Professional Documents
Culture Documents
EPITHELIUM
(Chapter 5)
D. sensation - very specialized epithelia are found in the taste buds, olfactory
epithelium and inner ear
A. AVASCULAR - one does not typically find blood vessels in epithelial tissues
- they derive their nutrients from vessels located in underlying connective tissues
Basal lamina should not be confused with BASEMENT MEMBRANE which is visible
with the light microscope
THE IMPORTANCE OF BASAL LAMINA: All cells that rest upon a basal lamina have
receptors for laminin. In part, basal lamina helps determine the polarity of cells that rest
upon it. Moreover, basal lamina acts in some ways as a boundary between tissues. It
restricts epithelial cells from entering the underlying connective tissue. In the case of
malignant tumor cells, i.e. cancer, the cells produce proteolytic enzymes to digest their
way through the basal lamina. Among these enzymes are type IV collagenase and
urokinase-type plasminogen activator. Benign tumors, such as those of breast, colon
and stomach exhibit very little type IV collagenase activity while malignant tumors of
these organs overexpress these enzymes. In experimental animals, inhibitors of type IV
collagenase have been shown to significantly decrease metastases.
basement membranes such as those found in the renal glomeruli are made up of two
basal laminae
In some epithelial tissue, such as that of the intestines, there is a very specialized,
characteristic junctional complex joining the apical ends of the cells. This junctional
complex can often be seen at the light microscopic level and was termed the
TERMINAL BAR by the early histologists.
With the electron microscope, the terminal bar can be seen to be made up three
structures, the following two specialized junctions plus macula adherens..
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4. ZONULA ADHERENS - this junction, like the zonula occludens, circles the
entire cell. It has morphological similarities to the desmosome in section. Its function is
to hold adjacent cells together.
It has actin microfilaments associated with it.
B. by cell shape
1. squamous - flattened
2. cuboidal - height=width
3. columnar - height>width
A specialized epithelium that does not fit into the classification scheme is
TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM - characteristic of the urinary system. Transitional
epithelium is named such because of its ability to adapt to changes in bladder and
urinary system distension. Characterized by dome-shaped cells in top layer
(undistended) with specialized, thickened apical membranes.
EXAMPLES OF CLASSIFICATIONS
epithelium of the intestines - simple columnar with brush or striated border (microvilli)
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epithelium of the terminal bronchioles in the lung - simple columnar, ciliated
1. HOLOCRINE - the entire cell fills with secretory product and then the cell is
shed - sebaceous and tarsal glands
2. APOCRINE - the apical end of the cell is filled with secretory product and
that part of the cell is released - mammary glands
3. MEROCRINE - secretory cells are formed, accumulate near the apical end
of the cell and are released by exocytosis - pancreatic acinar cells
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CONNECTIVE TISSUE
(Chapter 6)
Connective tissue is one of the four basic tissues. Typically, connective tissue is
derived from the middle embryonic germ layer, the mesoderm. Today’s lecture is about
connective tissue proper as opposed to the specialized connective tissues such as
blood, cartilage and bone, which will be the subjects of future lectures. Connective
tissue proper does pretty much what its name implies, i.e. it hold tissues together and
forms the framework of organs. More importantly, connective tissue underlies
epithelium. It contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatics. It is extremely important
in defense against foreign bodies and repair of injuries. In addition, connective tissue
forms tendons and ligaments. Adipose tissue (FAT), serves as insulation, a storage
depot for energy and provides the physical contours that distinguish men and women.
I. GROUND SUBSTANCE
1. characteristics
a. amorphous
b. colorless
c. homogeneous
2. composition
a. proteoglycans - synthesized and secreted by the resident cells
of connective tissue have a protein backbone with
glycosaminoglycans covalently bound to it. Proteoglycans are very
hydrophilic. They are typically surrounded by a thick layer of
solvation water.
Table 6.3 on page 162 in your text lists the major
glycosaminoglycans.
b. glycoproteins
1. laminin - a large (approx. 900kD) heterotrimeric, cruciform
molecule made up of three subunits B1, B2 and A. Laminin
is a major component of basal lamina.
2. fibronectin
c. tissue fluid - similar to blood plasma. Low molecular weight
plasma proteins can leave capillaries and enter tissue fluid. Ionic
composition of the tissue fluid is similar to that of plasma. Normally, there
is very little tissue fluid present in connective tissue. Accumulation of
tissue fluid leads to edema (see below), which can have a number of
causes.
II. FIBERS
1. collagen fibers
a. Over 20 types of collagen have been identified - 5 collagen types
are the most abundant types (types I-V: please refer to TABLE 6.2,
page 153 in Ross)
b. type I forms classically described collagen fibers and can form
collagen bundles.
c. acidophilic (pink) with H&E stain
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2. elastic fibers
a. composed of elastin, a relatively amorphous substance, and
microfibrils composed in part by fibrillin, a protein. Marfan’s
syndrome, an autosomal dominent connective tissue disorder, is
characterized by abnormal elastic tissue. It has been shown that the
fibrillin gene is defective in this disorder.
b. unlike collagen fibers, elastic fibers stain very weakly, if at all with
hematoxylin and eosin. Therefore, to visualize elastic fibers, one must
use special stains such as orcein or resorcin-fuchsin. These stains
stain elastic fibers purple, dark blue or blue-black.
c. your text describes oxytalan, elaunin and elastic fibers as part of an
elastic fiber “system”. These members of the elastic fiber system are
differentially distributed in the body and are functionally different.
Oxytalan fibers form the suspensory ligament of the lens and are
found in the dermis. They are composed of microfibrils with little or no
elastin. Elaunin fibers are composed of microfibrils with small
amounts of elastin. These two fiber types are not as elastic as elastic
fibers, which are composed of microfibrils and elastin.
d. found in walls of blood vessels (usually forming fenestrated
membranes in larger vessels)
3. reticular fibers
a. formed by collagen protein (composed of type III collagen)
b. the fibers are very thin and stain with silver salts and therefore are
called argyrophilic (i.e. silver-liking)
c. reticular fibers form the framework of organs such as lymph nodes
and the spleen. Reticular fibrils compose the reticular lamina, which
underlies the basal lamina of epithelium.
III. Cells
B. immigrant cells - those born elsewhere and transiently present in the tissue,
i.e. migrating through
1. macrophages - called histiocytes by pathologist - derived from bone
marrow - migrate into CT and take up permanent residence. They are part of
MONONUCLEAR PHAGOCYTE SYSTEM (formerly called the
reticuloendothelial system)
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2. mast cells - once believed to be derived from CT precursor cell
(mesenchymal cell) -BUT NOW recent evidence suggest derived from bone
marrow - precursor cells migrate via blood to tissues where they proliferate
and differentiate
- cytoplasm filled with basophilic granules, but appear reddish rather than
blue because they are metachromatic
granules contain glycosaminoglycans (heparin sulfate or chondroitin sulfate),
neutral proteases, eosinophil chemotactic factor (ECF) and HISTAMINE
function: plasmalemma has IgE receptors - IgE produced by
plasma cells, bound to mast cells - causes degranulation
histamine - causes contraction of smooth muscle cells in bronchioles, dilation
of capillaries
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CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
I. loose connective tissue - also called areolar connective tissue - has lots of
cells compared to fibers
usually very vascular -typically lies immediately beneath epithelia. Loose CT in
this location sometimes
referred to as lamina propria
II. dense connective tissue - more fibers (collagen) per unit volume of tissue
than cells
A. dense regular - abundant fibers arranged in regular bundles and/or
sheets of predominantly collagen fibers - examples tendons, aponeuroses
and ligaments
ADIPOSE TISSUE
(Chapter 9)
I. white fat - made up of unilocular fat (adipose) cells - one large fat droplet
pushes nucleus and cytoplasm off to side
widespread distribution in adults - 22% body weight in normal adult females - 15% body
weight in normal adult males
II. brown fat - made up of fat cells with numerous small fat droplets
(multilocular) - not very common in adult humans
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CARTILAGE AND BONE
(Chapters 7 and 8)
I. Cartilage
A. General characteristics
B. Components
1. extracellular matrix:
a. fibers: predominantly type II collagen fibrils
b. ground substance: mainly proteoglycans: chondroitin-4-sulphate,
chondroitin-6-sulfate and dermatan sulfate. These proteoglycans are made up of a core
protein with attached glycosaminoglycans (bottle brush appearance). The
glycosaminoglycans act as polyanions, bind sodium by electrostatic bonds. A thick
layer of solvation water surrounds these glycosaminoglycans. The hydrated matrix
resists compression and permits diffusion of nutrients to the cells within the matrix.
2. cell types
a. chondroblasts: located in inner layer of the perichondrium. They
resemble fibroblasts and can differentiate into chondrocytes.
b. chondrocytes: These are maturing cartilage cells. They secrete the
matrix components (collagen and proteoglycans) and become surrounded
by it. They are located in lacunae (lakes).
1. found in articular surfaces, respiratory tract and ventral ends of ribs. Hyaline
cartilage also forms temporary skeleton during endochondral bone development.
2. perichondrium
a. dense C.T. covering, except on articular surface
b. abundant type I collagen
c. outer fibrous layer: fibroblasts
d. inner cellular layer: chondroblasts
3. chondrocytes
a. located in lacunae
b. immature chondrocytes at the periphery of the cartilage are elliptical
c. deeper within the cartilage they are rounded
d. mitotic division of a single chondrocytes can result in groups of up to
eight chondrocytes called isogenous groups
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4. matrix
a. territorial matrix (capsular matrix): newly formed matrix immediately
surrounding chondrocytes. It is rich in sulfated proteoglycans which are
negatively charged. Therefore, the territorial matrix is basophilic.
b. interterritorial matrix: as collagen type II accumulates in matrix,
becomes less basophilic or more acidophilic. (remember, collagen fibers
are acidophilic)
B. Elastic cartilage
5. surrounded by perichondrium
C. Fibrocartilage
1. can be viewed as a hybrid (mixture) between dense connective tissue and
cartilage.
2. found in intervertebral disks (annulus fibrosa), symphysis pubis, and
attachments of some ligaments to bone (we have examples of all three in lab)
3. contains numerous collagen type I fibers, often forming parallel bundles in
direction of stress
5. contains chondrocytes in lacunae, often arranged in long rows between the
collagen bundles
6. unlike hyaline and elastic cartilage, fibrocartilage is not surrounded by
perichondrium
III. Bone
A. General characteristics of bone tissue
1. bone matrix
2. bone cells
b. osteocytes: are mature bone cells that maintain the organic matrix;
they are located in lacunae and have cytoplasmic processes in canaliculi.
The processes are connected by gap junctions. Osteocytes develop from
osteoblasts.
2. During development and during bone repair following a fracture, two stages
of bone formation are observed.
D. Bones as Organs
Short bones (e.g. metacarpals) are structurally similar to long bones. Core of spongy
bone is completely surrounded by compact bone.
Flat bones, such as those of the skull, have outer layers of compact bone called plates
and a thin inner layer of spongy bone called diploe
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4. Haversian systems are longitudinally oriented, i.e. parallel to the
long axis of the bone. They are not restricted to compact bone and
can also be observed in the thicker trabeculae of spongy bone.
E. Bone development: There are two distinct ways in which bones can develop
1. Intramembranous ossification
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1. bone collar forms around diaphysis by
differentiation of osteoblasts from the inner
perichondrium, followed by deposition of bone matrix.
This process, bone collar formation, is actually a form
of intramembranous bone formation, i.e. bone
formation within the perichondrium.
1. growth in length
3. internal remodeling
G. Fracture Repair
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NERVOUS TISSUE
(Chapter 12)
Nervous tissue is highly specialized for the transmission of information over long
distances. Nervous tissue comprises the CNS: central nervous system (the brain and
the spinal cord), the PNS: peripheral nervous system (sensory ganglia and peripheral
nerves) and the ANS: autonomic nervous system (sympathetic and parasympathetic
ganglia). Nervous tissue can be found in most organs of the human body.
A. the human central nervous system (CNS, brain and spinal cord) has a large
variety of different neuronal types (200 or more) which have specific morphological
characteristics depending upon the particular part of the CNS in which they reside. In
laboratory, you will examine the large multipolar neurons of the ventral horn of the
spinal cord, motoneurons, which innervate the skeletal muscle of the body. You will
also examine the pyramidal cells of the cerebral cortex which are named for the shape
of their cell bodies and you will examine the Purkinje cells of the cerebellum which
have a large rounded cell bodies and in silver preparations can be seen to have a very
elaborate dendritic arborization. These are but three of the thousands of neuronal types
in the mammalian nervous system. A group of neurons in the CNS that are found
together and are functionally related is called a nucleus.
B. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) also has a number of different types of
neurons all of which are derived from neural crest. Groups of functionally related
neurons in the PNS are typically encapsulated within a ganglion. Sensory neurons
(primary afferent neurons), those that carries sensations such as touch, position, pain
and temperature from the skin, muscles, joints and viscera are found in dorsal or
posterior root ganglia along the spinal cord and in cranial nerve ganglia in the head and
neck. The cells of the dorsal root and the cranial nerve sensory ganglia are called
pseudounipolar. There are also autonomic ganglia, sympathetic and parasympathetic,
that give rise to postganglionic efferents.
C. Characteristics of neurons.
b. most neurons have one or more dendrites - the dendrites branch and
form what is called a dendritic arborization or dendritic tree. Neurons with more than
one dendrite are called multipolar. Some neurons such as those of the dorsal root
ganglia and the cranial nerve sensory ganglia have no dendrites, these particular cells
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are called pseudounipolar. The proximal portions of dendrites can contain Nissl
substance and therefore, stain with basic dyes.
Dendrites and the somata are typically the receptive parts of the neuron. They receive
inputs from other neurons. Functionally, dendrites typically do not display an action
potential. Instead, they exhibit a graded potential.
c. Most neurons have one axon. Depending on the type of neuron, the
axons can be as short as a few microns or can reach lengths of more than a meter.
Axons can have branches that come off at right angles. These are called axon
collaterals. Or neurons can, toward their ends, branch into axonal arborizations called
telodendria. Axons cannot be seen with routine stains (H and E or cresyl violet)
because they contain no Nissl substance. Axons are the effector part of the neuron.
Information typically travels along the axon as an action potential.
II. Neuroglial cells or glia (glia means glue). These cells are the supportive cells of
the nervous system.
A. In the CNS there are 5 different types of glia cell. Four derived from
neuroectoderm and 1 derived from the bone marrow.
1. ependymal cells - these are simple cuboidal or columnar cells that line the
ventricular system of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord. They look very
much like an epithelium, a result of their ectodermal origin. Some ependymal cells have
cilia and they often are characterized by tight junctions (zonulae occludens).
2. Related to the ependymal cells are the cells of the choroid plexus. These
cells are responsible for the elaboration of cerebral spinal fluid (CSF). CSF is produced
by a combination of the ultrafiltration of the blood as well as active secretion. The
composition of CSF is similar to plasma. Lumbar punctures are used to collect CSF for
clinical examination. A high content of certain proteins or leukocytes can be indicative
of CNS injury or infection.
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a. fibrous astrocytes - typically found in the white matter. Thes cells
have long slender processes packed with 10nm intermediate filaments composed of the
protein glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP).
d. astrocytes form barriers between the CNS and non-CNS. They form
the glia limitans a barrier between the connective tissue of the meninges and the CNS
parenchyma. They are also now known to be responsible for inducing CNS endothelial
cell to form the blood-brain barrier.
B. In the PNS there are two types of supportive cells (many texts , both of
which are derived from the neural crest.
1. Satellite cells - These small cells with rounded nuclei form a unicellular layer
around ganglion neurons. After peripheral nerve injury, these cells divide and begin to
synthesize increased amounts of neurotrophic factors that may serve to support the
neurons during the time they are regenerating an axon.
2. Schwann cells are the cells of the PNS that form myelin or ensheath groups
of unmyelinated axons. A single Schwann cell can myelinate only one axon.
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Everything said above about CNS myelin holds for PNS myelin. The protein
compositions and the ultrastructural appearances of the two myelins are different.
Peripheral nerve myelin, but not CNS myelin, is characterized by Schcmidt-Lanterman
clefts or incisures. These are areas where the myelin is distended by Schwann cell
cytoplasm (refer to Figure 12.10 on page 330).
Like satellite cells, Schwann cells respond to injury of the peripheral nerve. They divide,
become phagocytic and secrete cytokines and neurotrophic factors.
EPINEURIUM The thick connective tissue that surrounds the entire peripheral
nerve.
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MUSCLE TISSUE
(Chapter 11)
I. SKELETAL MUSCLE
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b. thick filaments made up of myosin - myosin molecule made up
of two heavy and two light chains. The heavy chains have globular projections at one
end which appear as cross-bridges at the EM level. These globular heads have ATP
binding sites and with actin as a co-factor are capable of hydrolyzing ATP (i.e. act as an
ATP-ase).
6. the Z line is where thin filaments are bound together by the protein
actininin
G. MUSCLE CONTRACTION
Functionally the T-tubules act to rapidly spread depolarization throughout the muscle
fiber so that there is widespread release of Ca2+ from the SR allowing for uniform
contraction of the muscle fiber.
J. SKELETAL MUSCLE- THE ORGAN One can speak of skeletal muscle, the
tissue and skeletal muscles, the organs.
1. Organization of the organ Skeletal muscles have a dense connective
tissue sheath, the epimysium which surrounds the entire muscle. Around each muscle
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fascicle is a connective tissue sheath called perimysium. Between muscle fibers, there
is a very thin endomysium.
c. intermediate fibers
3. motor unit - a single motor axon and all the muscle cells (fibers) it
innervates. Motor units can be very large for muscles that require course movements,
such as the quadiceps femoris muscle. By contrast, in muscles that require fine control
such as the extraocular muscle, those that control eye movement, a motor unit is one
axon innervating one muscle fiber.
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A. involuntary striated muscle which has some morphological similarities to
skeletal muscle, i.e. regularly organized sarcomeres
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BLOOD
(Chapter 10)
1. Components
a. cells (formed elements): red blood cells (RBCs) or erythrocytes, white blood
cells or leukocytes and platelets
b. intercellular fluid
2. serum is a clear yellowish fluid that remains after the blood clots.
2. Hematocrit
After centrifugation, erythrocytes end up at the bottom of the tube, leukocytes
and platelets on top of them and plasma at the top. The hematocrit is useful in that it
provides an estimate of the volume of these components. Red cells are around 43%
of the total volume. White cells and platelets are around 1% and plasma is the rest.
Low hematocrit is indicator of anemia.
3. Blood smears
Blood smears are an important and one of the oldest clinical tools. They use
Romanovsky-type stains (Wright stain or Giemsa stain) that contain methylene blue,
eosin and azures.
4. Functions
c. blood specimens are readily available for clinical testing: blood counts (eg.
CBCs), blood chemistries and blood gases.
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B. Erythrocytes (red blood cells, RBCs)
1. Normal count: around 4-5 million/mm3. Males normally have more RBCs
than women as reflected in their higher hematocrits. The number of RBCs can
decrease (hypocythemia) and such a decrease causes anemia. An increase in the
number of RBCs is called polycythemia. Polycythemia can be an adaptation to living
at a high altitude.
3. Normal morphology:
a. shape: biconcave disk. This shape optimizes the surface to volume ratio
and is important for gas exchange.
b. abnormal hemoglobin can impair gas transport. In the case of sickle cell
disease, a point mutation causing a replacement of glutamic acid with valine. This
seemingly innocuous variation actually causes serious impairment that affects gas
transport, causes hemaglobin polymerization that results in rigid, inflexible RBCs.
These rigid, sickle-shaped cells can impair bloodflow.
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6. Energy metabolism: main source of energy for RBCs is glucose.
1. General features
2. azurophilic granules stain with the azures in the dye mixtures. They are
lysosomes and are found in granulocytes and agranulocytes.
2. Neutrophils make up 55-60% of leukocytes in normal blood and thus are the
most common leukocyte. The main function of neutrophils is the phagocytosis and
killing of bacteria. They are very active phagocytes of small particles and as such are
sometimes referred to as microphages. Particularly suited to survival in an anearobic
environment since bacteria are often found in oxygen-poor regions.
a. The nucleus of neutrophils typically have 2-5 lobed nucleus. More immature
cells have horseshoe-shaped nuclei (called stab or band cells). The appearance of
large numbers of band or stab cells in the circulating blood is called a shift to the left
and is indicative of a bacterial infection. Older neutrophils have more than 5 lobes
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(hypersegmented). In females, inactive X-chromosome (Barr body) forms a
"drumstick" nuclear appendage in some cells.
4. Basophils comprise the fewest number of white cells (0-1%). Although they
arise from bone marrow stem cells different from mast cells, their function appears to
be similar. They are involved in the mediation of inflammatory reactions and in some
instances, may assist mast cells.
a. The nucleus typically has 2-3 lobes, but lobulation is difficult to see because
basophilic granules in ther cytoplasm obscure the nucleus.
b. basophilic granules are large, purple and irregular in shape. They contain
heparin, histamine and produce leukotrienes.
5. Lymphocytes comprise 30-35% of circulating white cells and are the most
common agranulocyte. The circulating lymphocytes represent a mixed population of
diverse cell types with similar morphologies. Lymphocytes can only be distinguished
immunocytochemically based on cell surface markers, They function in immune
responses and are common in C.T. and lymphoid tissue & organs.
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a. structure of lymphocytes
1. small lymphocyte: spherical nucleus, condensed chromatin, thin rim of
basophilic cytoplasm and few azurophilic granules
2. medium and large lymphocytes are larger in diameter, have more
cytoplasm and less heterochromatic nuclei. These cells are activated lymphocytes.
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When blood vessels are damaged, discontinuities in the endothelial lining exposes the
underlying connective tissue to platelets in the circulation. The platelets adhere
immediately (primary aggregation) to this region forming a platelet plug. The platelets in
the site release ADP, an inducer of platelet aggregation, and serotonin which causes
contraction of vascular smooth muscle which reduces local blood flow. Platelets induce
fibrinogen in the plasma to form a fibrin clot. The fibrin traps blood cells and forms a
blood clot or thrombus. The resulting clot bulges into the vessel lumen, but contracts
via the action of platelet actin and myosin in conjunction with ATP. Platelet-derived
growth factor (PDGF) stimulates proliferation of fibroblasts and smooth muscle cells
that contribute to repair of the injury site.
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HEMATOPOIESIS
A. Hematopoietic organs
Prenatally, primitive blood cells arise from yolk sac mesoderm. Later in
embryogenesis, the liver and spleen develop hematopoietic abilities. Finally, the
ossification of the fetal bones results in the formation of bone marrow, which becomes
the primary hematopoietic tissue.
Postnatally, the bone marrow (myeloid or medullary tissue) produces most of the
blood cells, except for the lymphocytes. Most of them are produced in lymphoid tissues
and organs with some being produced in the bone marrow. If hematopoiesis in the
bone marrow becomes inadequate, e.g., after excessive blood loss, the liver or spleen
can reinitiate blood cell formation. This is called extramedullary hematopoiesis.
Bone marrow is one of the largest organs of the body, comparable in total size to the
liver (1500g). Under normal conditions, the bone marrow can rapidly increase its
production of blood cells to adjust to the needs of the body. In the adult there are 2
types of marrow, yellow and red.
1. Yellow (inactive) bone marrow is found in long bones of adults. Under severe
conditions, such as blood loss or hypoxia, yellow bone marrow can convert into red
bone marrow. It contains numerous adipose cells and undifferentiated mesenchymal
cells, which serve as a reserve of hematopoietic tissue.
2. Red (active) bone marrow is found mainly in the flat bones of adults. It functions in
blood cell production, RBC destruction and iron storage. It has 3 main components:
C. Hematopoiesis
1. At one time there was a controversy over whether all blood cells, red and white,
arose from a common stem cell (the monophyletic theory) or whether each blood cell
type arose from a separate stem cell (the polyphyletic theory). The evidence, as
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outlined on the next page, supports the monophyletic theory, all blood cells arise from a
common stem cell, a pluripotential stem cell (refer to Figure 10.4 on page 265).
a. in vivo studies in mice: bone marrow cells from donor mice are injected into
lethally irradiated mice whose hematopoietic cells have been destroyed; the
transplanted bone marrow cells form colonies of hematopoietic cells in the spleen. By
using marker chromosomes, it can be shown that each colony is a clone of a single
colony-forming cell or colony-forming unit (CFU).
2. Hematopoietic lineage
a. pluripotential stem cell: single type of cell in bone marrow; produces all
blood cell types. The pluripotential cell is self-renewing.
d. precursor cells: not self-renewing, i.e. cannot give rise to other cells like
themselves; they form a single type of blood cell; can be morphologically distinguished;
e.g., proerythroblast, myeloblast
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3. erythropoietin: Essential for RBC development. Erythropoietin is
produced by kidneys when the kidneys are exposed to low O2. It is a
glycoprotein that stimulates mRNA for globin synthesis.
c. recombinant CSFs are being used clinically to increase blood cell proliferation
in various conditions; e.g., CSFs can enhance the success of bone marrow transplants;
erythropoietin is used to treat anemia due to chronic renal failure; GM-CSF is used to
treat neutropenia (decrease in neutrophils)
D. Erythrocyte Development
1. Erythrocytic lineage
a. pluripotential stem cell
b. myeloid stem cell - multipotential stem cell: CFU-GEMM (colony forming unit-
granulocyte, erythrocyte, monocyte, megakaryocyte)
c. ECFU (erythrocyte colony forming unit)
d. proerythroblast - precursor cell
f. differentiation - described below
E. Granulocyte development
2. monocyte maturation
a. monoblast - looks like a myeloblast
b. promonocyte large cell, basophilic cytoplasm, neucleus is large and slightly
indented
c. monocytes enter circulation where they remain for about 8 hours. Then rthey
enter the connective tissue by diapedesis. Mature into macrophages in connective
tissue where they can remain for months
G. Platelet Production
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