steam at 100°C is 8 : 1 or more,
entire steam will be condensed into water and final temperature will be 0°C. Excess of 8 : 1 ratio ice will
be left and we’ll have ice water mixture.
(ii) When steam is dominant i.e. the steam to ice ratio is 1 : 3 or more; ice will be heated upto 100°C water.
When steam will be more than 1 : 3 ratio, excess steam will be left and we’ll have water steam mixture
at 100°C.
(iii) When the ice to steam ratio is in between 8 : 1 and 3 : 1, make conventional calculation and we’ll have
all water somewhere between 0°C to 100°C.

Natural Phenomena related to High Latent Heat of Fusion of Ice


 Cold storage of perishable materials.

 Use of ice cubes in cold beverages.

 Weather becomes cooler when snow and frozen lake melts.

 Snow on mountains melts slowly not all at once.

 The surrounding becomes warm when the lakes start freezing.

 In cold countries, water in lakes and ponds does not freeze all at once.

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206 Heat Additional Topics for NTSE (Class-X)

EXERCISE
1. With the increase of pressure, the melting point of ice
(1) Decreases (2) Increases
(3) May increase or decrease (4) Remains same
2. When water freezes, its density
(1) Increases (2) Decreases (3) Remains same (4) Becomes zero
3. The value of latent heat of fusion of ice is about
(1) 336 J/kg (2) 336 cal/g (3) 80 J/g (4) 80 cal/g
4. The melting point of ice at normal atmospheric pressure is
(1) 0°C (2) 0 K (3) 32°F (4) Both (1) & (3)
5. Specific heat capacity is maximum for
(1) Water (2) Sand (3) Mercury (4) Iron
6. Which of the following material is used to make a calorimeter?
(1) Glass (2) Ebonite (3) Metal (4) Superconductor
7. The thermal capacity of 100 g of aluminum (specific heat = 0.2 cal/g°C) is
(1) 0.002 cal/°C (2) 20 cal/°C (3) 200 cal/°C (4) 100 cal/°C
8. Select the correct statement related to heat.
(1) Heat is possessed by a body
(2) Hot water contains more heat as compared to cold water
(3) Heat is an energy which flows due to temperature difference
(4) All of these
9. A block of ice at – 12°C is slowly heated and converted into steam at 100°C. Which of the following curves
best represents the event?

T T T T

(1) (2) (3) (4)


Q Q
Q Q

10. 100 g of ice (latent heat 80 cal g–1, at 0°C) is mixed with 100 g of water (specific heat 1 cal g–1 °C–1) at 80°C.
The final temperature of the mixture will be
(1) 0°C (2) 40°C (3) 80°C (4) < 0°
11. 200 g of ice at – 20°C is mixed with 500 g of water at 20°C in an insulating vessel. Final mass of water in
vessel is (specific heat of ice = 0.5 cal g–1 °C–1)
(1) 700 g (2) 600 g (3) 400 g (4) 200 g
12. In engines water is used as a coolant, because
(1) It is good conductor of heat energy (2) It has low density
(3) It has high specific heat (4) It is bad conductor of heat energy

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Additional Topics for NTSE (Class-X) Heat 207
13. The material used to make cooking utensils should have
(1) Low conductivity and low specific heat (2) High conductivity and low specific heat
(3) Low conductivity and high specific heat (4) High conductivity and high specific heat
14. Without greenhouse effect, the average temperature of the earth’s surface would have been nearly
(1) – 1°C (2) 0°C (3) – 273°C (4) – 18°C
15. 90°F in celsius scale is
(1) 36°C (2) 35.5°C (3) 41°C (4) 32.2°C
16. At a particular temperature, the readings of celsius and fahrenheit scales are c and f respectively. The
magnitude of c and f are same but opposite in sign. Then the magnitude of f will be
(1) 11.43 (2) 16.91 (3) 8.66 (4) 13
17. The measurement of quantity of heat is called
(1) Thermometry (2) Calorimetry (3) Latent heat (4) Fusion
18. An iron piece of mass 4 kg has a heat capacity of 982 J K–1. How much heat energy is required to raise its
temperature by 20°C?
(1) 21.89 kJ (2) 13.41 kJ (3) 18 kJ (4) 19.64 kJ
19. 400 g of water at 70°C raises the temperature of 600 g cold water by 20°C when mixed in it. The initial
temperature of cold water would be
(1) 20°C (2) 30°C (3) 10°C (4) 15°C
20. The transformation of a substance from gaseous state to liquid state is called
(1) Fusion (2) Condensation (3) Sublimation (4) Evaporation
21. Evaporation leads to
(1) Heating effect (2) Cooling effect
(3) Both heating as well as cooling effect (4) Change of solid into gas directly
22. Heat energy exchanged for the change of phase for unit mass of a substance is known as
(1) Latent heat (2) Heat capacity
(3) Specific latent heat (4) Specific heat capacity
23. Ice is colder than water at 0°C due to
(1) High latent heat of fusion of ice (2) Low latent heat of fusion of ice
(3) High heat capacity of water (4) Low heat capacity of water
24. When the lake freezes, the temperature of surrounding
(1) Increases (2) Decreases
(3) Remains same (4) Becomes equal to human body temperature
25. Temperature cannot be measured in
(1) Celsius (2) Kelvin (3) Joule (4) Fahrenheit
26. What is the temperature at which the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales give the same reading?
(1) 40°F (2) –40°C (3) 20°F (4) 20°C
27. What is that temperature at which the Fahrenheit reading is double that of the Celsius reading?
(1) 80°C (2) 320°C (3) 160°C (4) 100°C

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208 Heat Additional Topics for NTSE (Class-X)

28. The readings of a bath on Celsius and Fahrenheit scales are in the ratio 2 : 5. The temperature of the bath
is
(1) – 26.66°C (2) 40°C (3) 45.71°C (4) 26.66°C
29. If the temperature is increased from 32°F to 212°F, then the increase in Celsius scale will be
(1) 100°C (2) 0° (3) 180°C (4) 75.5°C
30. A metallic ball requires 4 kJ heat energy to raise its temperature by 20°C. Find its heat capacity.
(1) 80 JK–1 (2) 200 JK–1 (3) 150 JK–1 (4) 100 JK–1
31. Calculate the heat energy required to raise the temperature of 10 kg of water from 25°C to 55°C. (Given, specific
heat capacity of water is 4.2 kJ kg–1 K–1)
(1) 1500 kJ (2) 1430 kJ (3) 1260 kJ (4) 900 kJ
32. A hot metallic ball of mass 100 g is put into 500 g of water at 20°C. The resulting temperature is 40°C. Find
the initial temperature of hot ball. (Given : Specific heat capacity of metallic ball 400 J kg–1 K–1 and specific
heat capacity of water is 4200 J kg–1 K–1)
(1) 1090°C (2) 1100°C (3) 500°C (4) 650°C
33. A bucket contains 12 kg of water at 20°C. 8 kg of water at 90°C is poured into it. Calculate the final temperature
of water [Ignore the heat energy absorbed by the bucket]
(1) 24°C (2) 22°C (3) 36°C (4) 48°C
34. 5 g ice at 0°C is mixed with 1 g steam at 100°C. Find the final temperature of the mixture.
(1) 40°C (2) 20°C (3) 30°C (4) 35°C
35. 100 g ice at 0°C is mixed with 10 g steam at 100°C. Find the final temperature of the mixture.
(1) 0°C (2) 10°C (3) 20°C (4) 30°C
36. 30 g of ice at 0°C is mixed with 25 g of steam at 100°C. The amount of water in the final mixture will be
(1) 15 g (2) 55 g (3) 40 g (4) 30 g
37. Liquids A and B are at 30°C and 20°C respectively. When mixed in equal masses, the temperature of the
mixture is found to be 26°C. Their specific heats are in the ratio of
(1) 3 : 2 (2) 1 : 1 (3) 2 : 3 (4) 4 : 3
38. Suppose you want to cool 0.25 kg of cola (mostly water), at 25°C, by adding ice initially at –20°C. How much
ice should you add so that the final temperature will be 0°C with all the ice melt? Neglect the heat capacity
of the container. Specific heat of ice is 2000 J kg–1 K–1. [Take specific heat of cola 4160 J/kg K]
(1) 70 g (2) 20 g (3) 15 g (4) 50 g

‰‰‰

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Magnetism and Matter 2
CHAPTER

Earth’s Magnetism

 What causes the earth to have a magnetic field is not clear. According to original theory, the earth’s
magnetism was assumed to arise from a very large bar magnet placed deep inside earth along its rotational
axis but main argument against theory is that the interior of earth is too hot to maintain any magnetism.

 The current view about origin of earth’s magnetic field is that “due to electrical current produced
by convective motion of molten iron and nickel in the outer core of the earth.” This is known as
DYNAMO-EFFECT. The source of energy for this current is probably the radioactivity in the interior of the
earth.

 The pattern of earth’s magnetic field varies with position as well as time. This is most affected by solar
wind [Solar wind is the stream of charged particles emitted by the sun that flows towards earth].

 The magnetic field lines of earth appears same as a magnet located at the centre of the earth. The axis
of magnet is tilted approximately 11.3° with respect to rotational axis of earth.

Ng
11.3º

Nm
Magnetic Equator

Geographic Equator

Sm

Sg

 The north magnetic pole is located at latitude of 79.74° N and a longitude of 71.8° W, a place near north
Canada. The magnetic south pole is at 79.74° S and 108.22° E in Antarctica.

 The pole near the geographic north pole is called the north magnetic pole and the pole near the geographic
south pole is called the south magnetic pole.

 Geographic meridian : It is a vertical plane passing through the geographic north-south direction. It
contains the longitude circle and axis of rotation of the earth.

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210 Magnetism and Matter Additional Topics for NTSE (Class-X)

 Magnetic meridian : It is a vertical plane passing through N–S line of freely suspended magnet.
Geographic
B' Meridian

B A
Magnetic
Meridian

C'

C D

Magnetic Declination
It is angle between the true geographic north-south direction and the north south line shown by a compass needle
at a place. Its value is more at higher latitude and smaller near equator. The declination in India is small. It is
0°41’E at Delhi and 0°58’ at Mumbai. It means here compass needle tells true north quite accurately.
True North

 = angle of declination

Magnetic Dip

It is angle between axis of needle, (in magnetic meridian) which is free to move about a horizontal axis and
horizontal. Thus dip is an angle that total magnetic field of earth Be makes with the surface of the earth. Angle of
dip is maximum = 90° at poles (therefore Be = Bv).

It is zero at magnetic equator (Be = BH). Horizontal dip circle is the instrument used to measure dip angle.

Horizontal and Vertical component of Earth Magnetic Field


B'
Horizontal
L BH A

Magnetic
Meridian
S
Bv
N
P M
Be
C'
Vertical
C D
 The component of earth’s magnetic field Be along horizontal is called horizontal component BH.

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Additional Topics for NTSE (Class-X) Magnetism and Matter 211
In ALP,

AL  AL  BH 
cos  =  
AP  AP  Be 

 AL = AP cos 

 BH  Be cos  ...(i)

 The component of earth’s magnetic field along vertical is called vertical component Bv.
In ALP
LP
sin  = (= AM) LP = AM
AP
 AM = AP sin  [ AM  Bv , AP  Be ]

 Bv  Be sin  ...(ii)
Squaring and adding equation (i) and (ii), we get
BH2 = Be2 cos2 
Bv2 = Be2 sin2 
BH2 + Bv2 = Be2 (cos2  + sin2 )

 Be  BH2  Bv2 ...(iii)

Relation Between Horizontal Component, Vertical Component and Angle of Dip


Dividing equation (ii) by (i)
Bv Be sin 
BH = Be cos 
Bv
  tan 
BH

Unit of Magnetic Field


SI and CGS units of magnetic field is Tesla (T) and Gauss (G) respectively
1 T = 104 G

Neutral Point
It’s a region or space where there is no magnetic field.
(a) If the north pole of a magnet points south, the fields of the magnet and the earth will point in opposite
directions along the axis of the magnet; so two neutral points are obtained which are equidistant from the
magnet on its axis.
(b) If the north pole of the magnet points north, the fields of the magnet and the earth will point in opposite
directions along the equatorial circle of the magnet and there will be infinite neutral points.
(c) There will be only one neutral point on a horizontal board when a magnet is held vertically on the board.
In rest of the orientations there will be two neutral points.

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212 Magnetism and Matter Additional Topics for NTSE (Class-X)

Important Points
 At magnetic equator  = 0° therefore
BH = Be cos0° = Be
Bv = Be sin0° = 0
It concludes that at magnetic equator total magnetic field is in horizontal direction and there is no vertical
component.
 At poles  = 90° therefore
BH = Be cos90° = 0
Bv = Be sin90° = Be
Total magnetic field of earth at poles is in vertical direction and there is no horizontal component.
 A magnetic needle shows true dip angle  in magnetic meridian. If the needle is deflected from the magnetic
meridian by some angle (say ) the dip angle changes. The dip at this position is called the apparent
angle of dip . The apparent dip , true dip  and angle  are related as
tan   tan  cos 
 Besides the main magnetic N–S poles, local N–S poles on the earth’s surface also exists. These poles
are oriented in different directions. Local N–S poles may arise due to magnetised mineral deposits in side
the earth.
 Magnetic map of earth.
(a) Isogonic lines : Lines joining places of equal angle of declination.
(b) Agonic lines : Lines joining places of zero angle of declination.
(c) Isoclinic lines : Line joining places of equal angle of dip.
(d) Aclinic lines : Line joining places of zero angle of dip.
(e) Isodynamic lines : Line joining places of equal value of horizontal component of earth’s magnetic
field.
 If a planet has molten matter in its core and rotates with some angular frequency it has a magnetic field
associated with it which is found in case of planet Venus, Jupiter. Moon does not have any molten matter
hence has no magnetic field around it.

m]
Magnetic Susceptibility [
 It is a scalar quantity with no dimension, no unit.
 The physical significance of magnetic susceptibility is that it is the degree of ease with which a magnetic
material can be magnetised. A material with higher value m can easily be magnetised.

)
Magnetic Permeability (
Wb
 It is a scalar quantity. Its unit is .
A-m
 The physical significance of magnetic permeability is that, it measures the extent to which a magnetising
field can penetrate or permeate a given magnetic material.

r)
Relative Permeability (
 It is the ratio of permeability of a medium to that of permeability of free space.

 r  [It is unitless, dimensionless quantity]
0

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Additional Topics for NTSE (Class-X) Magnetism and Matter 213
Magnetic Properties of Materials
Curie and Faraday observed that almost all substances have certain magnetic properties. On the basis of
magnetic behaviour of different materials, they divided them into three categories.
(i) Diamagnetism
(ii) Paramagnetism
(iii) Ferromagnetism

Diamagnetism
 The substances which have tendency to move from stronger to weaker part of external magnetic field.
They develop this tendency because they are feebly magnetised in a direction opposite to that of external
magnetising field.
 Some of diamagnetic substances are as follows bismuth, copper, lead, silicon, nitrogen (at STP), water
and sodium chloride.

Diamagnetic Substance

 The magnetic field lines are expelled by these substances.


 Magnetic field inside diamagnetic substance (B) is less than in
B
free space B0, therefore, 1
B0
 Diamagnetism is a universal property i.e. it is present in all substances. However, the effect is so weak
in most cases that it gets shifted by other effects like paramagnetism, ferromagnetism etc.

Paramagnetism
 These are the substances which get feebly magnetised in the direction of applied external magnetic field.
Therefore they have tendency to move from region of weak magnetic field to strong magnetic field i.e. they
get weakly attracted to a magnet.
 Some paramagnetic substances are as follows : aluminium, sodium, calcium, oxygen (at STP) and copper
chloride.
 Magnetic field lines tend to pass through these substances therefore magnetic field inside substance is
more than the outside.

B
 B > B0, 1
B0

Curie’s Law
 This law states that the magnetisation (I) of a paramagnetic material is inversely proportional to the absolute
temperature T.
B0
I= c
T
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214 Magnetism and Matter Additional Topics for NTSE (Class-X)

Or
 Magnetic susceptibility of paramagnetic substance is inversely proportional to absolute temperature T.
m

T
0
m = c
T
The constant c is called Curie’s constant.

Note : The magnetic susceptibility of paramagnetic substances is around hundred times higher than that
of diamagnetic substances.

Ferromagnetism
 These are the substances which get strongly magnetised when placed in an external magnetic field, so
they have strong tendency to move from a region of weak magnetic field to strong magnetic field. They
get strongly attracted to the magnet.
 Some of the ferromagnetic substances are as follows : iron, cobalt, nickel, alloys like alnico etc.
 Magnetic field lines tend to crowd into ferromagnetic material.
 Permeability of ferromagnetic materials is very large, of the order of hundreds and thousands.
 Magnetic susceptibility m of ferromagnetic substance is very high, therefore, they can be magnetised
easily and strongly.
 With rise in temperature, susceptibility of ferromagnetic materials decreases. At a certain temperature
ferromagnetic substance is converted into paramagnetic substance. This transition temperature is called
Curie temperature or Curie point TC.
 Curie-Weiss law : At temperature above the Curie temperature, a ferromagnetic substance becomes an
ordinary paramagnetic substance whose magnetic susceptibility obeys the Curie-Weiss law according
to which

C
m 
T  TC

Materials and their Curie temperature

Material T C (K)
Cobalt 1394
Iron 1043
Fe 2O 3 893
Nickel 631
Godolinium 317

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Additional Topics for NTSE (Class-X) Magnetism and Matter 215

EXERCISE
1. Which of the following demonstrated that earth has a magnetic field?
(1) Intensity of cosmic rays is more at the poles than at the equator
(2) Earth is surrounded by an ionosphere
(3) Earth is a planet rotating about the north-south axis
(4) Large quantity of iron ore is found on the earth
2. The angle between magnetic meridian and geographic meridian is known as
(1) Dip (2) Inclination (3) Declination (4) Both (1) & (2)
3. Isogonic points are those points where
(1) Dip is zero (2) Declination is zero (3) Dip angle is equal (4) Declination is equal
4. At a place horizontal and vertical components of earth’s magnetic field are as follows
BH = 1 G 10° west of north
Bv = 1G vertically downward
Then dip angle and declination are respectively
(1) 0°, 10° W (2) 45°, 10° E (3) 45°, 10° W (4) 10°, 45° W
5. A dip circle is placed in magnetic meridian then the magnetic needle will align
(1) Horizontally (2) Vertically
(3) In the direction of earth’s magnetic field (4) Perpendicular to earth’s magnetic field
6. A dip circle is placed perpendicular to the magnetic meridian, then the magnetic needle will align
(1) Horizontally (2) Vertically
(3) In the direction of earth’s magnetic field (4) Perpendicular to earth’s magnetic field
7. At a place dip angle is known to be 45°. The apparent dip when dip circle is placed at an angle of 60° with
the magnetic meridian will be

1  1  1  1 
(1) tan–1 (2) (2) tan   (3) tan1( 2) (4) tan  
2  2

8. A dip circle is placed in geographic meridian at a place where dip and declination are known to be respectively
30° and 45°. What dip will be given by dip circle?

1  1  1  2  1  2  1  1 
(1) tan   (2) tan  3  (3) tan   (4) tan  
 6    3 2

9. The universal property of all substances is


(1) Diamagnetism (2) Ferromagnetism (3) Paramagnetism (4) All of these
10. When a ferromagnetic substance is heated to a temperature above its Curie temperature, it
(1) Behaves like a paramagnetic substance (2) Behaves like a diamagnetic substance
(3) Remains ferromagnetic (4) Is permanently magnetised

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216 Magnetism and Matter Additional Topics for NTSE (Class-X)

11. Select the incorrect statement.


(1) In a diamagnetic substance net magnetic moment of each atom/molecule is zero
(2) In a paramagnetic substance net magnetic moment of each atom/molecule is non-zero
(3) In a ferromagnetic material net magnetic moment of each domain is zero
(4) In a ferromagnetic material net magnetic moment of each domain is non-zero
12. A diamagnetic material in a magnetic field moves
(1) From stronger to the weaker parts of the field (2) From weaker to the stronger parts of the field
(3) Perpendicular to the field (4) In none of the above directions
13. Nickel shows ferromagnetic property at room temperature. If the temperature is increased beyond Curie
temperature, then it will show
(1) Anti ferromagnetism (2) No magnetic property (3) Diamagnetism (4) Paramagnetism
14. There are four light-weight-rod samples, A, B, C, D separately suspended by threads. A bar magnet is slowly
brought near each sample and the following observations are noted
(i) A is feebly repelled
(ii) B is feebly attracted
(iii) C is strongly attracted
(iv) D remains unaffected
Which one of the following is true?
(1) A is of a non-magnetic material (2) B is of a paramagnetic material
(3) C is of a diamagnetic material (4) D is of a ferromagnetic material
15. Curie temperature is the temperature above which
(1) Ferromagnetic material becomes diamagnetic material
(2) Ferromagnetic material becomes paramagnetic material
(3) Paramagnetic material becomes diamagnetic material
(4) Paramagnetic material becomes ferromagnetic material
16. If a diamagnetic substance is brought near north or south pole of a bar magnet, it is
(1) Repelled by north pole and attracted by the south pole
(2) Repelled by the poles
(3) Attracted by the poles
(4) Attracted by the north pole and repelled by the south pole

‰‰‰

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ANSWERS

Chapter 1 : Light : Reflection and Refraction

Level-I
SECTION-A

Very Short Answer Type Questions :

17. (a) Dioptre (b) Virtual (c) Convex (d) Erect (e) Vacuum (f) Straight (g) Beam (h) Reflection

SECTION-B
1. (3) 2. (3) 3. (2) 4. (2) 5. (1) 6. (3) 7. (4)
8. (2) 9. (2) 10. (3) 11. (1) 12. (4) 13. (2) 14. (3)
15. (4) 16. (3) 17. (2) 18. (2) 19. (3) 20. (3) 21. (2)
22. (1) 23. (4)

Level-II
SECTION-B
1. (2) 2. (4) 3. (2) 4. (3) 5. (2) 6. (3) 7. (2)
8. (3) 9. (1) 10. (2) 11. (4) 12. (3) 13. (3) 14. (1)
15. (3) 16. (4) 17. (2) 18. (3) 19. (3) 20. (1) 21. (4)
22. (2) 23. (4) 24. (1) 25. (2)

SECTION-C
1. (3) 2. (1) 3. (1) 4. (4) 5. (1)

SECTION-D
1. (4) 2. (3) 3. (4) 4. (3) 5. (4)

Chapter 2 : Human Eye and Colourful World

Level-I
SECTION-A

Very Short Answer Type Questions :


10. f = 50 cm
11. (a) Iris (b) Hypermetropia (c) Scattering, red (d) Real, retina (e) Least

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218 Answers Physics - Class X (Level-I & Level-II)

Short Answer Type Questions :


5. 2 m
7. –1 D, Concave lens

SECTION-B
1. (4) 2. (3) 3. (3) 4. (2) 5. (1) 6. (3) 7. (4)
8. (4) 9. (4) 10. (2) 11. (3) 12. (3) 13. (4) 14. (2)
15. (2) 16. (1) 17. (2) 18. (3) 19. (2) 20. (1) 21. (3)
22. (1) 23. (1) 24. (4) 25. (3) 26. (1) 27. (1)

Level-II
SECTION-A
2h
2. 1.15 10.
n2 – 1

8
11. sin i c 
9
12. 1.5
13. 45°

5
14. P  D ; d = 50 cm
3
15. 10 cm

SECTION-B
1. (1) 2. (4) 3. (3) 4. (3) 5. (3) 6. (4) 7. (3)
8. (1) 9. (3) 10. (1) 11. (3) 12. (1) 13. (1) 14. (2)
15. (3) 16. (4) 17. (1) 18. (4) 19. (1) 20. (3)

SECTION-C
1. (2) 2. (1) 3. (2) 4. (3) 5. (3)

SECTION-D
1. (4) 2. (3) 3. (1) 4. (3)

Chapter 3 : Electricity

Level-I
SECTION-A

Very Short Answer Type Questions :

11. (a) Opposite (b) Watt (c) Length (d) Series (e) Tungsten
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Physics - Class X (Level-I & Level-II) Answers 219
Short Answer Type Questions :
1. 25 watt 4. 2.5  5. 5 

11
6. 3  7.  8. 72000 kJ
4
9. 4.54 A, 48.46  (for maximum rate), and 2.27 A, 96.92 (for minimum rate)

Long Answer Type Questions :


2. (ii) 18.18 A, 12.1 , 8 kWh
3. ` 985.20

SECTION-B
1. (2) 2. (3) 3. (4) 4. (2) 5. (2) 6. (1) 7. (3)
8. (1) 9. (3) 10. (4) 11. (3) 12. (3) 13. (3) 14. (4)
15. (3) 16. (3) 17. (3) 18. (2)

Level-II

SECTION-A
3. 100 watt lamp, 484 (for 100 watt lamp), 806.67 (for 60 watt lamp)

4 2 1
4. A, A, A
7 7 7
5. (i) 8 watt, (ii) 8 watt
6. 5 A

2
7. A
3

8. –8 V
10. For circuit A : (i) 30 , (ii) 30 
For circuit B : (i) 120 , (ii) 40 

SECTION-B
1. (2) 2. (2) 3. (4) 4. (3) 5. (2) 6. (1) 7. (2)
8. (3) 9. (3) 10. (2) 11. (3) 12. (1) 13. (1) 14. (3)
15. (2) 16. (2) 17. (1) 18. (3) 19. (1) 20. (2)

SECTION-C
1. (1) 2. (2) 3. (3) 4. (1) 5. (3)

SECTION-D
1. (1) 2. (2) 3. (2) 4. (1) 5. (1)

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220 Answers Physics - Class X (Level-I & Level-II)

Chapter 4 : Magnetic Effects of Electric Current

Level-I
SECTION-A
Very Short Answer Type Question :
2. Zero
9. (a) Never (b) Tesla (c) Electrical (d) Uniform (e) Split ring (f) Left (g) Electromagnetic (h) Closed
(i) Maximum (j) South

SECTION-B :
Objective Type Questions :
1. (3) 2. (4) 3. (2) 4. (1) 5. (1) 6. (2) 7. (4)
8. (1) 9. (1) 10. (4) 11. (3) 12. (3) 13. (2) 14. (3)
15. (2) 16. (4) 17. (3) 18. (4) 19. (4) 20. (2) 21. (4)
22. (1) 23. (3) 24. (1) 25. (2) 26. (3) 27. (4) 28. (4)
29. (3) 30. (4) 31. (3)

Level-II
SECTION-A
1. 0.2 T
3. 2 × 10–4 T
4. 1.2 × 10–3 T, towards south

90 i
7. 32 R

0i 0i
8.  inward
2r r

SECTION-B
1. (2) 2. (4) 3. (4) 4. (3) 5. (2) 6. (1) 7. (4)
8. (3) 9. (2) 10. (1) 11. (1) 12. (1) 13. (4) 14. (1)
15. (3)

SECTION-C
1. (1) 2. (1) 3. (2) 4. (1)

SECTION-D
1. (1) 2. (1) 3. (2) 4. (2)

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Physics - Class X (Level-I & Level-II) Answers 221

Chapter 5 : Sources of Energy

Level-I
SECTION-A
Very Short Answer Type Question :
10. (a) Reflector (b) Fusion (c) Methane (d) Renewable (e) Cadmium

SECTION-B
1. (4) 2. (4) 3. (3) 4. (3) 5. (4) 6. (2) 7. (3)
8. (4) 9. (1) 10. (2) 11. (4) 12. (3) 13. (2) 14. (4)
15. (4) 16. (3) 17. (4) 18. (4) 19. (2) 20. (3) 21. (4)
22. (4) 23. (2) 24. (2) 25. (4)

Level-II
SECTION-B
1. (3) 2. (4) 3. (4) 4. (4) 5. (4) 6. (4) 7. (3)
8. (1) 9. (4) 10. (1) 11. (1) 12. (1) 13. (4) 14. (4)
15. (2)

SECTION-C
1. (3) 2. (3) 3. (1) 4. (2) 5. (1)

SECTION-D
1. (2) 2. (1) 3. (3) 4. (1)

Additional Topics for NTSE (Stage-I)


(For some states only - as per their syllabus)

Chapter 1 : Heat
1. (1) 2. (2) 3. (4) 4. (4) 5. (1) 6. (3) 7. (2)
8. (4) 9. (1) 10. (1) 11. (2) 12. (3) 13. (2) 14. (4)
15. (4) 16. (1) 17. (2) 18. (4) 19. (1) 20. (2) 21. (2)
22. (3) 23. (1) 24. (1) 25. (3) 26. (2) 27. (3) 28. (3)
29. (1) 30. (2) 31. (3) 32. (1) 33. (4) 34. (1) 35. (1)
36. (3) 37. (1) 38. (1)

Chapter 2 : Magnetism and Matter


1. (1) 2. (3) 3. (4) 4. (3) 5. (3) 6. (2) 7. (1)
8. (2) 9. (1) 10. (1) 11. (3) 12. (1) 13. (4) 14. (2)
15. (2) 16. (2)

‰ ‰ ‰
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