CAPACITY TO SOLITUDE AS A LEADERSHIP META-COMPETENCE

“One is free only when one is alone”

Schopenhauer

Undoubtedly leadership behavior and effectiveness is strongly related to

leaders’ traits and the dynamic process of their psychological functioning. As

Warren Bennis said (2003 p. xxix & xxxiii) : “Leaders are made, not born and

made more by themselves than by any external means…… No leader set out to be

a leader for you but rather to express him / herself freely and fully…. Becoming

a leader is synonymous with becoming yourself……….. the leader’s work is inner

work.” Manz by developing the concepts of self – leadership and inner

leadership describes some quite important dimensions of the leader’s inner work

(Manz 1986 & 2001). Kets de Vries (2001, p53) suggests that each leader

adopts a particular leadership style and develops certain competencies (but not

others) because of his or her inner theater. Inspite of the significant progress

that has been made in leadership theory, Pratch and Levinson (2002) are right

in arguing research that by neglecting important issues concerning the

personality, fails to address the relationship between overt, easily observed

traits, behaviors and decisions styles of executives and their inner worlds. In

practice, Kets de Vries maintains that “many executives don’t pay much

attention to their inner world.” So if we want to go deeper into our

understanding of the leadership phenomenon, we have to investigate and invent

new unexplored paths. For example, trait theories have to examine the

psychological functioning as a dynamic process in order to provide insights into

the integrity of personality and the cohesion of an individual’s value system

(Pratch and Levinson 2002). We have to explore more the soul, the heart, the

mind and the unconscious and irrational behaviors of the leaders (Kets de Vries,

2001). We have to answer why some people dispose specific competencies as for

example, passion, edge, energy, focus, vision, integrity, courage, values, ideas,

self-awareness, or emotional intelligence, and why others do not. Which process

D:\My Documents\My Web Sites\bourantas\pdfs\solitude_Jan07.doc 1

of the “inner theater” and which “inner disciplines” lead to the development of

these competencies?

In the present paper, we will try to contribute to the understanding of

the inner world of the leader by using the concept of solitude which up to now is

neglected / ignored by the leadership research and literature. Solitude is a vital

social phenomenon, a familiar positive experience for anyone, we discussed in

popular discourse, in poetry, music and literature. Solitude is a positive

experience as opposed to the negative experience of loneliness, its painful

nature and its contribution to psychological disorders such as schizophrenia and

depression (Long and Averil 2003, Burke 1991). As Paul Tillich said “our language

has widely sensed the two sides of being alone. It has created the world

“loneliness” to express the pain of being alone and it has created the world

“solitude” to express the glory of being alone”. The French writer Collette

(1966) wrote: “there are days when solitude is heavy wine that intoxicates you,

others when it is a bitter tonic and still others when it is a poison that makes

you beat your head against the wall” (Colette 1966 p.p 139). Historically, solitude

has been associated with beneficial outcomes. Religious leaders, Moses, Buda and

Jesus as well as famous writers, Thoreau, Kafka and other scientists have

experienced solitude in their adventures creation (Storr 1997). For example,

Pablo Picaso said that “without great solitude no serious work is possible”,

Thomas Edisson said: “The best thinking has been done in solitude”, Goethe said

“one can be instructed in society but can only be inspired in solitude” and

Enstein said: “ I live in that solitude which is painful in youth but delicious in the

years of maturity”. The Wall Street Journal (year 1996) NBC News found that

31% of US residents wanted more time to be alone, whereas only 6% wanted less

(Crossen 1996). Additionally, the Wilderness Act of 1964 (USA public law 85-

577) recognized the importance of solitude as a soul phenomenon (Long and

Averil 2003). References to solitude exist among organizational leaders. C.

Handy (1995) sustains that “a leader must have the capacity of being alone,

because he has to be out front. Few will thank the leader when things go right,

D:\My Documents\My Web Sites\bourantas\pdfs\solitude_Jan07.doc 2

but many will blame the leader if things go wrong. Great leaders have to walk

alone from time to time”. Collins Powel said: “H. Truman was right. Whether you

are CEO or the temporary head of a project team, the buck stops here. You can

encourage participative management and bottom-up employee involvement, but

ultimately the essence of leadership is the willingness to make tough

unambiguous choices that will have an impact on the fate of the organizations.

Even as you create an informal, open, collaborative culture, prepare to be lonely.”

In the literature of psychology, leisure and natural resources, there are enough

studies that support either with concepts or with empirical evidences the

positive effects of solitude.

Here, we will use concepts and arguments from all these studies with the

purpose of shading at the leadership phenomenon. To be specific, we will try to

support that the capacity of solitude constitutes a leadership meta-competence,

that is a competence which enables or facilitates the development of observed

personality traits of the leader, such as willpower, self-confidence, courage,

integrity, self-awareness, envisioning, creativity. Frankly speaking, we have to

point out that in any case we don’t believe that we can give answers to such a

chaotic phenomenon. Our purpose is to set up some questions by searching

propositions concerning the positive effects of solitude on leaders’ “being” and

“doing” by transferring knowledge from other disciplines. This, we hope to

contribute to the opening of the discussion on leader’s solitude which could help

enrich the leadership paradigm and mainly the leaders’ “inner world”.

D:\My Documents\My Web Sites\bourantas\pdfs\solitude_Jan07.doc 3

The Solitude Concept

Before we examine the solitude concept, it is useful, for understanding

its meaning, to define loneliness. Loneliness is the generalized lack of satisfying

personal, social or community relationship. It is an enduring condition of

emotional distress that arises when a person feels estranged, misunderstood or

rejected by others or lacks appropriate social partners for desired activities

that provide social integration and opportunities for emotional intimacy

(Anderson 1998). Solitude is quite opposite to loneliness. In the natural and

leisure literature, the concept of solitude is almost exclusively grounded in

spatial privacy, crowding and encounter norms. From this perspective solitude is

defined as physical isolation, seclusion and withdrawal or the ability of the

individual to control what, how and to whom information about self is

communicated (Hollenhorest and Jones 2001). Within the philosophical and

psychological framework, solitude is viewed as starving for independence and

detachment from social constraints, norms and expectations. Koch (1994)

identifies three features associated with solitude: physical isolation, social

disengagement and reflection. Long and Averil (2003) conceptualize the

solitude as a state of relative social disengagement usually characterized by

decreased social inhibitions and increased freedom to choose one’s mental and

physical activities. Such state is typically experienced when a person is alone.

However aloneness is not a necessary condition of solitude. Individuals can also

experience the solitude in the presence of others, without any social interaction

(as when dining alone in a restaurant or dancing in crowds.) Hollenhorst and

Jones (2001), give a teleological definition which completes the previous. For

them, solitude is “psychological detachment from society for the purpose of

cultivating the inner world of the self. It is an act of emotionally isolating

oneself for self-discovery, self-realization, meaning, wholeness and heightened

awareness of one’s deepest feelings and impulses. It implies a morality that

values itself at least occasionally, as above the common good.”

D:\My Documents\My Web Sites\bourantas\pdfs\solitude_Jan07.doc 4

 According to the previous meanings and definitions, the main features of

solitude are:

a) Solitude is a psychological state and mental experience.

b) Solitude is a temporary withdrawal or social disengagement.

c) Solitude is an individual choice (voluntary and desirable) and not a social

imposed or enforced state.

d) Loneliness is enabler and not a necessary condition for solitude.

D:\My Documents\My Web Sites\bourantas\pdfs\solitude_Jan07.doc 5

The positive effects of solitude

Despite the fact that research on solitude is limited, there are enough

studies searching its positive effects on the soul, the heart and the mind of the

individual. In the area of naturalistic studies, solitude is viewed as a state of

contemplative reflection and is related to mental and emotional health. Hammit

(1982) has identified a number of cognitive benefits in wilderness privacy such

as cognitive freedom, self-evaluation, personal autonomy, self-identity,

emotional release and reflective thoughts. Hollenhorest and Jones (2001) have

argued that solitude as a psychological detachment from society, serves two

primary functions: 1) affirmation of individual will and self determination, and 2)

cultivating the inner world of the self. In this way, wilderness solitude

contributes to the search of meaning, happiness, self-awareness and emotional

maturity. In the humanistic field, Emerson (1883, p40) suggested that solitude

was not for the rare individual, but the democratic right of each individual to

seek their own potential. He believed that solitude is related to the inner world

of self-reliance and ingenuity. According to the “Existential Approach”, solitude

represents an experience of discovering the personal truth and the reason of

being. Kierkegaard (1994, p20), observes that human being consists of three

basic dimensions: aesthetics, ethics and religious. Among these three

dimensions, aesthetics is connected with the search of pleasure and material

goods hiding at the same time passive alienation and a feeling of loneliness. As

most existentialists, he considers this form of existential solitude as an

inevitable condition (treaty) of life which is tightly connected with the

experiences and the questions that we put regarding life and death. Solitude

constitutes a situation at which - through a process of searching for the "truth"

of existence - we discover what we really are. For Heidegger (1968), the

meaning of solitude has a positive dimension and constitutes one existential

(ontological) necessity. He develops the idea that people’s life is authentic and

integrated only when one makes his choices and acts by having conscience of its

D:\My Documents\My Web Sites\bourantas\pdfs\solitude_Jan07.doc 6

freedom, responsibility and “solitude”. On the contrary, when the individual

allows others to determine the values and limits within which he will move, then

meaning and authenticity are being lost in his life. Moustakas (1961, p102),

presents a phenomenological perspective of solitude: solitude constitutes the

ideological "shelter" and the situation at which the individual is found during the

process of recognition and acceptance of existence discriminating from others

in order to live authentically and be effective in his relations with them. The

individual “enters” in a situation of solitude when he feels the need to make

the right choices or review some aspects of his life. According to this point

of view, solitude does not constitute simply a normal side of life but a necessity

for authentic communication and overall development of existence. Through

solitude the individual achieves the deepening integration and ego, by

discovering and determining the values and the meaning of his existence with

regard to others. One dimension of solitude that is pointed out by this

researcher and presents particular interest is the “aloneness” that is

experienced as a "peaceful" situation and as an opportunity for the individual to

wonder about harmony in life, about relations with others and as an inner

process helping the individual facing all questions that concern human existence.

Merton’s (1968) opinions also point towards this direction. In a very rational

way, he stresses mainly the transcendence reached during solitude: the person

who is afraid to stay alone, is confronted by loneliness, even if he is surrounded

by other persons. On the other hand the person who is in a state of solitude and

deep thinking and learns to live peacefully through his experience comes closer

to God.

Storr (1997), realizes that in our modern society we overestimate social

relationships as a source of happiness and we underestimate the importance of

the inner mind of the individual over from the influence of external attachment.

He argues that the capacity of imagination and creative achievement hold

central place in the inner world of mind. He believes that the capacity to be

D:\My Documents\My Web Sites\bourantas\pdfs\solitude_Jan07.doc 7

alone is one aspect of an inner security and solitude is a mean of becoming aware

of one’s deepest needs, feelings and impulses, of self-discovery and self-

realization. For this reason he proposes that capacity to be alone is considered

as a criterion of emotional maturity equally important to the capacity of the

individual to make social relationships. Recently, psychologists believe that

solitude provides an opportunity to engage in self – selected activities relatively

free of social encumbrances and expectations (Burger 1998, Larson 1990). They

argue that we need time alone as a relief for reflection and insight and a change

for personal, spiritual and mental health, self-restoration, personal growth and

creative development. (Burke 1991, Suedfeld et al 1982, Maslow 1970, Leary et

al 2003, Burger 1995, Koch 1994). Koch identifies five benefits of solitude:

Freedom from social norms and constraints that control interpersonal life, b)

attachment with self, c) attunement with nature, d) reflection including

introspection, recollection, contemplative analysis, and e) creativity.

Long and Averil (2003), sum up the benefits of solitude in four fields:

First, freedom of choice with respect to actions and thoughts. They distinguish

between “negative” and “positive” freedom. Negative freedom is freedom from

constraints, while positive is the freedom to engage in desired activities.

Second, solitude contributes to creativity. They argue that solitude facilitates

the imaginative involvement in multiple realities, self-transformation by self-

examination and creative reconceptualization of self and the reconstitution of

cognitive structures by the emergence of new conceptual associations and

combinations. Third, and as if paradoxical, they argue that solitude implies

intimacy by involving feelings of connection with another person. Fourth, solitude

enhances spirituality, one’s ability to contemplate one’s place in the universe and

one’s thoughts or desires. Spirituality is also closely related to the feeling of

intimacy or connectedness to others and to the world. Long and associates

(2003 b), by investigating undergraduate volunteer students, found that solitude

is related to important cognitive and emotional issues such as problem solving,

inner peace, self – discovery, creativity, intimacy and spirituality.

D:\My Documents\My Web Sites\bourantas\pdfs\solitude_Jan07.doc 8

 From the above mentioned literature we could drawn the following

conclusions concerning the positive effects of solitude. First, the positive

effects of solitude could be identified at the level of mental and psychological

state: freedom, inner peace, inner security, intimacy and spirituality. Second,

the above states facilitate the cognitive and emotional functioning process such

as, self – discovery, self-evaluation, self-determination, reflection, imagination,

creative thinking, making choices, learning and connecting with others. In

general from the literature on natural sciences philosophy and psychology as well

as practical of important people who have contributed to the evolution of

mankind, poets, authors composers, scientists etc, we can conclude that solitude

can help in cultivating several types of intelligence as described by Gardner and

mainly logic-mathematical, interpersonal and existential intelligence. (Gardner

1999, 2003).

1
. H. Gardner, Intelligence reframed: Multiple Intelligence for the twenty – first century. Basic Book 1999.
H. Gardner, changing Minds, HBSP 2003.

D:\My Documents\My Web Sites\bourantas\pdfs\solitude_Jan07.doc 9

The dynamics of leadership and the positive effect of solitude

The scientific knowledge accumulated from studies in social sciences on

the leadership phenomenon is enough to form a big picture of the emerging

leadership paradigm in the sense of transformational (Burns 1978, Bass 1985,

Tichy & Devanna 1986), charismatic (House & Howell 1992, Conger & Kanungo

1987), visionary (Bennis & Nanus 1985) and value based leadership (House et al

1997). Despite the theoretical and methodological weaknesses that characterize

each one of these leadership approaches, all together allow us to identify the

fundamental parameters or the main parts which compose the leadership

effectiveness puzzle (Figure 1). Undoubtedly, a leader’s results concerning the

present and future of his followers, the organization, its stakeholders, the

society and himself is the “raison d’ etre” of the leadership (Urlich et al 1998).

These results (that leaders have to achieve) are related to the leader’s “doing”,

that is the leadership behavior as “content” (what leaders do, leadership roles,

generic leadership functions) and as “character” (how leaders act, styles,

specific behaviors, manners, House & Aditya 1997). The leader’s “doing” is a

function of the leaders “being”, that is the leaders personality (traits, needs,

values, skills, etc) House et al consider as axioms: that we “do” things because

of who we “are”, because by doing them we establish and affirm an identity for

ourselves, at times even when our behavior does not serve our materialistic or

pragmatic self-interests (House et al 1997). Surely, the leadership as a social

phenomenon does not take place in a vacuum. Thus the tree fundamental previous

parameters (“results”, “doing”, “being”) and the relationships between them are

related to contextual or situational factors which are studied in the contingency

leadership theories (Fiedler 1971, Blanchard & Hersey 1982, Vroom &

Vetton 1973). The research and empirical evidence for all these parameters and

their relationships are necessary and precious for understanding the leadership

phenomenon. But, further to all these, leadership dynamics are fed by the

“inner theater” (or of “becoming”) of the leader. The psychological states and

D:\My Documents\My Web Sites\bourantas\pdfs\solitude_Jan07.doc 10

the inner cognitive and emotional process, although considered in most

leadership studies as a black box, constitute a very important relations mediator

between leader “being”, leader “doing” and leader “context – situation”. A

leader’s “be” defines his psychological state and his inner process which in turn

define the leader’s “being” and his development evolution. For example, the

cognitive resource theory (Fiedler and Garcia 1987) supports that stress, as a

psychological state of a leader, mediates the correlations of performance with

intelligence and experience. The inner processes influence leadership behavior

as content and as character and are being together defined by them. Also the

psychological state and the inner process define “the context and the situation”

of the leader (how he perceives, understands, etc.). Assuming that thoughts can

form an abstract drawing of leadership, then based on this framework we can

approach the relation of solitude with leadership and its positive effects. (See

Figure 1).

D:\My Documents\My Web Sites\bourantas\pdfs\solitude_Jan07.doc 11

 Figure 1:The Leadership Dynamics

ENVIRONMENT, THE LEADER “BE”

CONTEXT, SITUATION ƒ Traits, needs, values,
knowledge, skills

THE LEADER INNER

THEATER

Psychological Cognitive and

states emotional
processes

THE LEADER “DO”

ƒ Roles, functions
ƒ Behaviors, style, manners

THE LEADER EFFECTIVENESS

- RESULTS

D:\My Documents\My Web Sites\bourantas\pdfs\solitude_Jan07.doc 12

According to what has been discussed, solitude constitutes a psychological state

which can positively affect a leader’ s inner cognitive and emotional processes

and through these affect a leader is “being” and “doing” as well as in a leader’s

subjective context or situation. So the capacity to be alone constructively could

be a leadership meta - competence which supports the development or full

utilisation of a leader’s observed competencies and traits. By combining

literature on leadership and solitude, we will try to identify the positive effects

of solitude on leadership in the following three fields:

ƒ Leaders’ self-leadership

ƒ Leaders’ creative thinking and tough decisions taking

ƒ Leaders’ empathy and connecting with others

D:\My Documents\My Web Sites\bourantas\pdfs\solitude_Jan07.doc 13

Solitude and Self-leadership

According to Value Based Leadership Theory, that integrates five

prominent theories of leadership (transformational, charismatic, visionary, LMP

and path – goal theories) leaders infuse collectives, organizations and work with

ideological values by articulating an ideological vision, a vision of a better future

to which followers are claimed to have moral right. They are characterized by a

passionate commitment to their vision and values, self-confidence, strong

conviction in the moral correctness of their beliefs, a sense of responsibility

disposition, integrity, a concern for others and for consequences of theirs own

actions and critical self judgment. In addition and as enablers of the above

appear to be leadership traits or competencies such as self-awareness, internal

locus of control, emotional stability and maturity, emotional and social

intelligence (House & Aditya et al 1997, House et al 1999, Yukl 2004, p175.)

Lately special emphasis is given to a leader’s ability tο execute and achieve

results, which requires willpower, energy, focus, persistence, courage and edge

(Bruch & Ghosal 2004, Ulrich 1998, Tichy 1998). All these competencies are

linked directly or indirectly to the «self – leadership” processes included the

learning process. It is true that «he that would govern others first should be

master of himself (Phillip Massinger in Covey 2004, p65). Also it is true that

“leader’s work is inner work”, a work that the leader” does within him or herself

by the dynamics of cognitive processes (De Vries 2001, Manz 1986).. As we

have mentioned, each leader adopts a particular style and develops certain

competencies because of his or her inner theater. If we wish to analyze solitude

as a leadership meta-competence we have to identify its positives effect at

least on some of all these cognitive processes.

Authentic leadership begins with knowing yourself deeply (Drucker 1999).

Leaders must struggle with their identities: what type of leader am I, what do I

want my legacy to be, what values do I want to ensure or embody in my business

(Tichy 1997). Kets de Vries (2001) suggests that healthy people have the

D:\My Documents\My Web Sites\bourantas\pdfs\solitude_Jan07.doc 14

capacity for self observation and self analysis and they are highly motivated to

spend time on self – reflection. Self – awareness, as a deep understanding of

one’s emotions, strengths, weakness, limitations and one’s values and motives is

considered as fundamental dimension of emotional intelligence. Solitude, by

creating the states of dissociation, freedom, inner peace, inner security and

spirituality facilitates the process of introspection of search and understanding

of the deeper genuine self. In solitude, leader can listen his inner voice, to

connect with himself at a deeper level, to find his own heart, to understand his

soul, his deepest or hidden desires, emotions, feelings and impulses. It is easier

for him to search for the meaning of life, his place in the universe and the

legacy he wishes to live behind. Coleman and his associates (2002 p40) maintain

that “perhaps the most strong (though least visible) sign of self-awareness is a

propensity for self-reflection and thoughtfulness. Self-aware people typically

find time to reflect quietly often by themselves. Many outstanding leaders in

fact bring to their work life the thoughtful mode of self-reflection that they

cultivate in their spiritual life. For some this means prayer or meditation for

others it’s a more philosophical quest for self-understanding”. Storr suggested,

that by extracting us from our customary social and physical contexts or at

least altering our experience of them, solitude can remove those people and

objects that define and confirm our identities and facilitate self-examination,

reconceptualization of the self and coming to terms with change. Through these

quest and self-discovery, the leader defines and realizes his own identity,

acquires a sense of his destiny, a sense of purpose and meaning that he wants

most to pursue in and through his life. Thus, he understands and keeps alive the

answers to fundamentals questions such as who am I, where do I come form,

where do I want to go. Through this introspection, self-analysis and self-

reflection the leader creates the necessary background to make fundamental

choices and commitments concerning his values, his vision and his goals which

form a source of will power the force behind energy and focus (Bruch and

Ghoshal 2004). William George, former chairman and CEO of Medtronic,

D:\My Documents\My Web Sites\bourantas\pdfs\solitude_Jan07.doc 15

supports this argumentation: “Self-awareness and other emotional intelligence

skills come natural to some less so to others – but these skills can be learned.

One of the techniques I found most useful in gaining deeper self awareness is

meditation….I have meditated 20 minutes, twice a day ever since. Meditation

makes me calmer, more focused and better able to discern what’s really

important. Leaders by the very nature of their positions are under extreme

pressure to keep up with the many voices clamoring for their attention. Indeed

many leaders lose their way. It is only through a deep self-awareness that you

can find your inner voice and listen to it. (Voices: HBR Summer 2004)

First, solitude facilitates a leader to “find his voice” which is absolutely critical

to becoming an authentic leader (Kouzes and Posner, 2003, p147). Leader, in

solitude, by listening to his inner voice, establishes or revitalizes his values,

something that Τichy (1998) considers as οne of the most crucial and toughest

jobs of the leader. Establishing values is not a matter of instant discovery and

process. It needs a continuous reflection and interpretation of the leader’s

external and internal world. The leader has often to confront dilemmas, doubts,

conflicts and competing values and goals. According to cognitive dissonance

theory, individuals experience anxiety-inducing cognitive dissonance when their

self-evaluative cognitions and behavior are in conflict with each other (Festinger

1998). Leaders must go through an act of inner consensus building in which they

resolve their own conflicts. Bruch and Ghoshal (2004) state that many

managers report a disconnection between their feelings and their rationally

developed goals. In this case, strong psychological conflicts and a sense of

discomfort result, blocking purposeful action. Therefore leaders have to align

their emotions and thoughts about their values and goals. The authors suggested

specific strategies for this alignment which require an «inner work» of the

leader which is facilitated during a state of solitude. Specifically they suggest:

freeing yourself of external expectations – such as taking some time off work to

think and reflect which can help you pinpoint out your hidden emotions and

D:\My Documents\My Web Sites\bourantas\pdfs\solitude_Jan07.doc 16

honestly answer for your self what course you wish take. Secondly, the leader

based on the above in a state of solitude, finds it easier to conceive and

formulate vision for a better future which will express his aspirations, his hopes

and his dreams and will incorporate his values. More precisely, solitude is

necessary for the process of visualization through which the leader could

simplify, his vision into a vivid mental picture.Τhis process of mental imaging is

very useful, if not necessary, because the clearer and more vivid his picture, the

stronger his passion and personal commitment (attachment) to his vision. Besides

that, the leader needs α vivid mental picture since this facilitates

communication, understanding and acceptance of his vision by his followers.

Experienced top athletes, consider the mental imagery very contributing to

their success and they practice it usually (Feltz and Landers 1983). O Koesten

baum (2002, p79), maintains that visioning means to be at home on the infinity

of inner space and time. Solitude may help to achieve access to and control over

inner space and time. “Visioning is the ability to shift from the natural to the

reflective attitude from being who you are to reflecting who you are, from

acting out who you are to observing and evaluating who you are, from seing the

world from within your subjective ego to seing yourself objectively within the

world, from acting to examine your action.” (p 80)…. “Visioning is enhanced by an

attitude of non attachment, of being detached from emotional identification

with the issues of hand. Non attachment is a fundamental skill required for the

creation of visionary leadership intelligence” (Koestenbaum, 2002, p180).

Thirdly, solitude reinforces a leader’s focus and commitment to goals and

long term objectives by simplifying them into a vivid mental picture and by

intentional channeling all activities toward achieving the desired goal. Bruch and

Ghosal (2004) suggest that focus requires “time to reflect regularly on your

own behavior and being willing and able to choose what you do and not do each

day”. Apart from that solitude helps leaders manage their peinful emotions and

inner tensions which may decrease their energy, their focus and commitment to

vision and goals. Heifetz & Linsky (2002 p 204) suggest that the leader has the

D:\My Documents\My Web Sites\bourantas\pdfs\solitude_Jan07.doc 17

need of a sanctuary, a place of reflection and renewal, where he can listen to

himself and reaffirm his deeper sense of self and purpose. “In turbulent seas of

a change initiative, you need to find ways be steady and stabilize yourself. First,

you must establish a safe harbor where each day you can reflect on the previous

day’s journey, repair the psychological damage you have suffered renew your

stores of emotional resources and recorientate your moral compass. Harbor

might be a physical place, such as the kitchen table of a house, or a regular

routine such a daily walk through the neighborhood” (Heifetz and Linsky, 2002).

Bruch and Ghosal (2004), found that effective leaders know exactly how to

process their painful emotions and inner tensions. “Most of them could name

certain activities that help them cope with their strong emotions. One manager

told us about his garden which had a strong stabilizing effect on him. During

difficult periods, he spent long hours there, often talking to himself, about what

bothered him. He knew that gardening would restore his inner balance so that

could plan his next steps”. The same authors stress that a leader by reflecting

and visualizing his former success and the ways in which he overcome certain

obstacles, can reinforce his self-confidence, his sense of competence and

strengthen his courage. Storr (1997, p19) states that the capacity to be alone is

one aspect of an inner security. Koestenbaum (2002) states to be courageous is

to be prepared for the isolation of leadership (p139)”. Courage requires inner

security. “You must have power that comes from being comfortable with

isolation so that you will be centered enough to wait patiently for results”(p

150).

Fourthly, ο leader in a state of solitude through introspection, self-

discovery and self-management, finds it easier to realize and clarify his concern

about meeting moral standards and obligations to others and his concern about

consequences of his own action. This contributes to what Winter and

Barembaum call responsibility disposion which according to House and others

(1997) should be predictive of a leader’s integrity.

D:\My Documents\My Web Sites\bourantas\pdfs\solitude_Jan07.doc 18

 Fifth, by facilitating the reflection as conscious act, solitude can

contribute to the learning process and to a leader’s self development. Initially,

through self – awareness process and the formation of the “ideal self”, he

realizes the gap which according to Senge (1990) is a source of creative tension

for personal development. Also solitude facilitates the cognitive processes which

are created by conscious thinking of his experiences, and rolling them over in his

mind in order to draw lessons from them. Storr feels that “thinking is

predominantly a solitary activity although others may be present when an

individual is concentrating upon his thoughts (Storr 1997, p28). Besides that,

solitude contributes to the articulation of a leader’s stories through which he

understands better himself, he learns and he teaches his followers. (Tichy,

1997).

In according to the above mentioned ideas, solitude contributes positively

to the cognitive processes through which the leader acquires his self-identity,

self-awareness and forms his values, his vision and his priorities then we can

assume that indirectly i.e through these processes, observed leader’s, trait such

as willpower, passion, self-confidence, strοng conviction for his beliefs, courage,

persistency, determination, focus, consistency, integrity, emotional stability and

emotional intelligence are influenced.

Solitude, creating thinking and making choices

Leaders have to generate ideas, to make choices and decisions in order to

realize vision and achieve outstanding results. They have to think big, to think

new, to think ahead. They have to generate ideas by constantly seeking new

information, reflecting and searching insights not only about markets and

technologies and human behavior but also about the larger world around them

(Tichy 1998). Challenging of the status quo, change, innovation the

entrepreneurship require creativity, thinking the unthinkable, intuition, systems

thinking, analysis, synthesis, inductive and deductive reasoning, judgment,

D:\My Documents\My Web Sites\bourantas\pdfs\solitude_Jan07.doc 19

cognitive complexity, independent thinking and tough decisions. Leaders’

mindfulness is a necessary competence as well as to appreciated new

possibilities, to develop new ways of thinking and new assumptions, to see subtle

forces, to anticipate changes and to create new labels and categories for

interpreting the world. These cognitive functions require contemplative

refection, concentration of the thought, attention, seriousness, inner peace,

inner security, tranquility and time. Usually, these are not understood by the

pressing “work environment”. Many managers are distracted by the thousand

tasks that they juggle each day. According to Bruch and Ghoshal (2004), forty

percent of managers are characterized by business and non action. Beside the

organizational and social context, in combination to the established schemata,

scripts, mindsets and knowledge structures favor “in the box thinking”, and

stereotyped ready solutions. On the contrary solitude could care and contribute

positively to the crucial cognitive functions of the leader. Daft and Lengel

argue that “becoming mindful means eliminating noisy mind chatter and

fragmentation so that you can hear your subtle inner voice. The daily practice of

contemplation or meditation may help unlock your subtle forces of creativity and

independent thinking, generate assumptions, challenging questions and connect

you with fresh insights and deeper truths….Leader mindfulness means being

willing to stand apart….to determine your course by your inner rudder rather

than by an external radar” (p.79 & 88). In the same spirit Bruch & Choshal

support that leader has to take time, to step back and to reflect (p. 23 & 29).

If we look for more specific positive contributions of solitude in the

cognitive functions of leader we could, on the basis of the existing bibliography,

sustain the following. First of all, the state of freedom that a leader

experiences being in solitude, facilitates his creative thinking. Freedom is often

considered a prerequisite for creative activity (Amabile 1983). To the extent,

then, that solitude affords freedom it should also facilitate creativity.

Csiksxentihalgi (1996) has found that adolescents who cannot tolerate being

alone often fail to develop their creative talents because such development

D:\My Documents\My Web Sites\bourantas\pdfs\solitude_Jan07.doc 20

usually relies on solitary activity such as practicing one’s musical instrument or

writing poetry in one’s journal. Creativity consists of generating new useful ideas

with impact by forming new associations – combinations between previously

unrelated ideas. Long and Averill (2003), after adopting Schutz’s analysis of

multiple realities perspective, argued that cognitive characteristics associated

with solitude (e.g. freedom) offer opportunities for transition from the social

“world of work” to the potentially creative world of “phantasy” and/or scientific

theorizing. Imaginative involvement in multiple realities potentially implies the

reconstitution of cognitive structures imposed by the often highly structured

environments and functions of the leaders (Long and Averil 2003).

Solitude could increase the level of external stimulation and at this state,

according to Suedfeld et al (1987), the person may begin (sensing) internal

stimuli such as physical sensation, is shifting emotions, daydreams and distorted

thoughts. Storr maintains that “learning, thinking, innovation and being in

contact with one’s own world of imagination are all facilitated by solitude.

Specifically he believes that prayer and meditation, as practices of solitude

state, facilitate integration by allowing time for previously unrelated thoughts

and feelings to interact. “Being able to get in touch with one’s deepest thoughts

and feelings, and providing time for them to regroup themselves into new

formations and combinations, are important aspects of the creative processes”

(Storr p28). O Maslow (1970) directly links creativity to solitude by stating that

the ability to become “lost in the present” seems to be a sine qua non for

creativity-in whatever field as it has something to do with this ability to become

timeless, selfless, outside of space, of society, of history” (p. 64).

Moreover, solitude reinforces the leader’s creative thinking with indirect

ways. As already reported, solitude can facilitate the self-transformation,

envisioning and willpower of a leader. Self – transformation the leader can watch

things through different glasses and this discover new dimensions ideas and

solutions (Long et Averill 2003). A leader’s vision according to Senge, can

strengthen his creative tension to discover new and probably revolutionary ways

D:\My Documents\My Web Sites\bourantas\pdfs\solitude_Jan07.doc 21

to eliminate the gap between the current and the desired reality. A number of

researchers sustain that the discovery of innovative and creative ideas comes

from the internal motivation for achievement. (Amabile, 1983)

A second positive effect of solitude is the contribution of inner peace

and inner security to the better utilization of the cognitive skills of a leader.

Inner peace as a psychological state of solitude allows the leader free of noises

and with a most clear-cool thought analyze and understand various pieces of

information and the relations between these, to wonder and to challenge the

correctness of his assumptions and his beliefs, to see his self as an actor and

observer simultaneously and thus to judge more objectively, calmly and

correctly. One of the most important findings resulting from the research

conducted by Fielder and his associates is that under low stress, intelligence is

positively correlated and experience negatively correlated with performance.

(Fielder 1995).

Manz and Neck (1996 & 1991) propose the concept of “self-leadership

of thought” and propose a self – leadership procedure for establishing

constructive thought paterns. Solitude can care “the analysis and management

of: 1) belief and assumptions, 2) internal dialogues (self-talk) and 3) mental

images which the authors consider as “primary vehicles” for establishing and

maintaining constructive desirable thought patterns.”

Third, in solitude, a leader can keep distance from the reality that he

experiences and take the position of the observer, he can see things from far

and high and so have a balcony or helicopter view or a big picture of something

which can help him in his thinking and judgment. Heifetz & Linsky (2002) call

this skill “getting off the dance floor and going to the balcony.” Great athletes

must simultaneously play the game and observe it as a whole. They argue that

leaders have to be both an observer and participant at the same time, having to

move back and forth from the balcony to the dance floor, over and over again

through out, days, weeks, months and years. As an example the authors propose

a simple technique for enhancing this ability of the leader. They suggest that

D:\My Documents\My Web Sites\bourantas\pdfs\solitude_Jan07.doc 22

“during a meeting a leader by pushing his chair a few inches away from the table

after he speaks could have the literal as well as metaphorical distance he needs

to become an observer.”

Finally, we could assume that the freedom, social detachment and inner

security experienced by a leader us a state of solitude, may help his take

taught decisions. Leaders often have to take tough unambiguous decisions

whether that refer to people , to strategic choices or to circumstances of high

risk and uncertainty. Freedom, social detachment and inner peace experienced

by a leader in state of solitude, help him control his sense of anxiety and make it

easier to him take taught decisions which are probably unpleasant to people by

touching “sacred cows”, undebatable taboos or the zone of comfort witnessed by

people within their status quo. Such decision are also facilitated by the fact

that in a state of soliutude one can support such decisions by his “inner voice”,

his deeper beliefs and on more strong feeling of self – confidence and “locus of

control”. Besides, solitude makes it easier for the leader to judge information

efficiently, to think intuitively and to use his gut feelings which contribute

considerably to making strategic choices for the future (Coleman et al 2002,

p.14-20).

Solitude and connecting with others

Empathy is a main dimension of emotional intelligence and a basic

leadership competence. Empathy includes the understanding and considering of

other’s “position”, situation, feeling and perspectives. Solitude contribute to the

leader’s ability to empathize by facilitating his feeling of intimacy. Long at

Averill (2003) suggested that “though solitude usually means being alone, many

people experience feelings of intimacy while in solitude. Nisenbaum (1984),

based on interviews, novels and popular songs and analysis of dictionary

definitions, supported that solitude often involves feelings of connection with

D:\My Documents\My Web Sites\bourantas\pdfs\solitude_Jan07.doc 23

another people. Model (1993) suggested that the person in solitude can be

supported by the projected presence of a real or imagined person. From the

philosophical perspective, Koch (1994) argued that one’s consciousness of

solitude does not necessarily imply a self or inward focus. He believes that the

social disengagement of solitude does not exclude other types of engagement

and he proposed the concepts of an indirect or substitutive “engaged

disengagement” and “indirect or substitutive engagement” by describing certain

outer – directed solitude experiences. The research work of Long and his

associates (2003) already mentioned confirms with emprical evidences that in

solitude, people might experience feelings of intimacy or closeness to someone

they care about. For example that if for a while we are isolated from our own

people, our desire to meet them becomes strong. A leader with his close

collaborators as well as with the rest of his people in the organization (distance

leadership) must feel them close, understand their feelings, their perspectives,

their expertations, their anxieties, fears and loves them as many authors state,

(Daft & Lengel 2000, Kouzes and Posner 2003). Ιn the context of the work,

the daily pressures for achieving results, the physical and hierarchical distance

may not favor feelings of intimacy and closeness as much as the state of

solitude. We could therefore support that through the intimacy felt by the

leader in solitude, the emotional and the cognitive process of empathy, caring

and loving for others is facilitated.

D:\My Documents\My Web Sites\bourantas\pdfs\solitude_Jan07.doc 24

Solitude as a leadership meta-competence

Solitude constitutes a leadership meta-competence only if the leader can

tolerate, it, desire it, enjoy it, experience it constructively and get value from

its positive effects on emotional and cognitive processes. Long et al based on

the existing literature and on empirical data conclude that in order to benefit

from solitude the individual must be able to draw on inner resources to find

meaning in situations in which external support are lacking. The individual

capacity for solitude contains the ability to choose it voluntarily and to live it

occasionally for specific reasons because otherwise there is a danger to

transformed to introversion and loneliness with negative consequences. Empirical

research by using mainly the preference for solitude scale, constructed by

Burger (1995), shows that not all individuals possess the same degree of

preference to spend time alone. Larson et el considered solitude as and

“ecological niche” that offers both opportunities and dangers and therefore the

question of a person’s ability to profit from the first and avoid the second is

posed. Also, given the fact that the positive effects of solitude are linked with

or facilitated by spatial and environmental elements (home, forest), the

competence of solitude includes a person’s ability to choose what he feels

comfortable with, enjoy and facilitate the positive effects. A leader ability to

experience the solitude constructively, does not exclude on the basis of what

has already been described a same empirical works (Long et al 2003), other

personality traits of leaders such as sociability, extroversion, agreeableness or

sensitivity to others. On the contrary, when it forms a conscious, willing choice

of limited time, it can not only coexist harmoniously with the previous traits but

also re inforce them. For example when we are away from our loved ones, our

desire to meet them becomes stronger. This coexistence of solitude with the

other traits is supported by the concept of leadership complexity paradox

proposed by Quinn and his associates (1996).

D:\My Documents\My Web Sites\bourantas\pdfs\solitude_Jan07.doc 25

As far as the development of the “solitude competence” is concerned,

psychologists link it mainly with infancy. Store suggested that the capacity to

experience solitude positively is a learned trait that begins in infancy. An

important rolle in that is played by the mother who creates an environment of

security in which the infant experiences of “being alone in the presence of the

mother” (Storr 1997). In adult life, the capacity to be alone could be cultivated

by training methods and techniques such as meditation, dissociation, retreat and

personal exercise.

D:\My Documents\My Web Sites\bourantas\pdfs\solitude_Jan07.doc 26

Implications for research and practice

From the above mentioned we feel encouraged to make some proposition

which could add even a little to the scope of research in the field of leadership

(figure 2). First it would be of interest to explore the degree to which leader

experience solitude and relevant questions such as the degree to which this is

done consciously, for which reasons, under which cirmmistancies, in which

location and with which methods or techniques. Second main topic for research

solitude could be the relationship between solitude and leadership styles,

leadership roles and leadership effectiveness. For example in the present paper

we have tried to support the idea that solitude, by strengthening a leader’s

sense of freedom, sense of inner peace and inner security, intimacy and

spirituality, facilitates the cognitive processes of self-leadership, identification

and clarification, (self-awareness, envisioning) values and priorities self –

examination, learning of generating ideas and taking creative and tough

decisions, of empathy and connecting with others. Through the above cognitive

processes observed leader’s traits and competencies such as will power and

passion, consistency, integrity, responsibility disposition, self – confidence and

convictions for his beliefs, courage, edge, determination, focus, energy,

empathy, concern and love for others could be reinforced. (Figure 2)

It would be of special interest to explore the hypothesis when the

solitude is positively correlated with transformational, charismatic or value

based leadership and negatively with transactional leadership. According to the

ideas supported we can assume that transformational leaders experience the

positive effects of solitude to a larger extent than transactional leaders. Also

research could be conducted more deeply into the relationship of solitude with

emotional maturity, emotional intelligence and social intelligence. Third the

relations between certain “solitude facilitators” (e.g. methods, spaces) and basic

emotional and cognitive processes (e.g. sense of freedom, sense of security,

creativity, self-discovery, decision taking), could be examinde. Fourth, if

D:\My Documents\My Web Sites\bourantas\pdfs\solitude_Jan07.doc 27

solitude is a leadership meta-competence, as maintained it could be useful to

examine its link with other main personality traits.

As far as leadership practice, is concerned if the propositions mentioned

above are supported then some very useful implications will appear. For example,

organizations could use the capacity or propensity to solitude as an evaluation

criterion of leadership potential for selection or promotion as well as introduce

practice for developing this meta-competence. Also, they can create

circumstances in their work environment and outside it which will facilitate and

reinforce solitude of the leader, of course to the extent that this is required.

D:\My Documents\My Web Sites\bourantas\pdfs\solitude_Jan07.doc 28

 Figure 2: A Research framework of the positives effects of solitude on leadership

OBSERVED
COGNITIVE PROCESSES
TRAITS -
COMPETENCES
PSYCHOLOGICAL Self-leadership

STATES • Self-discovery, listening

• Vision, values
the inner voice
• Ideas
• Sense of freedom • Self-examination
• Self-identity, self
• Inner peace • Envisioning-visualizing
SOLITUDE META – awareness
• Ιnner security • Definitions of values and Leadership
- COMPETENCE • Will power-
• Intimacy priorities Behavior and
passion Effectiveness
• Spirituality • Learning, self-
• Consistency-
transformation,
integrity
• Stories formulation
• self-confidence
Creative thinking and making
• Strong
choices
convictions,
• Involvement in multiples
edge, courage
realities
• Determination
• Imagination
• Focus, energy
• Reconstruction of
• Concern, love for
cognitive structures
others
• Conceptualization
• Responsibility

D:\My Documents\My Web Sites\bourantas\pdfs\solitude_Jan07.doc 29