CHAPTER 10

AIR SAMPLING AND ANALYTICAL METHODOLOGY

PERTAINING TO ASBESTOS ABATEMENT

A GUIDE

Objective: To provide detailed information on the regulatory requirements and the industrial
hygiene methods used to sample and analyze air samples before, during, and after asbestos
abatement projects.

Learning Tasks – Information in this section should enable participants to:

• Understand the importance of accurate air sample collection and analysis.

• Become familiar with the EPA and OSHA regulations governing air sample
collection and analysis.

• Learn the various methods and techniques used to collect air samples for
asbestos analysis.

• Become familiar with the analytical methods used for evaluation of air
samples for asbestos concentrations.

• Understand the common units for reporting airborne fiber concentrations.

• Learn the sampling strategies used to accurately monitor asbestos

abatement projects.

• Understand important aspects of final clearance air monitoring including

aggressive monitoring and the various clearance criteria.

This guide booklet was primarily authored by John R. Butler, CIH, CSP,
for The Asbestos Institute

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Table of Contents:

10.1 Introduction................................................................................................................... 10-3

10.2 OSHA Requirements for Sampling ........................................................................... 10-4

10.3 AHERA Requirements for Air Sampling .................................................................. 10-11

10.4 Types of Air Samples ............................................................................................... 10-13

10.5 Analytical Methods.................................................................................................... 10-19

10.6 Collecting Air Sampling............................................................................................ 10-23

10.7 Calculations for Air Sampling .................................................................................. 10-29

Attachment A – Air Sampling Field Data Sheet ............................................................... 10-35

Attachment B – Chain Of Custody Form ........................................................................... 10-37

Attachment C - Time-Weighted Average Calculation Sheet ........................................... 10-39

Attachment D – Appendix A to 1926.1101 (Mandatory) ................................................. 10-41

Attachment E – Appendix B to 1926.1101 (Non-Mandatory) ......................................... 10-45

Attachment F – Procedures for Corrections to Rotameters ............................................ 10-60

Attachment G – Procedures for Building an Inexpensive Primary Standard ................. 10-66

Attachment H – Sampling Cassette Configuration .......................................................... 10-72

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10.1 INTRODUCTION

Air sampling is important…

probably the most important part
of any type of asbestos project.

Since the early part of the 20th century, medical science has shown that asbestos causes
disease in humans 1,2. Diseases such as asbestosis, mesothelioma, and lung cancers
were recorded in high numbers in the 1950’s and 1960’s leading to the development of the
first asbestos regulations by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) in
the early 1970’s. Continued research on asbestos diseases has lead to the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Asbestos Hazard Emergency Response Act
(AHERA) regulations, and many other standard procedures that are in place today.

What if asbestos did not cause disease in humans? What type of regulations do you think
we would be discussing today in this class? It is likely there would be no regulations on
asbestos just as there are no regulations specific for mineral wool, glass fibers, cellulose,
vermiculite, or several other insulation materials that are not considered to be the health
risk of asbestos fibers.

Whether it’s regulations from the Department of Transportation, the Consumer Product
Safety Commission, OSHA, or the EPA, they are all trying to protect the same thing:
“human health and the environment”. Though asbestos is a naturally occurring mineral in
our environment, it is the activities of man that has created the threat to human health and
the environment. We protect human health with engineering controls and work practices.
We also protect human health by requiring engineering controls and specific work
practices, as well as with personal protective equipment (PPE) and education, such as this
AHERA class. We protect the environment with safe removal of asbestos containing
materials (ACM) before demolition or renovation. We do this by using wet methods,
negative pressure containments and double-bagging the waste for transportation to an
approved land-fill.

Respiratory protection is assigned, based on the airborne levels of asbestos fibers. The
only way we can know whether we are protecting human health, is to be able to collect air
samples that closely represent the actual airborne fiber levels to which workers or building
personnel are being exposed. That’s why air sampling is so important to this industry.

There are many things that can affect the results of air sampling including the amount of air
drawn through the sample filter, the time the sampling pump ran, the location of the
sampling devices, the number of employees and areas where samples are collected, as

1 Murray, H.M., 1906. In Departmental Committee of Compensation for Industrial Diseases, 1907, Minutes of
evidence, P. 127, paras 4076-4104, Cd 3496, HMSO, London.
2 Cooke, W.E., 1927. ‘Pulmonary asbestosis’, British Medical Journal Vol. 2, 26 July, p. 147.
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 well as the type of asbestos work being conducted. This chapter will provide information
about all of these factors so you can better understand the process of sample collections
and be able to collect air samples that closely represent the airborne concentrations where
workers or tenants are exposed. This assures that the appropriate personal protective
equipment (PPE) is worn by workers and that tenants in the building are not breathing
hazardous concentrations of asbestos fibers.

In addition, enforcement of the OSHA regulations has become a top priority for the
compliance officers for both state and Federal OSHA offices. Statistics show that for all
asbestos projects inspected over the years, air monitoring regulations are the most
frequently cited and usually carry the highest monetary penalties. You need to be able to
collect your air samples in accordance with the OSHA and EPA regulations to avoid being
cited for violations of the standards as well as paying the high costs of OSHA fines. EPA
fines can be as high as $25,000 per day per violation. Most OSHA penalties are usually in
the range of $3,000 to $7,000 per violation; however, past penalties by the Arizona
Division of Occupational Safety and Health (ADOSH) have been as high as $250,000.
That is a lot of money to lose on a job that may only provide $5,000 to $10,000 profit.

10.2 OSHA REQUIREMENTS FOR ASBESTOS SAMPLING

10.2.1 The OSHA PEL

In the early 1970’s with the creation of OSHA, they tried to establish a Permissible
Exposure Limit (PEL) for asbestos to protect workers from the diseases. OSHA proposed
a PEL of 5 fibers per cubic centimeter of air (f/cc) in 1971 which was not passed. They
proposed an emergency PEL of 0.5 f/cc in 1975 and it did not pass. OSHA finally arrived
at a consensus of 2 f/cc in 1976. Continued studies of the effects of asbestos exposures
and the incidence of asbestos related diseases lead to a 1986 reduction in the PEL to 0.2
f/cc and finally a 1994 reduction to 0.1 f/cc.

Air monitoring requirements under the OSHA construction standards are found in 29 CFR
§1926.1101, paragraphs (c) and (f), and in Appendices A and B. Paragraph (c) is simply
a description of the OSHA Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs). The PELs are a
regulated airborne concentration limiting the amount of asbestos exposure for employees
working with asbestos which could create airborne exposures.

A limitation placed on OSHA by the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHAct) is that
new regulation cannot create a financial burden on businesses. Asbestos is a known
carcinogen and ideally, exposures should be kept as low as possible. However, the types
of engineering controls and work practices needed to achieve this exposure level would
make the costs of abatement very expensive, if not unachievable. So to meet their
mandate of creating financially responsible PELs, they have set a PEL that is cost effective
and capable of measuring with simple sampling equipment…AND will likely protect the
health of most workers. In the 1986 Federal Register, when OSHA lowered the PEL from 2
f/cc to 0.2 f/cc, they predicted health effects of asbestos exposure due to fiber

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concentrations. At 2 f/cc, OSHA predicted 64 excess deaths (per 1,000 workers) due to
cancer and 50 cases of asbestosis per 1,000 workers. Reducing exposures to 0.2 f/cc
would drop those predictions to 7 excess cancers and 5 cases of asbestosis per 1,000
workers. Note that even a PEL of 0.2 f/cc does not eliminate asbestos related diseases.

Paragraph (c) describes the 8-hour Time-Weighted Average (TWA) as 0.1 fibers per cubic
centimeter of air (f/cc). Fiber concentrations inside an abatement containment will vary
during the workday. A Time-Weighted Average (TWA) is the average airborne fiber
concentration as measured over an 8-hour work shift. This means if a worker is exposed
inside an asbestos abatement project for 7 hours and is outside the containment for 1 hour,
you must add the inside exposure to the outside exposure and divide by 8 hours. You do
this so you can compare the workers exposure to the OSHA PEL, which is always based
on exposures occurring over the entire 8-hour workday. The ideal exposure assessment
would sample a workers breathing zone every few minutes during the entire work shift
including periods when the concentration would be higher than the PEL and periods when
the concentration would be lower than the PEL. These concentrations would be averaged
to determine the TWA exposure.

For example, let’s assume that we have a direct reading meter capable of giving us an
immediate count of the airborne fiber concentration inside the containment. If the following
sample results were averaged, we would have the “mathematical average” concentration,
but not a “time-weighted” average. This is because the “mathematical average” did not
consider the time period during which each sample was collected. If we average the 9
sample results listed below, it would be 0.023 f/cc (remember to add the “0” during lunch
time). However, the Time-Weighted Average would be 0.0409 f/cc because the
concentrations were higher during the 2 hour time periods and lower for the 1 hour and ½
hour periods. We’ll discuss the calculations used to determine the TWA later in this
chapter.

Table 10-1
Hypothetical Exposure Concentrations

Time Concentration Time Concentration Time Concentration

7–9 0.020 f/cc 11:30 – 12 0.00 f/cc * 1–2 0.055 f/cc
9 – 10 0.008 f/cc 12 – 12:30 0.0014 f/cc 2–3 0.0022 f/cc
10 – 11:30 0.016 f/cc 12:30 – 1 0.0024 f/cc 3–5 0.098 f/cc
NOTE: Worker at lunch from 11:30 – 12:00 and therefore no exposure.

OSHA also has an Excursion Limit PEL listed in paragraph (c). This was established in
the last major update to the OSHA standard in 1994 to protect workers with high exposures
for short periods of time. The Excursion Limit (EL) for OSHA is set at 1 f/cc, averaged over
any 30 minute period of the work day. If a work duration is less than 30 minutes, the
exposure is still averaged for a 30 minute period. We’ll see later in the chapter how this is
accomplished.

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This intent of this EL was to protect workers with high exposures for short periods of time.
This might occur when changing an asbestos gasket on a high pressure steam line or
when an auto mechanic who might do a single brake job one day. Although the intent may
have been to protect the worker with a single short-term exposure, it applied to all asbestos
exposures; even to those workers with exposures of 8 or more hours per day. To
document this exposure, the Competent Person must collect at least two samples for each
worker in order to document both their 8-hour TWA exposure and their 30 minute EL
exposure.

The Federal legislation that created OSHA is part of a congressional law called the
Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHAct). This OSHAct of 1970 requires OSHA to
establish safety and health regulations which can be enforced without being economically
burdensome to the workplaces under it’s jurisdiction. What this means is that occupational
exposures, at the level of the OSHA PELs, may not protect all workers from asbestos
diseases. As the Competent Person evaluating asbestos exposures, we need to be
aware of this fact and try to keep airborne exposures as low as possible to ensure our
employee’s have the least amount of asbestos exposure possible. Although meeting
OSHA compliance on the PELs will keep you from getting a citation, it may not be enough
to protect all the people working under your responsibility.

The OSHA PELs are regulated exposure limits and part of our task, as the Competent
Person, is to ensure compliance with the OSHA standards. We therefore need to know
what these 2 exposure limits are and how to document compliance with the 8-hour TWA of
0.1 f/cc and the 30-minute Excursion Limit of 1 f/cc.

10.2.2 Initial Exposure Assessments

Paragraph (f) of the OSHA standard contains the requirements for collecting air samples to
document an employee’s exposure to the two PELs. There are 6 requirements in
paragraph (f) and the employer must comply with all of them.

The first requirement, 1926.1101(f)(1), states that the employer is responsible to determine
their employee’s exposure to asbestos. The employer must conduct air sampling to
determine the airborne concentrations to which their employees are exposed. There are
situations where air samples do not need to be taken on every job, but OSHA wants the
employer to be responsible to verify that employees will not be exposed above the PEL or
the EL at any worksite.

The second requirement ((f)(2)) states that before an employee may be exposed to
asbestos fibers, the employer must determine what their exposure level will be. This is
accomplished by either collecting air samples as described above or by completing a
Negative Exposure Assessment (NEA). Either of these two actions are necessary to
determine the “Initial Exposure Assessment” required by paragraph (f)(2).

A NEA can be a good thing or a bad thing…depending on how it is used. The use of a

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NEA to show exposures are below the PEL is based on the belief that the fiber
concentrations for the previous day’s samples or the previous job samples are the same
today. There are a number of things that can affect the airborne concentrations such as the
number of negative air machines, the number of workers actually abating asbestos
materials, whether the floor tiles are coming up easy or are breaking up into small pieces.
When you use a NEA to document worker exposures, any change in the work practices,
engineering controls, or work environment, it can have a change on the airborne
concentrations of fibers. Sometimes it may be better to spend the $8.00 to $10.00 for a
sample than to rely on a suspect NEA.

The third requirement ((f)(3)) states how often air sampling must be collected, based on the
type of asbestos work being done. Asbestos abatement activities such as Class 1 and
Class 2 work requires that air samples be collected daily unless a NEA is completed.
Abatement activities will create the greatest potential for high airborne concentrations of
fibers. Additionally, the exposures will last for longer periods of time, i.e., 8 to 10 hours a
day, possibly for weeks at a time.

If you can document that this Class 1 or Class 2 work is not creating exposures above the
OSHA PELs, then paragraph (f)(3) allows you to stop collecting daily samples. However, if
there is no NEA then air sampling must completed daily as long as the Class 1 or Class 2
work continues.

For Class 3 and Class 4 work air sampling must be performed often enough to make sure
that any possible exposures will be below the PEL and the EL. The standard states that
“The employer shall conduct periodic monitoring of all work where exposures are expected
to exceed a PEL (a Positive Assessment), at intervals sufficient to document the validity of
the exposure prediction.” How many samples does it take to document the validity of the
exposure? If the Class 3 or Class 4 work will only take one day each month it is probably
necessary to sample every time the work is conducted. If the work will require 2 to 3 hours
a day for 5 to 7 days sampling may be able to document exposures below the PEL in the
first couple of days and you can declare a NEA for the rest of the project.

Paragraph (f)(4) establishes when air monitoring may be terminated. This can only be
done when the airborne concentration is below the PEL or a NEA is obtained. The
Competent Person must be careful and not decide that one set of sample results is
sufficient to state that a NEA exists. Experience in evaluating workplace situations,
engineering controls, and work practices will allow you to decide when enough samples
have been taken to claim a NEA. If most of the air sample results are 0.08 or 0.09 f/cc, this
is not significantly below the PEL of 0.1 f/cc. It is close enough that exposures could
exceed the PEL several times during the day and still average below the PEL.

The fifth paragraph ((f)(5)) states that employees must be notified as soon as possible, in
writing, of what their exposures are for both the 8-hour TWA and the EL samples for each
day they are monitored. Usually, the easiest way to do this is to list all the sample results,
as 8-hour TWAs and ELs, on a form. The form can then be posted on the bulletin board
with all the other employee information.

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10-8
 Finally, the sixth requirement ((f)(6)) is that employees and employee representatives
(unions) have the opportunity to observe any portion of the air sampling procedures used to
document worker exposure levels.

10.2.3 Appendix A to 1926.1101

Appendix A is mandatory and an employer can be cited for not complying

with any of the information. Appendix A lists eight procedures that must be
followed when collecting air samples for employee exposures. It states that
the filters used to collect air samples must be Mixed Cellulose
Ester (MCE) membrane filters, preferably 25
millimeters in diameter with a 50 millimeter
extension on the plastic cassette. The 50
millimeter extension is designed to make the
fibers collect more evenly across the surface
of the filter. Additionally, the extension helps prevent the buildup of static
charge during the sampling process. An expanded diagram describing the
parts of these cassettes can be found in Attachment H.

Appendix A requires the sampling pumps be set to a flow rate between 0.5 and 2.5 liters of
air per minute (this is why the sampling pumps must be calibrated). You can use low flow
rates of approximately 1 liter per minute in a very dusty abatement containment to prevent
overloading the filter. You can use higher flow rates of approximately 2 to 2.5 liters per
minute when sampling relatively clean abatements such as a floor tile job.

The forth procedure in Appendix A states that enough air must be drawn through the filter to
collect between 100 to 1,300 fibers on each square millimeter of the filter’s surface. If the
surface of the filter has a total collection area of 385 square millimeters3 (A = π x 112) and,
if each square millimeter must have 100 fibers on it, then a total of at least 38,500 fibers
(100 fibers/mm2 x 385 mm2) need to be collected on the filter.

If your project is the removal of vinyl floor tiles in a negative pressure containment and you
can use large volumes of water for dust control, the airborne concentration inside
containment will likely be 0.01 fibers per cubic centimeter (f/cc) or lower. There are 1,000
cubic centimeters in one liter (L) of air, therefore 0.01 f/cc is the same as 10 fibers per liter
(1,000 cc/L times 0.01 f/cc). If each liter of air contains 10 fibers you will need to collect
3,850 liters of air to obtain 38,500 fibers on the filter…and at 2 liters per minute it will take
you 1,925 minutes (32.1 hours)...not something you can do in an 8-hour shift! Fortunately,
the fourth procedure states that “Where possible, a sufficient air volume for each air
sample shall be collected to yield between 100 and 1,300 fibers per square millimeter on
the membrane filter. If a filter darkens in appearance or if loose dust is seen on the filter,
a second sample shall be started.”

3
NOTE: Although the filter is 25 millimeters (mm) in diameter, when the cassette is assembled, the 50 mm extension sits
on the edge of the filter to hold it in place and makes a ring around the filter where fibers can not be collect. Therefore, the
effective collection area of the filter is only 22.15 mm in diameter. Area of a circle is π x r2,or…(π x 11.0752 ) or…385 mm 2.
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 If you could create a room with a specific airborne fiber concentration throughout the room
and set a sampling pump in the middle of the room, how long would it take to collect
enough fibers to have 100 fibers on every square millimeter of the filter’s surface? To
determine this, all we need to do is repeat the above calculation for different airborne
concentrations. We could develop a table such as Table 10-2 below. Using the table we
see that it would take us 64 hours to collect 100 f/mm2 if the airborne concentration in the
room was 0.005 f/cc and the pump was running at 2 Liters per minute. Even if we were
using a high volume pump such as we use for clearance air sampling running at 11 LPM,
the sampling time would need to be 58 hours to collect 100 f/mm2 if the cleaned
containment had an airborne concentration of 0.001 f/cc.

Table 10-2
Sampling Time Needed to Achieve
Fiber Densities of Greater Than 100 f/mm2

Airborne Flow Rate of Sampling Pump

Concentration (Liters Per Minute)
in Containment 1 2 5 11 20
2 19 min. 10 min. 4 min. 2 min. 1 min.
1 38 min. 19 min. 8 min. 4 min. 2 min.
0.5 77 min. 38 min. 15 min. 7 min. 4 min.
0.1 6 hr. 193 min. 77 min. 35 min. 19 min.
0.05 13 hr. 6 hr. 154 min. 70 min. 38 min.
0.01 64 hr. 32 hr. 13 hr. 6 hr. 192 min.
0.005 128 hr. 64 hr. 26 hr. 12 hr. 6 hr.
0.001 642 hr. 320 hr. 128 hr. 58 hr. 32 hr.

Other procedures in Appendix A which are mandatory include shipping samples in rigid
containers and not just dropping them loosely into a FedEx or UPS envelope. It’s probably
best to wrap them in some form of paper such as newspapers or paper towels. DO NOT
use Styrofoam pellets as they will create a static charge on the sampling cassette and may
actually pull fibers away from the filter to stick to the plastic walls of the cassette.

Number 6 in Appendix A requires that all sampling pumps be calibrated BEFORE AND
AFTER sample collection. This is a critical requirement and is a basic principle of all
industrial hygiene sampling procedures. Air sampling pumps need to be calibrated before
you start the sampling process. You should select a flow rate appropriate for the expected
fiber concentration inside the containment. As stated above, if the project will be floor tile
removal and you can use wet methods, you would expect to have very low fiber
concentrations. You should select a flow rate of between 2.0 to 2.5 liters per minute (LPM).
It doesn’t matter what the rate is, it matters that you know what the rate is before you start
sampling.

Calibration at the end of the sampling period verifies that the sampling pump ran at a
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consistent flow rate for the entire sampling period. The sampling flow rates will vary slightly
between starting flow rates and ending flow rates. The general practice in industrial
hygiene is to accept variations of less than 5 percent. If your beginning flow rate is 2.0
LPM, the final flow rate should be between 1.9 to 2.1 LPM.

Five percent is equal to 0.05, as a fraction. So you multiply 0.05

times your flow rate to determine the ± variation. For example, 2.0
x 0.05 = 0.1. Add 0.1 to 2.0 and subtract 0.1 from 2.0 to find the
acceptable range, which in this case, would be 1.9 to 2.1 LPM.

If the difference between the before and after sample flow rates are greater than 5 percent
the sample is probably not valid. This situation can frequently be avoided by checking the
flow rate with a rotameter several times during the work day. If the beginning flow rate was
2.0 LPM and the ending flow rate was 1.75 LPM the difference is obviously greater than 5
percent. However, if the flow rate was checked every 2 hours during the day the flow rates
could be found to be similar to those listed below and the sample would still be valid. Each
flow rate check was within 5 percent of the previous measurement.

Time of Day Measured Flow Percent difference

8:00 AM 2.00 LPM N/A
10:00 AM 1.95 LPM 2.5 %
12:00 AM 1.88 LPM 3.6%
2:00 PM 1.83 LPM 2.7%
4:00 PM 1.75 LPM 4.4%

Item 7 in Appendix A states samples must be taken in the

breathing-zone of the worker. The OSHA standard, in
Appendix B states that the breathing-zone of the worker is an
area around the nose and mouth with a radius of
approximately 10 cm (4 inches). If one were to draw a circle
around the average workers head with a radius of 4 inches it
would look similar to the drawing at the right. Generally, the
sampling cassette is attached to the employee’s collar, far
enough forward of the shoulder that dust and debris does not
fall directly into the open face of the cassette.

Number 8, number 9, and number 10 in Appendix A provide directions on setting up the

microscope for evaluation of the sampled filter(s). Number 11 requires field blanks to be
submitted to the laboratory at a rate of 10 percent of the sample set, or a minimum of 2
blanks be submitted to the laboratory. This means that if you submit 8 samples you must
submit 2 blanks. If you send 38 samples, you need to send 4 field blanks. Field blanks
and lab blanks are explained at the end of Section 10.4.2.3.

10.2.4 Appendix B to 1926.1101

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 Appendix B is a non-mandatory appendix which means that OSHA will not issue citations
based on the information contained only in this appendix. However, Appendix B is a great
source of air sampling information (stuff that can help you collect good air samples).
Appendix B is titled “Sampling and Analysis” and consists of detailed information on the
procedures and equipment needed to collect and analyze Phase Contrast Microscopy
(PCM) air samples. The information here offers step-by-step directions on collecting the
necessary sampling equipment, attaching the parts together, calibrating the pump, and
determining how long the sample(s) should run.

In Section 2.1 of Appendix B, information is provided on the limits of fiber detection using
PCM analysis. If you collect 100 f/mm2, this will give you approximately 0.8 fibers per
microscope field. Fibers counts are conducted using a Walton-Beckett graticule in the
microscope. This “gun-sight” covers an area of 0.00785 mm2. If you collect 100 f/mm2, or
0.8 fibers per graticule field, then you’ll have 0.8 fibers per 0.00785 mm2; or 101.9
fibers/mm2. Now, we already know the filter collection area is 385 mm2, so the total
number of fibers needed to reach the detection limit of 0.8 fibers per microscope field will
be 101.9 fibers/mm2 times 385 mm2, or 39,235 fibers. This is very close to the number we
estimated a couple pages back of 38,500 fibers. There is a graphic in Figure 10-3 –
Walton-Beckett graticule, page 10-21 to illustrate what this device looks like in the
microscope.

Section 5.0 of Appendix B will be extremely useful to the Competent Person collecting
employee exposure air samples. This section has detailed information on the equipment,
the sampling procedures, and sample shipment that we all need to know to ensure a
complete and accurate sampling plan for an asbestos abatement project. The information
in Appendix B is straight-forward and easy to read, so we won’t spend time explaining it
here. A complete copy of Appendix A and Appendix B have been included at the end of
this chapter in the “handouts” section.

10.3 AHERA REQUIREMENTS FOR AIR SAMPLING

The purpose of the AHERA regulation is to ensure that asbestos in schools is identified
and maintained in a condition such that it will not become hazardous. There is no provision
for air sampling anywhere in the AHERA regulation EXCEPT at the conclusion of a
response action. At that time, “a person designated by the local education agency shall
visually inspect each functional space where such action was conducted to determine
whether the action has been properly completed” 4.

Additionally, paragraph (i)(2) of 763.90 requires that the person collecting air samples
must use aggressive sampling methods described in Appendix A of Subpart E, except
following small-scale, short-duration projects. It also requires the analytical laboratory to be
accredited by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and/or the
American Industrial Hygiene Associations (AIHA) Proficiency Analytical Testing Program.

Unlike clearance sampling conducted in private or commercial buildings, AHERA is very

4 AHERA 40 CFR 763.90(i)(1)

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specific about the number of samples to be collected and the type of analysis to determine
the fiber levels that are acceptable. Information on clearance sampling after a response
action is found in the AHERA regulation in paragraph 763.90(i), “Completion of response
actions” and in the mandatory Appendix A of the regulation. This information states that
any action greater than threshold amounts (160 square feet or 260 linear feet) must be
sampled and analyzed by TEM microscopy. Therefore, response action work of less than
160 square feet or less than 260 linear feet can be cleared by PCM microscopy. Small-
scale, short-duration work, as stated above, does not require clearance sampling.

10.3.1 TEM Sampling for AHERA Clearance

To collect AHERA samples for TEM analysis the regulations require a total of 13 samples
be collected on filters which are either: (1) polycarbonate having a pore size less than or
equal to 0.4 µm or (2) mixed cellulose ester filters having a pore size less than or equal to
0.45 µm. Most contractors or consultants do not keep this type of filter in stock unless they
only contract with schools. If you have to collect TEM samples periodically, ask your
laboratory for filters whenever you have TEM air sampling to conduct. That way you will be
sure to get the correct type of filter.

TEM sample collection and analysis under the AHERA regulations requires the collection
of a total of 13 samples, on special TEM filters, with 5 samples collected inside
containment, 5 samples outside containment, and 3 blanks (blank samples are explained
in Section 10.4.2.3, page 10-17). Appendix A to the AHERA regulations state, in Table 1,
that the recommended range of sample volumes for the inside and outside samples should
be between 1,200 to 1,800 liters of air. As discussed in the classroom, collecting larger
volumes of air will likely increase the fiber density on the filters. The analytical method for
TEM analysis considers sample volume by decreasing the number of grid openings to be
counted with higher sample volumes.

Once you have collected a sample volume of 1,200 to 1,400 liters or more the sampling
can be stopped. Make sure you post-calibrate the sampling pumps and then average the
before and after flow rates. Using AC powered sampling pumps should keep your
sampling flow rates at very close to the same volume, before and after. Record the sample
volume on the field data sheets and transfer the numbers to the laboratory Chain-Of-
Custody form.

To meet clearance criteria for AHERA TEM samples, the laboratory will evaluate the 5
inside samples. If the average of the 5 inside is less than 70 asbestos structures per
square millimeter of filter surface (S/mm2) AND the sampled volume of air was greater than
1,199 liter (for 25 mm diameter filters), the clearance has been met. Note that it is the
average of the 5 samples collected inside containment.

10.3.2 PCM Sampling for AHERA Clearance

The number of PCM samples to be collected is specified by Appendix A of the AHERA

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 regulations. Paragraph (i)(4) of 763.90 allows PCM clearance sampling if the response
action impacts less than 160 ft2 or less than 260 linear feet. If the area can be cleared with
PCM analysis, you will need to collect a minimum of 5 samples, collected on 0.8 µm pore
size MCE filters, inside the containment. AHERA requires that the clearance criteria be
less than or equal to 0.01 fibers per cubic centimeter of air (f/cc) for all 5 samples
collected. If any one of the 5 samples is greater than 0.01 f/cc the clearance fails and the
area must be recleaned and resampled.

Remember, as we learned above when we discussed PCM sampling, the fiber density on
the filter determines the statistical confidence of your sample collection. From Table 10-2
we see that if the airborne concentration inside containment is less than 0.01 f/cc, you will
need to run a high volume pump for 6 hours or more to achieve a fiber density of greater
than 100 f/mm2. If you conducted a critical visual assessment of the abatement area, you
feel that the area will meet the clearance criteria, and you have the time to run the pumps
for 5 to 6 hours, you will have more defensible sample results in case you ever have to
defend them against any challenges. Ideally, air samples for clearance should be run for as
long as feasible, but generally, 5 to 6 hours should be adequate.

10.3.3 PCM Sampling for Non-AHERA Clearance

If the abatement project is NOT an AHERA job, the number of samples and type of analysis
is usually based on specifications in the contract from the building owner. Generally, PCM
sampling and analysis is specified. Sampling plans usually collect 3 to 5 samples inside
the containment and the clearance criteria is specified as less than or equal to 0.01 f/cc,
the same as AHERA PCM clearances. Make sure you verify this with the building owner,
project manager, or industrial hygienist on the project.

Some contracts are written with the clearance criteria set at “0.01 f/cc or background,
whichever is lower”. Since background levels in the Phoenix area generally range between
0.0005 to 0.0008 f/cc, this can make a big difference on final clearance air sampling.
When and how the final clearance samples are collected will determine how much
“ambient” fibers are collected which may affect your clearance results. Read the contract
and know what the clearance criteria is before you even set up the containment. If there
are other activities around the area and you are using a negative pressure differential
containment, you may not be able to achieve clearance levels of less than 0.0008 f/cc.

10.4 TYPES OF AIR SAMPLES

10.4.1 Personal Sampling

OSHA regulations on air sampling are specific for personal sampling and the EPA
Asbestos Hazard Emergency Response Act (AHERA) regulation is specific for area
(clearance) sampling. As a Competent Person you will likely be responsible for collecting
both personal and area samples. Personal sampling can be used to evaluate several
aspects of an asbestos abatement project. The primary purpose of personal sampling is
to evaluate employee exposures. All employee exposure samples collected to document

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compliance with the OSHA regulations must be collected in the breathing-zone of the
worker. OSHA defines this as an area around the nose and mouth with a radius of
approximately 10 centimeters (4 inches). Usually the sampling cassette is attached to the
collar or at the shoulders of the worker. Some air sampling personnel place the cassette
on the left shoulder of a right handed person or on the right shoulder of a left handed person
to keep the sample out of the way of the workers tasks.

Additional information about fiber levels inside a containment can be obtained by sampling
the exposure of the “task”. A “rule-of-thumb” used by OSHA to determine the number of
employees to be sampled at any exposure site was to monitor approximately 10% of the
exposed workers. If a project had 15 employees inside containment personal air samples
on 2 workers would satisfy this “rule-of-thumb”. However, if there were 5 employees doing
a ceiling scrape, 5 employees removing ACM drywall, 4 employees bagging waste, and 1
employee double-bagging the waste, there would be 4 tasks and each task would likely
have different airborne exposure concentrations. In this case, a Competent Person might
sample one employee at each task to determine which area of work could be creating the
highest fiber release. One might expect the ceiling scrape to generate the highest fiber
release and the person double-bagging waste would have the lowest exposure. Four
breathing-zone samples, one for each group of workers, would verify this theory. This also
provides the Competent Person with additional information on predicting exposure levels
on future projects.

Another purpose of breathing-zone personal sampling is to determine the type of

respiratory protection necessary to keep the employee’s exposure potential below the
PELs. In order to be sure about the accuracy of this type of sampling, a sufficient number
of air samples must be collected to ensure all employee’s exposures are actually below the
PELs. This may require personal monitoring of as much as 50% to 80% of the workers in
containment for the first few days of abatement work. After a few days of air sampling you
will find the airborne concentrations will be around a certain range of values. For example,
floor tile removal using wet methods will usually keep the airborne levels between 0.005 to
0.05 f/cc. However, removal of sprayed-on fire proofing, where the use of wet methods is
limited, might produce airborne exposures of 0.08 f/cc to as high as 2.0 f/cc.

Paragraph (f) requires employers to “perform monitoring to determine accurately the

airborne concentrations of asbestos to which employees may be exposed.” Note the word
accurately in that requirement. When OSHA conducts an inspection of an asbestos
abatement project, they will evaluate all aspects of the air sampling you conduct to ensure
that the sample results accurately reflect the employee’s potential for exposure. Although a
10 percent of the work force rule-of-thumb is frequently used, that will only work if all
employees are exposed to the same hazardous material, for the same amount of time, at
the same airborne concentration. When some workers are doing one task and other
workers are doing another, it is likely that they will have different exposures. Our job, as the
Competent Person, is not as much about collecting employee samples to comply with
OSHA but to ensure that the respiratory protection is adequate for the airborne
concentrations in the containment. If we sample one worker and get 0.05 f/cc as an 8-hour
TWA, we can’t assume that everyone in containment had this same exposure.

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At the same time, it is not cost effective to sample everyone inside the containment. We
have to look at the work being done by the crew and evaluate their potential for fiber
exposures. If we believe that there would be 3 to 4 possible exposure levels for the work
being done, then we should sample 1 employee in each of those 3 to 4 work situations. If
the containment is large, we may need to sample more than 1 employee in each work
situation.

10.4.2 Area Sampling

Area samples are collected to evaluate the airborne concentrations in specific areas of a
containment or in areas around a containment. The contract requiring us to collect air
samples may ask that samples be collected at the exhaust of the High Efficiency
Particulate Air (HEPA) air filter machine. The building owner may want to ensure that the
exhausted air is “clean”. Other requirements might have us collecting area samples in
occupied areas of the building across the hall from where the abatement work is being
conducted.

Area samples are also collected for final clearance samples for commercial or private
buildings and for AHERA projects. AHERA final clearances are required by EPA
regulations and our contract with the building owner will likely require final clearances for
other types of buildings. In almost every case, final clearance samples will need to be
collected for each abatement containment built. Final clearance sampling is a whole
subject to itself and entails many different components.

All area samples are collected using the same basic techniques. The pumps are
calibrated using a primary or secondary standard. The sample cassette is set between 4
to 5 feet above the floor and angled downward at a 45 degree angle. Samples are
collected “open faced” meaning that the cap at the inlet end of the extension has been
removed so the entire surface of the filter is exposed to the air. Samples are collected
over a 2 to 5 hour period. Pumps are post-calibrated and the before and after flow rates
are averaged. Chain-Of-Custody forms are completed and the samples are submitted to
the laboratory.

10.4.2.1 Sampling Before Abatement Begins

Area air sampling conducted before abatement activities begin can be used to estimate
the existing airborne fiber concentrations inside and outside the building. It is frequently
called “prevalent level” or “baseline sampling”. These results can be used as control data
for comparing sample concentrations detected during and after the abatement project.
Baseline sampling provides good data for documentation purposes. It is particularly useful
when an abatement project is conducted in a portion of the building, with other areas of the
building remaining occupied.

Another reason to conduct baseline sampling is to determine the quality of air being used

10-16
as “makeup” air to your containment. Other construction activities or other work processes
near your containment can generate fiber concentrations. These will be picked up by your
negative pressure differential and drawn into containment. Sometimes the fiber
concentrations generated by this type of activities can be as high as 0.01 to 0.05 f/cc and
can create falsely elevated counts inside the containment. Establishing that you have
“clean” air to be used as makeup air is important before abatement begins.

Because low airborne fiber concentrations are typically found prior to abatement activities,
a large volume of air should be sampled to obtain a low detection limit. Simply stated, the
detection limit is the lowest value that can be reliably reported for the sampling and
analytical methods used. The volume of air needed to obtain a 0.01 fiber per cubic
centimeter of air (fiber/cc) detection limit should be close to 4000 liters, depending on the
filter size and counting method used. However, even at 10 LPM this sample volume would
take over 5 hours to collect (see Table 10-2).

Baseline samples should be collected in several areas of the building as well as in the
areas where abatement will take place. As a rule of thumb, one sample should be taken
for every 50,000 cubic feet (5,000 sq. ft. with 10 ft. ceiling) of building space and a
minimum of 3 samples. At least two samples should be collected from outside the building
to give a good comparison of the outdoor and indoor background fiber concentrations.

Because results of baseline sampling will be used as comparison data, the same sampling
and analytical techniques must be used for the baselines as well as for samples taken
outside the work area during and after the removal project.

10.4.2.2 Sampling During Abatement Activities

Personal sampling during abatement activities is required by the OSHA standards. We

have already addressed several of the sampling requirements under 1926.1101,
paragraphs (c) and (f), as well as Appendix A and Appendix B. We’ll discuss personnel
breathing zone sampling in detail later.

The need for area air sampling during abatement is frequently overlooked by the building
owner and/or abatement contractor. There are several reasons why area air sampling
during abatement activities is important. One reason would be to document that the
containment is functioning properly. Another might be to show that the make-up air being
drawn into the containment is “free” of airborne fibers…at least to the point that they do not
increase the worker exposure levels above the PEL.

If the building is occupied, you may need to “prove” that abatement work is not increasing
fiber concentrations in the occupied areas. It’s hard to convince office workers that a fiber
concentration such as 0.007 f/cc is normal. If you collected area background samples in
their officer before abatement began, then you could show that there was no significant
increase between the backgrounds and the area samples collected during abatement.

Area samples can also be collected inside containment during abatement activities.
Frequently there are areas in the containment that do not get good air circulation from the
10-17
negative air machines. Dead spaces in the corners and areas away from the makeup air
and negative air machines may need additional engineering controls. Area air samples in
these spaces will tell you if you have elevated fiber concentrations inside the containment.
You can then bring another negative air machine to act as a scrubber unit to keep air
moving in these dead spaces and to keep fiber levels down.

10.4.2.3 Clearance Sampling

Clearance samples are collected at the end of an abatement activity to determine if the
airborne concentration of fibers is low enough for occupant re-entry into the area without
the need for personal protective equipment (PPE). Clearance samples can be collected
and analyzed by either Phase Contrast Microscopy or by Transmission Electron
Microscopy (TEM) methods. If clearance samples are to be collected for commercial or
private building, you will likely have them analyzed by PCM. If the clearance sampling is for
an AHERA school the analysis will likely be by TEM. Both methods use 25 mm diameter
MCE filters, however, TEM analysis uses a 0.45 micrometer (µm) pore size while PCM
analysis uses a 0.8 µm pore size.

Let’s take a minute to look at the clearance requirements for an AHERA response actions.
AHERA allows both PCM and TEM clearances, but PCM can only be used for very small
response actions. If the response actions involves Asbestos Containing Building Materials
(ACBM) of less than 160 square feet or 260 linear feet, then PCM clearance samples can
be used to show compliance. If the ACBM involves greater than 160 square feet or 260
linear feet, then TEM clearance sampling must be conducted.

PCM clearances, under the AHERA regulation, require a total of 5 air samples inside the
contained area. All 5 samples must be collected at the same time and the clearance
criteria requires that all 5 samples must be less than or equal to 0.01 f/cc. No
specifications are given for the volume of air to be collected, however, paragraph763.90 (i)
of the AHERA regulation state:

“The action shall be considered complete when the results of samples

collected in the affected functional space and analyzed by phase contrast
microscopy using the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH) Method 7400 entitled "Fibers" published in the NIOSH Manual of
Analytical Methods, 3rd Edition, Second Supplement, August 1987, show
that the concentration of fibers for each of the five samples is less than or
equal to a limit of quantitation for PCM (0.01 fibers per cubic centimeter
(0.01 f/cm 3) of air).”

To achieve a “limit of quantitation” using PCM analytical methods, we need to reach a very
high statistical confidence that our 5 inside samples are all less than 0.01 f/cc. In order to
do this, you need to have a relatively high fiber density on the filters such that several
microscopists will all get the same count when analyzing our filters. Using Table 10-2, you
can see that if the containment is very clean (airborne levels of 0.005 f/cc) you will have to
10-18
sample, even at 11 LPM, for approximately 12 hours. If the airborne concentration is 0.01
f/cc (our clearance criteria), the sampling pumps would have to be run for 6 hours to
achieve a fiber density of approximately 100 fibers per square millimeter (f/mm2) of filter
surface. Although the NIOSH 7400 method specifies sampling to achieve a fiber density
greater than 100 f/mm2, generally, the best samples are those that you can run for
approximately 6 hours, at a flow rate of 10 to 12 LPM, but not longer than approximately 8
hours. When a high volume pump samples air for longer than 6 to 8 hours, the amount of
small dusts and non-fibrous materials collected start to obscure the fibers collected.

AHERA requires a total of 5 PCM samples inside the containment. However, if the
abatement is not an AHERA job, any number of samples, based on the requirements of the
contract may be acceptable. The minimum number of clearance samples should be 3. If a
Competent Person were to collect only 2 clearance samples with the results of one sample
being 0.0096 f/cc and the second sample being 0.0082 f/cc you can’t prove that the
average airborne concentration is less than 0.01 f/cc. However, a third sample of 0.0054
f/cc will indicate that the average airborne concentration is not at or above the clearance
criteria of 0.01 f/cc. If you can collect 4 to 5 clearance samples you can be even more
confident that the results represents the actual airborne concentration in the containment.

If you are collecting AHERA clearance samples for TEM analysis, you must collect 13
samples. The regulations require that 5 samples be collected inside the containment and
5 samples collected outside the containment which are representative of the make-up air
being drawn into the containment. The last 3 samples are blanks: 2 field blanks and 1 lab
blank.

The field blanks are sample cassettes that you have handled in the same manner as the 10
cassettes you used to sample the inside and outside air. These blanks are quality control
samples to determine if you have contaminated any of the 10 samples during sample
collection. Prepare the field blanks by standing outside the containment, in the area where
the outside air samples are being collected. Remove the cassette cap and hold the
cassette at a downward angle for 15 to 20 seconds. If you place the cassette caps for the
10 air samples in a zip-lock bag, place the caps for the field blanks in the same bag.
Follow the same procedures with the second field blank. The purpose of the field blanks is
to verify that handling of the 10 samples in the field did not cause contamination of any of
the samples.

The lab blank, sometimes called sealed blank, is a cassette that you do not open, but place
in with the other 12 samples. The laboratory will use this as a quality control sample. It can
be used to ensure that the lab did not contaminate any of the 10 air samples during the lab
preparation process. It is also used to determine if the cassettes were contaminated at the
manufacturing facility. This was a common occurrence in the 1980’s when the AHERA
standards were developed. If the lab or sealed blank is contaminated, and the average of
the 3 blanks exceeds 70 S/mm2, then the clearance sampling must be repeated at the
owner’s expense. This points out a good reason to get your sample cassettes for TEM
analysis from the laboratory which will analyze your samples. If the sealed blank is
contaminated, the laboratory will have other cassettes from the same manufacturing lot and
they can check those cassettes as part of their internal quality control program.
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10-20
10.5 ANALYTICAL METHODS

10.5.1 Transmission Electron Microscopy

Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)

is a technique which focuses an electron
beam onto a thin section of an air sample.
As the electron beam penetrates through
certain areas of the sample, an image
resulting from varying density of the
sample is projected onto a screen. The
process is time consuming, taking
approximately 2 hours to prepare a
sample and another 15 to 30 minutes to
read the results. In addition the
microscope itself can cost up to $100,000
and requires isolation from other building
vibrations such as ventilation systems,
doors opening and closing, and elevator
movements. With a microscope set at
20,000 power magnification the slightest
vibration can cause the field of view to
dance about such that you could not see Figure 10-1
the fibers. Transmission Electron Microscope

TEM air samples are collected on MCE filters with a 0.45 µm pore size or on diameter
polycarbonate filters. Call your laboratory as they will usually supply the filters. Analysis is
about $100 per sample with rush turn-around time costing approximately twice as much.
Standard turn-around-time analyses can be performed within 3 to 5 days, but due to the
limited number of experienced laboratories, it may take a week or more to obtain the
results. Contact the laboratory ahead of time and let them know you have TEM samples
and they can let you know when the results will be available.

TEM is currently considered the best available analytical method for identifying asbestos
fibers collected on air samples. TEM can identify fibers or structures as small as 0.2 µm
long and can distinguish asbestos from non-asbestos fibers. TEM equipped with selected
area electron diffraction (SAED) capabilities can also provide information on the crystal
structure of an individual particle.

10.5.2 Phase Contrast Microscopy (PCM)

Phase Contrast Microscopy (PCM) is a standard optical microscope which changes the
phases of the wavelengths of light to enhance the contrast between the fibers and the
background lighting. As the light on the microscope passes through the various lenses,
10-21
some light waves are bent so they are out-of-phase with other light waves. This causes
small particles and fibers to appear to have a slight halo of light around them making them
easier to see than in normal light microscopy.

Samples for PCM analysis are collected on a mixed cellulose ester (MCE) membrane filter
with a 0.8 µm pore size. Filters are then cleared in the laboratory with an acetone vapor
which dissolves the MCE filter so that particulate material collected can be

viewed through the microscope. Magnification of the microscope is required to be

between 400 to 440 power by the National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health (NIOSH) Method 7400. PCM
analysis is inexpensive ($8 - $15) and,
when necessary, samples can be
counted on the job site in a very short
period of time to allow for rapid
clearance sample results.

PCM is frequently referred to as the light

microscope method, the filter
membrane method, or the NIOSH Figure 10-2
7400 method. PCM is the analytical Cellulose fibers with 0.8 micrometer
filtration
method specified in the OSHA Asbestos Standard (1910.1001 and 1926.1101) for
determining employee exposure assessments. This method CAN NOT distinguish
between fiber types and microscopists must count ALL fibers 5 microns or longer, and at
least 3 times as long as they are wide (3:1 aspect ratio). Because of these limitations,
fiber counts by PCM typically provide only an index of the concentration of airborne
asbestos in the environment monitored. As the proportion of the small airborne fibers
which are less than 0.25 micrometers in diameter increases, PCM becomes a less reliable
analytical tool.

There are 3 fiber counting methods for PCM. The original was a NIOSH Method adopted
in the early 1970’s and referred to as P&CAM 239. The P&CAM 239 method is seldom
used anymore. The NIOSH 7400 method is an improved version of P&CAM 239 which
provides for a lower limit of detection. The third method is the OSHA reference method
(ORM) and is specified in the OSHA asbestos standards. The ORM contains
modifications to the procedures outlined in the NIOSH 7400 method. Most laboratories
accredited by the American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) or NVLAP that provide
services for asbestos fiber counts use the ORM for fiber counting.

PCM analysis by the NIOSH 7400 and/or ORM method starts by cutting a quarter-section
of the MCE filter and carefully placing the piece on a glass microscope slide. The acetone
is vaporized over the filter and allowed to set for a minute while the MCE filter is dissolved.
One to two drops of a chemical called Triacetin is applied to the area where the filter is
and a glass cover slip is placed on the slide. Special set up procedures are completed on
the microscope to ensure that it is optimized for phase-contrast operations.

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A special graticule, or reticule, is used for PCM which is called a Walton-Beckett (WB)
graticule. These are special ordered, based on specific measurements of each
microscope, so that the WB graticule projects a area of 0.00785 mm2 onto the surface of
the dissolved filter. The microscopist positions the microscopes field of view at one edge
of the dissolved filter and begins counting the number of “fibers” that lie within or touching
the outer ring of the WB graticule. There are specific procedures defining
what is counted and what is not counted.
For us, as Competent Persons, it’s
important to know that the microscopist
counts 100 WB graticule fields and sums
the number of fibers counted. This is the
actual raw count data for a sample.

In counting 100 fields you can see that

only a very small portion of the entire
filter is counted. First, only one-quarter
of the filter is mounted for counting.
Second, only 100 fields of 0.00785 mm2
are counted. The collection area of a 25
mm MCE filter covers a total of 385
mm2. One-quarter of that is mounted on
the slide, or a 96.25 mm2 piece. Then,
of this 96.25 mm2, only 0.785 mm2 (100 Figure 10-3
fields of 0.00785 mm2) Appearance of a Walton-Becket graticule.
are counted in the microscope. A filter surface of 385 mm2 is 490.45 times larger than 100
fields (0.785 mm2) of a WB graticule. This means that if two microscopists counted a
sample and one counted 5 more fibers in 100 fields, the difference in the total estimated
fibers on the filter would be 2,452 higher for one count than the other. It is extremely
important that we collect samples as accurately as possible to minimize the potential for
errors in the reported fiber concentrations by the laboratory.

10.5.3 Polarized Light Microscopy (PLM)

Polarized Light Microscopy is the most commonly accepted method for analyzing bulk
samples for the presence of asbestos. PLM is not used for analyzing air samples. PLM is
inexpensive ($15 - $25 per sample) and can be performed in the laboratory in
approximately 15 to 20 minutes. PLM is based on the optical properties of minerals using
a light microscope equipped with polarizing filters. Identification of asbestos fiber bundles
is based on the determination of optical properties displayed when the sample is treated
with various polarized light angles, a technique called “dispersion staining”, and refraction
index liquids. In addition, identification can be substantiated by the microscopic shape of
the fiber and other optical properties of the fiber.

The reliable limit of detecting asbestos in a building material is about one percent of the
material. Samples of extremely fine dusts, such as brake dust, should be analyzed by
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electron microscopy which can detect the smaller fibers. PLM is required by EPA
regulations for analysis of bulk samples and OSHA requires inspection of building
materials or the assumption that suspect materials are presumed ACM (PACM). OSHA
specifies in Appendix B of the standard (paragraph 1.3) that PLM or electron microscopy
must be used to positively identify asbestos. PLM is the most economical method to
determine the presence of asbestos in a sample.

10.5.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

SEM is a technique which directs an electron beam onto the sample surface and collects
those beams that are reflected. A magnified image is produced on a viewing screen. Air
samples for SEM filter counting are collected on a Nuclepore polycarbonate filter with an
0.45 micrometer pore size, similar to the TEM method. Analysis is expensive and several
days may be required to obtain results.

SEM can identify large fibers by morphology and elemental analyses when connected to an
energy dispersive x-ray analyzer. Fibers which are 0.05 micrometers in diameter are the
smallest that can be detected using SEM. This method has some fiber identification
problems with thin fibers and with flat, platy particles that display poor contrast. Also, there
is no standard protocol for this method. Currently, SEM provides somewhat better
information than PCM analysis, but the method cannot be used conclusively to identify or
quantify asbestos.

10.5.5 Fibrous Aerosol Monitors (FAM)

The Fibrous Aerosol Monitor (FAM), or Fibrous Real-Time Aerosol Monitor (FRAM) is an
instrument which uses laser light and electrical field technologies to instantaneously
analyze the fiber content of the air. These instruments provide a continuous measurement,
with direct numerical readout of the concentration of airborne fibers. The FAM can also be
used in conjunction with a strip chart to provide a record of air quality conditions.

The FAM is typically used as a barometer of airborne fiber levels rather than a precision
testing device. Its most useful function is to alert personnel to any sudden elevation of the
area fiber count. If a FAM is used on a project, it must be used in conjunction with other air
sampling techniques and not in place of them, as the OSHA standard requires personnel
samples to be collected on MCE filters and analyzed by the PCM method.

Additionally, these instruments do not distinguish between fiber types and cannot
discriminate between fibers and other particles that have sufficient shape irregularities to
possess fiber characteristics (i.e., they are longer than they are wide). The FAM does not
detect fibers smaller than about 0.5 micrometers in diameter. Side-by-side comparisons
indicate FAM concentration readings are generally within + 10 percent of the optical
membrane fiber count (PCM method). FAMs CAN NOT be used to document OSHA
breathing zone concentrations; however, they can be useful in estimating fiber

10-24
 concentrations for modifications to engineering controls or work practices. If employee
breathing zone concentrations are too high and modifications are instituted, FAMs, or other
particle counters, can be used to judge the effects of the modifications.

10.6 COLLECTION OF AIR SAMPLES

10.6.1 Gather The Equipment

When preparing to collect air samples for compliance with the OSHA or AHERA
standards, there is a significant list of materials that you need to gather before you can
begin. Obviously there are items that would be nice to have to make your job easier, but
the costs can sometimes be over $1,000.00 per item. Personal sampling pumps run
between $300.00 to $800.00 new. An electronic bubble, or dry-cell, primary standard
calibrator can cost $1,200.00 to $1,800.00, depending on brand name. Additionally,
electronic calibrators must be returned to the manufacturer every 1 – 2 years at costs of
$150.00 to $250.00 for factory calibration.

Purchase recognized brands of sampling pumps, especially for personal breathing zone
sampling. They are battery operated and you need to be sure that the batteries will last for
at least 8 hours and perhaps 10 to 12 hours of sampling time. If the battery dies during the
sampling period, you will most likely have to discard the sample because you will not know
when the pump died. If you don’t know how long it ran, you can not calculate the sampled
air volume. Don’t submit samples that you can not validate flow rates or sampling times.
It’s a waste of money, it doesn’t meet the OSHA standards and could get you a citation,
and it’s not fair to the employee who believes the sample results reported represent his or
her exposure levels.

Sampling cassettes can be either 25 mm diameter or 37 mm diameter for OSHA

sampling. Appendix A of the OSHA standard states that you can use either size filter.
However, if you use the 37 mm clear acrylic plastic cassettes, you must record, in writing,
why you used them. Since they are acrylic plastic they are much more susceptible to static
charges and fiber deposition on the sides of the cassettes. The black 25 mm cassettes
are impregnated with a material to reduce static charge and are therefore preferred for
fiber sample collection.

Keep a large stock of sampling cassettes on the shelf. If you are collecting employee
exposure samples and area samples during abatement, you may use 10 cassettes a day.
Generally, they are purchased by the box with 50 cassettes in a box. You should use the 25
mm diameter for all personal and area samples. PCM and TEM analysis requires using a
MCE filter material with the pore size (holes in the filter for the air to pass through) of 0.8
µm for PCM and 0.45 µm for TEM samples. The TEM method also allows the use of 0.4
µm polycarbonate filters. You should note here that if you are using 0.8 µm MCE cassettes
for area samples during abatement work, the flow rates will be in the 8 to 10 liter per minute
(L/min) range. If you then put a 0.45 µm MCE filter on the same sampling pumps for TEM

10-25
clearances, the flow rate will drop to 4 to 6 L/min due to the smaller pore size and
increased flow resistance through the filter.

Calibration of the pump(s) should be completed away from the work area. If you have a job
trailer or another office space at the site where project information is kept, use this area to
charge the pumps and complete your calibration activities. Attach a piece of clear plastic
tubing, approximately 2½ to 3 feet long, to the sampling pump. Attach the sample cassette
to the tubing and turn on the sampling pump. Use a calibrated rotameter or a primary
standard to calibrate the sampling pump. The flow rate must be between 0.5 and 2.5 liters
per minute for personal breathing-zone samples, depending on the anticipated airborne
concentrations inside the containment. Area sampling pumps should have a flow rate of
between 8 to 12 L/min.

Personal sampling pumps should be attached to a belt around the workers waist. Many
workers will fold a piece of duct tape in half, along it’s length and then tie the tape around
their waist. Then at the end of the day they can discard the “belt” and not have to
decontaminate it. Attaching the pump at the back, waist-level, will also keep the sampling
pump out of the employees way during the work day. Place the sampling cassette over
one shoulder of the worker and tape the tubing onto the shoulder of the worker. Make sure
the tubing is far enough forward on their chest to prevent dust from falling into the cassette
during abatement work. Remove the cap from the cassette to sample “open face” as
required by the OSHA standard.

If you are collecting clearance samples for an AHERA project, you will be using AC
powered high volume sampling pumps. Appendix A of the AHERA standard recommends
that flow rates be kept below 10 liters per minute (LPM). Studies conducted by industrial
hygienists in the early 1990’s found that flow rates below 13 LPM caused no measurable
difference if sample concentrations. Flow rates greater than 13 LPM appeared to cause a
decrease in the reported laboratory results. This was likely due to an increased potential
for static charge or turbulence inside the sampling cassette. Flow rates of between 8 to 12
LPM appear to provide the most statistically reproducible sample results.

TEM sampling apparatus is the same as PCM except for the sampling pump. Your

10-26
 cassettes should be either a 0.4 µm
polycarbonate (PC) filter or a 0.45 µm MCE
filter. Place the cassettes on the end of the ¼
inch ID plastic tubing from the pump and
attach the end of the tubing to a sample
tripod. If you prepare your own sampling
pump set ups from separate equipment
purchases, make sure that the cassette
holder is isolated from vibrations of the
sampling pump using a separate tripod stand.
An example of a good sampling train is
pictured here. Note that the sampling
cassette is sloped downward at an
approximate angle of 45 degrees or more.

Figure 10-4
Area Sampling Pump Set-up

Maintain a log of all pertinent sampling information, such as pump identification number,
calibration data, sample location, date, sample identification number, flow rates at the
beginning, middle, and end, start and stop times, and other useful information or
comments. Use of a sampling log form is recommended such as the EPA example below
or the form discussed in the classroom and included in the handouts at the end of this
chapter as Attachment A.
5
EPA SAMPLING LOG FORM
Sample Location of Sample Pump Start Middle End Flow
Number I.D. Time Time Time Rate

Inspector: Date:

5 AHERA, 40 CFR 762, Appendix A

10-27
 10.6.2 Calibration

Calibration of air sampling pumps is the most important part of an air sampling event. If
you don’t calibrate the pumps, then everything else you do related to air sampling is a
waste of time. When you don’t know the actual flow rate on the pump then the lab results
are meaningless. You leave yourself open to law suits at some time in the future, people
will not trust your work as an OSHA Competent Person, the employees who are trusting
you to protect them are putting their future health at risk, and, in a school project, the
children that will re-occupy your work area are at risk of developing asbestos related
illnesses. We need to accurately measure the flow rates on air sampling pumps used to
collect asbestos samples.

To determine the volume of air a sampling pump is drawing you need a calibration device
capable of accurately measuring this air volume. There are two types of standards for
doing this. A primary standard and a secondary standard. These standards are not
unique to asbestos work. They have existed for many years in all types of engineering,
medical, and industrial hygiene applications. A primary standard is a standard calibration
device that has been evaluated by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) 6 and
found to be free of variations due to temperature and/or atmospheric pressure differences.
In other words, the flow rate reported by a primary standard is the actual volume of air
being drawn in by the sampling pump.

The other standard is called a secondary standard. This device is usually a mechanical
flow meter and may not be as accurate as a primary standard. Additionally, a secondary
standard IS affected by temperature and pressure differences. There are usually
differences in the manufacturing process that cause secondary standards to be less
accurate than a primary standard. Secondary standards have to be compared to a primary
standard periodically to ensure their accuracy when used in the field.

Secondary standards are very useful in

air sampling. While a primary calibration
standard may cost between $900.00 to
$1,800.00 new, a secondary calibration
device can be purchased for $15.00 to
$25.00 and they are very sturdy and not
subject to vibration damage. These
secondary calibrators are typically called
field rotameters in asbestos abatement
work and can be purchased from places
like Grainger and other safety supply Figure 10-5
outlets. Field
Rotameter

6 ANSI is a private, non-profit organization (501(c)3) that administers and coordinates the U.S. voluntary standardization and conformity
assessment system.
10-28
The location you calibrate your sampling pumps in is very important. You need to make
sure the area is clean and relatively free of fibers. Do not calibrate in a room that is used to
store building materials (ceiling tiles, fiberglass, etc.) or is close or open to construction
activities. Your calibrated samples may be collecting fibers during the calibration process.

If you are using a primary standard to calibrate your sampling pumps, then you attach the
filter cassette to the calibrator and to the sampling pump as illustrated in Figure 10-6
below. Air samples for asbestos are always collected “open faced” with the cassette cap
removed. However, during the calibration process you need something to attach the
calibrator to, so leave the cap on the cassette. You should “test” the flow by running several
bubbles through the calibrator and allowing the device to average the flow rates. I would
recommend an average of 5 passes, but your minimum should never be less than 3.
Record the average flow rate for each sampling pump. You can use your sample cassette
to calibrate with. It is actually preferred to do this, both before and after sampling. As the
filter collected fibers and other airborne particles, the air flow through the filter will become
slowed by the additional material on the filter. If the filter loads up with too much
particulates it can actually change the flow rate, so post-calibration should always be
completed with the sample cassette on the pump.

Figure 10-6
Calibration using a
primary standard.
Note that the sample
cassette is always in
place during
calibration of a
sampling pump.

Calibration with a secondary standard is more complex than with a primary, but it is just as
accurate if done properly. The secondary standard (usually a rotameter) is calibrated
against a primary standard to determine the actual flow rate for any volume listed on the
rotameter. For example, if the rotameter reads 2.2 LPM, calibration against a primary
standard will tell you if the actual flow rate is 2.1 LPM or 2.3 LPM or even 2.5 LPM.
Because the rotameter is a mechanical device and there may be tiny differences in the
diameter of the bore during the manufacturing process, there will be differences in flow
10-29
rates between rotameters when the ball of a rotameter is reading 2.2 LPM.

To calibrate a rotameter, the pump, rotameter, and primary standard are all attached
together with the rotameter in the center, as shown in Figure 10-7. Turn on the sample
pump and adjust the flow rate of the pump so that the rotameter indicates a flow rate of
1.00 LPM (read the rotameter at the center of the ball). Now use the primary standard to
measure the actual flow rate. It may be 1.00 or it may be lower or higher, depending on the
precision of the bore diameter or weight of the ball in the rotameter. Record the actual flow
rate when the rotameter reads 1.00 LPM. Then adjust the pump to a higher flow rate, say
1.5 LPM, and check the actual flow rate on the primary standard. Continue adjusting the
pump for higher flow rates so that you have 5 to 6 calibration values over the range of the
rotameter. These numbers will then be used to “calibrate” the rotameter.

The 5 to 6 calibration values for the rotameter are used in a mathematical process called
“linear regression” to predict the actual flow rate for any value on the rotameter. If you
measured the actual flow rates when the rotameter read 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, and 3.5, we
can calculate the actual flow rate when the rotameter reading is 1.3 LPM or 2.2 LPM by
using linear regression values to predict those actual flow rates.

Figure 10-7
Calibration of a
rotameter
using a primary
standard.

Linear regression uses the formula y = ax+b, which is the mathematical formula for a
straight line on a graph. “y” represents the “actual flow rate”. “a” is called the slope of the
line on the graph, that is, the angle at which the line rises relative to the x or the y axis of the
graph. “x” is the flow rate observed at the site with the rotameter. “b” is called the intercept
of the line on the graph, that is, the point at which the line crosses the x axis (bottom) of the
graph. All of these calculations can be done on a computer spreadsheet. A copy of the
spreadsheet, in Microsoft Excel format, and instruction on how to use the sheet, are
available on the Asbestos Institute website located at http://www.taiinfo.com and can be
downloaded for your use.

10-30
 Figure 10-8
Graph of a
rotameter
calibration. Used in
calculation of linear
regression slope
and intercept.

Remember, if you are using a calibrated rotameter to measure flow rate on your sampling
pumps, this value can vary if there are changes to the temperature and/or barometric
pressure. Standard industrial hygiene practice is that if there is a 5 percent difference
between the temperature and pressure at the job site versus the temperature and pressure
at the rotameter calibration site, you must do a correction for temperature and pressure
(see Section 10.7.4).

10.6.3 Documentation

Documentation! Documentation! Documentation! You will hear this over and over as a
Supervisor on asbestos abatement projects. In order to protect yourself and your company
from OSHA violations, AHERA violations, or future lawsuits, you need to keep written
records for everything that occurs on your project. The amounts of ACM removed, the
times that workers were on-site, the number of samples collected (area and personal), the
number of workers inside containment, and etc. All of these, and many more details of the
project need to be recorded somewhere. It is easiest if there is a specific form already
prepared that prompts you for the things that need to be documented.

For air sampling, there are two specific forms that you should have on every project. One
form is the Field Data Sheet which is used to record the pre and post calibration data, the
times the pump was turned on and turned off, the sample identification number, the total
volume of the sample, and other pieces of air sampling data. An example of the
information collected on a Field Data Sheet is included in Attachment A at the end of this
chapter. Use your word processor at work and create a Field Data Sheet to record the
specific types of information used on your projects.

10-31
 The second form is the Chain-Of-Custody form. This form is used for any sample submittal
to the laboratory. Another name for the form could be the Laboratory Request Form since
the form usually contains information such as the total sample volume, the type of sample
collection, and the type of analysis the laboratory needs to perform. An example of a
Chain-Of-Custody form is included in Attachment B to show the types of information
collected on the form. If you have a specific laboratory that you plan to use, ask the lab or
multiple copies of their Chain-Of-Custody form. Some labs will provide copies of the form,
pre-printed with your company name and address already on the form.

10.7 CALCULATIONS FOR AIR SAMPLING

10.7.1 Sampling Volumes

Calculation of the sampled air volume must be reported to the laboratory to ensure
accurate calculation of the fibers per cubic centimeter of air. The volume is calculated by
multiplying the average pump flow rate, in liters of air per minute, times the number of
minutes the pump ran. The flow rate used for this calculation is the average flow rate during
the sampling period. Keep in mind that the batteries in the personal sampling pumps are
discharging while the pumps are running. You need to check the flow rates on the pumps
several times during the day until you are familiar with how well the pump holds a battery
charge while running. Average out all of the calibration checks during the day to arrive at
an average flow rate for each sampling pump.

Volume = R x T when
R = Rate (in liters per minute) and T = Time (in minutes)

V=RxT Formula 10-1

As a simple example, if the average calibrated flow rate on an area pump was 10 liters per
minute, it would collect 10 liters in 1 minute (10 x 1), 20 liters in 2 minutes (10 x 2), and 30
liters in 3 minutes (10 x 3). If a personal sampling pump was calibrated at 1.8 liters per
minute and ran for 388 minutes, the volume (V) would be 1.8 (R) x 388 (T) = 698 liters of
air.

10.7.2 Calibration Data

Calculation of the calibration flow rate will depend on the mechanism of calibration. If you
are using a rotameter, watch the float for several seconds and estimate the meter reading
by mentally averaging the variations in the flow rate. For example, the ball may fluctuate
between 1.7 to 1.8, so record the flow rate as 1.75. This is the direct read secondary
standard flow rate. It will need to be compared to a calibration sheet for that rotameter to
verify the “actual” flow rate.

10-32
If you are using a manufactured primary standard, you should run multiple bubbles to get an
average of the flow rates. If the primary standard is electronic, you can let the meter do the
averaging, but you should get an average of a minimum of 3 bubbles and if there is seems
to be a significant difference in the flow rates (say greater than 0.05 LPM at low flow or 0.5
LPM at high flow) in any of the readings, run a total of 5 to 7 bubbles.

If you are using a manually operated primary standard such as an upside down calibrated
cylinder, you should run a minimum of 4 to 5 bubbles to average out the multiple potentials
for error, such as starting the stop watch exactly when the bubble reaches the zero line or
exactly when it reaches the end line. Your average flow rate with this calibration device will
be the volume of the calibrated cylinder, say 1.8 liters, per seconds on the stop watch.

First you must convert the stop watch “seconds” to minutes by dividing your average time
by 60 seconds per minute.
Seconds
= Minutes Formula 10-2
Seconds
Minute

If your calibrated cylinder has a volume of 1.8 liters and you measured four bubbles at 10.9
seconds, 11.0 seconds, 11.1 seconds, and 10.8 seconds, your average time will be:

10. 9 + 11.0 + 11.1 + 10. 8 41. 8

= = 10.95 Seconds
4 4
and, your flow rate will be:

1. 8 Liters
10. 95 Seconds

Convert 10.95 seconds to minutes using Formula 10-2.

10. 95 Seconds
= 0.1825 Minutes
60 Seconds
Minute

Now, convert 1.8 Liters per 0.1825 minutes by dividing:

1.8 Liters
= 9.86 L / Minute
0. 1825 Minute

10.7.3 Time-Weighted Averages

Determining the Time-Weighted Average (TWA) for each personnel breathing zone
sample you collect is required by the OSHA regulations. You can not compare the sample
results to the OSHA PEL unless you determine the 8-hour TWA exposure value. If you
10-33
collect one sample for an employee, that sample has to be averaged over a full 8-hour time
period. If you collect three samples, all three have to be averaged over a full 8-hour time
period.

To calculate the TWA for an employee sample, substitute the laboratory reported results for
each “C” and the time that that sample was collected for each “T” in the formula.

(C1 xT1 ) + (C 2 xT 2 ) + (C 3 xT3 )+ ...(Cn xT n )

8 Hr . TWA = Formula 10-3
480
Where C = airborne concentration of each sample collected and
T = the time, in minutes, that a single sample was collected.

If the employees are working a 10 hour or 12 hour work shift, you still divide by the 480
minutes of an 8-hour workday. This allows you to compare the effects of longer work shifts
to the OSHA PEL. The PEL is based on adverse health effects for workers who are
working 8-hour work shifts. In order to determine if longer exposures are likely to cause
adverse effects, the amount of the actual exposure must be compared to the 8-hour
TWA…therefore, you ALWAYS divide by 480 minutes.

10.7.4 Corrections for Temperature and Pressure

As mentioned in the classroom, air has weight and moves from areas of low pressure to
areas of high pressure. These pressure differences cause variations in the flow rates of
our sampling pumps. A Primary Standard calibration device is unaffected by temperature
and pressure and the reading on the device is the true flow rate for the sampling pump at
the current temperature and pressure. However, if you are using a calibrated rotameter
and the temperature or pressure is higher or lower at the sampling site than at the site
where the rotameter was calibrated, it will cause a difference in the flow rate.

To compensate for these differences in temperature and/or pressure, when using a

rotameter, the following formula is used to correct for temperature and pressure
differences.

P  T 
Qact = Qcal X  cal  X  act  Formula 10- 4
 Pact   Tcal 

To use the formula, you need to plug into the equation the barometric pressure at the actual
sampling site, labeled as P act and the barometric pressure at the time the rotameter was
calibrated, labeled as P cal. These two numbers are divided. Then the temperature at the
actual sampling site (Tact) is divided by the temperature at the time the rotameter was
calibrated (Tcal). The results of these two divisions are multiplied together and then take
the square root of the resulting multiplication. This number is multiplied by the rotameter
reading for the “corrected” flow rate. Attachment F gives detailed information on how to
make these corrections for temperature and pressure differences.

10-34
10.7.5 Calculation of Laboratory Results in Fibers per Cubic Centimeter

This calculation is almost always done by the analytical laboratory. It may be interesting to
you, as the Competent Person, to know how the laboratory determines the “asbestos
concentration”, based on the sample volume you provide to them. Formula 10-6, listed
below, is found in Appendix B of the OSHA regulations. Although Appendix B is a non-
mandatory appendix, the NIOSH 7400 methods, used by most laboratories, use the same
calculations to determine asbestos fiber concentrations.

One of the reasons that the lower detection limit of the PCM method is limited to 0.01 f/cc
is that the analytical method examines only a tiny portion of the entire filter that you
submitted. The filters are 25 mm in diameter, but the extension cowl sits on the outer edge
of the filter and reduces the effective collection area of the filter to approximately 22.14 mm
diameter. This slight reduction in diameter makes the filter collection surface

10-35
area approximately 385 mm2. The Walton-Beckett graticule has an effective optical area
of 0.00785 mm2 in the microscopes field of view, which means that every “field” the
microscopist counts covers 0.00785 mm2. The NIOSH 7400 procedure requires that the
microscopist count 100 microscope fields; that is, 100 x 0.00785 mm2, or 0.785 mm2 of
the filters 385 mm2 surface collection area. This is approximately 0.2 percent of the filters
surface. The total number of fibers on the filter is then estimated by essentially multiplying
the number of fibers in 100 fields by 490 (see Formula 10-5 below) to cover the entire
surface area of the filter (385 mm2).

385 mm 2
= 490 Formula 10- 5
0.785 mm 2

 FB   BFB  
 FL  −  BFL   x ECA
   
AC = Formula 10- 6
1000 x FR x T x MFA

AC = Airborne fiber concentration.

FB = Total number of fibers greater than 5 µm counted.
FL = Total number of fields counted on the filter.
BFB = Total number of fibers greater than 5 µm counted in the blank.
BFL = Total number of fields counted on the blank.
ECA = Effective collecting area of filter (385 mm2 nominal for a 25-mm filter.).
FR = Pump flow rate (L/min).
MFA = Microscope count field area (mm2 ). This is 0.00785 mm2 for a Walton-
Beckett Graticule.
T = Sample collection time (min).
1000 = Conversion of Liters to cubic centimeters.

So how does this formula determine the total number of fibers collected on the filter?
Essentially, you take the number of fibers you counted in 100 W-B fields and multiply that
number times 490 for the other 385-plus square millimeters of the filters surface. If the
microscopist counted 244 fibers in 100 fields, the count for the entire filter would be 0.0997
f/cc, slightly less than the OSHA PEL. If another microscopist counted the same slide, but
counted in another area of the filter, and counted 249 fibers in 100 fields, the results for this
second counting would be 0.102 f/cc, slightly higher than the OSHA PEL. As you can see,
this is not a “precise” method to measure airborne asbestos fibers.

If we use formula 10-6 above on the example we just look at, you can see how the formula
works. Let’s take the 244 fibers per 100 field count and plug that into the formula. Assume
that sampling was conducted using a high volume area sampling pump calibrated at 10.0
liters per minute. The pump ran for 2 hours (120 minutes).

10-36
  244   0  
 100  −  100   x 385
   
AC = Formula 10- 7
1000 x 10.0 x 120 x 0. 00785

AC = Airborne fiber concentration.

FB = 244 fibers greater than 5 µm counted.
FL = 100 fields counted on the filter.
BFB = 0 fibers greater than 5 µm counted in the blank.
BFL = 100 fields counted on the blank.
ECA = Effective collecting area of filter = 385 mm2.
FR = Pump flow rate = 2.2L/min.
MFA = Microscope count field area = 0.00785 mm2.
T = Sample collection time = 480 minutes.
1000 = Conversion of Liters to cubic centimeters.

AC =
[(2.44 ) − (0 )] x 385 =
2. 44 x 385
=
939. 4
= 0.09972
(1000 x 10.0 ) x (120 x 0.00785 ) 10,000 x 0.942 9420

10-37
 ATTACHMENT A

AIR SAMPLING FIELD DATA SHEET

10-38
FIELD DATA ASBESTOS
AIR SAMPLING

Client Job No.

Project
Location
Sample Date Sampled by
Sampling Method: Static Air Aggressive Air Personal

Flow Calibrations LPM Sampling Time Min.

Sample Pump Volume Results
Time Time Total Key
I.D. I.D. Before After Avg. Actual Liters f/cc
On Off
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
0

LOCATION

1 6
2 7
3 8
4 9
5 10

KEY:
A = Area B = Baseline AC = Aggressive Clearance SC = Static Clearance
E = Employee P = Perimeter O = Other

10-39
Hk:\..\..\SABfiles\Asbestos\Asbestos Field Data Sheet.doc

10-40
 ATTACHMENT B

Chain Of Custody Form

10-41
COC FORM

10-42
 ATTACHMENT C

TIME-WEIGHTED AVERAGE CALCULATION SHEET

10-43
TIME-WEIGHTED AVERAGE (TWA)
CALCULATION SHEET

FORMULA:

(C 1 x T 1 ) + (C 2 x T 2 ) + (C 3 x T 3 ) + ...(C n x T n )

480

( x )+( x )+( x )

480

( )+( )+( )

480

= f/cc

480

10-44
 ATTACHMENT D

APPENDIX A TO
1926.1101

MANDATORY APPENDIX

10-45
STANDARD NUMBER § 1926.1101 APPENDIX A
SUBPART Z: TOXIC AND HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES
OSHA REFERENCE METHOD - MANDATORY AUGUST 10, 1994

This mandatory appendix specifies the procedure for analyzing air samples for asbestos and specifies
quality control procedures that must be implemented by laboratories performing the analysis. The
sampling and analytical methods described below represent the elements of the available monitoring
methods (such as Appendix B of this regulation, the most current version of the OSHA method ID -160, or
the most current version of the NIOSH Method 7400). All employers who are required to conduct air
monitoring under paragraph (f) of the standard are required to utilize analytical laboratories that use this
procedure, or an equivalent method, for collecting and analyzing samples.

Sampling and Analytical Procedure

1. The sampling medium for air samples shall be mixed cellulose ester filter membranes. These
shall be designated by the manufacturer as suitable for asbestos counting. See below for
rejection of blanks.
2. The preferred collection device shall be the 25-mm diameter cassette with an open-faced 50-mm
electrically conductive extension cowl. The 37-mm cassette may be used if necessary but only if
written justification for the need to use the 37-mm filter cassette accompanies the sample results
in the employee's exposure monitoring record. Do not reuse or reload cassettes for asbestos
sample collection.
3. An air flow rate between 0.5 liter/min and 2.5 liters/min shall be selected for the 25/mm cassette.
If the 37-mm cassette is used, an air flow rate between 1 liter/min and 2.5 liters/min shall be
selected.
4. Where possible, a sufficient air volume for each air sample shall be collected to yield between
100 and 1,300 fibers per square millimeter on the membrane filter. If a filter darkens in
appearance or if loose dust is seen on the filter, a second sample shall be started.
5. Ship the samples in a rigid container with sufficient packing material to prevent dislodging the
collected fibers. Packing material that has a high electrostatic charge on its surface (e.g.,
expanded polystyrene) cannot be used because such material can cause loss of fibers to the
sides of the cassette.
6. Calibrate each personal sampling pump before and after use with a representative filter cassette
installed between the pump and the calibration devices.
7. Personal samples shall be taken in the "breathing zone" of the employee (i.e., attached to or near
the collar or lapel near the worker's face).
8. Fiber counts shall be made by positive phase contrast using a microscope with an 8 to 10 X
eyepiece and a 40 to 45 X objective for a total magnification of approximately 400 X and a
numerical aperture of 0.65 to 0.75. The microscope shall also be fitted with a green or blue filter.

10-46
9. The microscope shall be fitted with a Walton-Beckett eyepiece graticule calibrated for a field
diameter of 100 micrometers (±2 micrometers).
10. The phase-shift detection limit of the microscope shall be about 3 degrees measured using the
HSE phase shift test slide as outlined below.
a. Place the test slide on the microscope stage and center it under the phase objective.
b. Bring the blocks of grooved lines into focus.
Note: The slide consists of seven sets of grooved lines (ca. 20 grooves to each block) in
descending order of visibility from sets 1 to 7, seven being the least visible. The
requirements for asbestos counting are that the microscope optics must resolve the
grooved lines in set 3 completely, although they may appear somewhat faint, and that the
grooved lines in sets 6 and 7 must be invisible. Sets 4 and 5 must be at least partially
visible but may vary slightly in visibility between microscopes. A microscope that fails to
meet these requirements has either too low or too high a resolution to be used for
asbestos counting.
c. If the image deteriorates, clean and adjust the microscope optics. If the problem persists,
consult the microscope manufacturer.
11. Each set of samples taken will include 10% field blanks or a minimum of 2 field blanks. These
blanks must come from the same lot as the filters used for sample collection. The field blank
results shall be averaged and subtracted from the analytical results before reporting. A set
consists of any sample or group of samples for which an evaluation for this standard must be
made. Any samples represented by a field blank having a fiber count in excess of the detection
limit of the method being used shall be rejected.
12. The samples shall be mounted by the acetone/triacetin method or a method with an equivalent
index of refraction and similar clarity.
13. Observe the following counting rules.
a. Count only fibers equal to or longer than 5 micrometers. Measure the length of curved
fibers along the curve.
b. In the absence of other information, count all particles as asbestos that have a length-to-
width ratio (aspect ratio) of 3:1 or greater.
c. Fibers lying entirely within the boundary of the Walton-Beckett graticule field shall receive a
count of 1. Fibers crossing the boundary once, having one end within the circle, shall
receive the count of one half (½). Do not count any fiber that crosses the graticule
boundary more than once. Reject and do not count any other fibers even though they may
be visible outside the graticule area.
d. Count bundles of fibers as one fiber unless individual fibers can be identified by observing
both ends of an individual fiber.
e. Count enough graticule fields to yield 100 fibers. Count a minimum of 20 fields; stop
counting at 100 fields regardless of fiber count.

10-47
14. Blind recounts shall be conducted at the rate of 10 percent.

10-48
Quality Control Procedures
1. Intralaboratory program. Each laboratory and/or each company with more than one microscopist
counting slides shall establish a statistically designed quality assurance program involving blind
recounts and comparisons between microscopists to monitor the variability of counting by each
microscopist and between microscopists. In a company with more than one laboratory, the
program shall include all laboratories, and shall also evaluate the laboratory-to-laboratory
variability.
2.a. Interlaboratory program. Each laboratory analyzing asbestos samples for compliance
determination shall implement an interlaboratory quality assurance program that, as a minimum,
includes participation of at least two other independent laboratories. Each laboratory shall
participate in round robin testing at least once every 6 months with at least all the other
laboratories in its interlaboratory quality assurance group. Each laboratory shall submit slides
typical of its own workload for use in this program. The round robin shall be designed and results
analyzed using appropriate statistical methodology.
2.b. All laboratories should also participate in a national sample testing scheme such as the
Proficiency Analytical Testing Program (PAT), or the Asbestos Registry sponsored by the
American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA).
3. All individuals performing asbestos analysis must have taken the NIOSH course for sampling and
evaluating airborne asbestos dust or an equivalent course.
4. When the use of different microscopes contributes to differences between counters and
laboratories, the effect of the different microscope shall be evaluated and the microscope shall be
replaced, as necessary.
5. Current results of these quality assurance programs shall be posted in each laboratory to keep the
microscopists informed.

10-49
 ATTACHMENT E

APPENDIX B TO
1926.1101

NON-MANDATORY APPENDIX

10-50
STANDARD NUMBER § 1926.1101 APPENDIX B
SUBPART Z: TOXIC AND HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES
SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS – NON-MANDATORY JUNE 29, 1995

Matrix Air:
OSHA Permissible Exposure Limits:
Time Weighted Average ............................0.1 fibers/cc
Excursion Level (30 minutes).....................1.0 fiber/cc
A known volume of air is drawn through a 25-mm diameter cassette containing a
mixed-cellulose ester filter. The cassette must be equipped with an electrically
conductive 50-mm extension cowl. The sampling time and rate are chosen to give
a fiber density of between 100 to 1,300 fibers/mm2 on the filter.
Recommended Sampling Rate .......................0.5 to 5.0 liters/minute (L/min)
Recommended Air Volumes:
Minimum...........................................................25 L
Maximum......................................................2,400 L

Analytical Procedure: A portion of the sample filter is cleared and prepared for asbestos fiber counting
by Phase Contrast Microscopy (PCM) at 400X.

Commercial manufacturers and products mentioned in this method are for descriptive use only and do
not constitute endorsements by USDOL-OSHA. Similar products from other sources can be substituted.

1. Introduction

This method describes the collection of airborne asbestos fibers using calibrated sampling
pumps with mixed-cellulose ester (MCE) filters and analysis by phase contrast microscopy
(PCM). Some terms used are unique to this method and are defined below: Asbestos: A term
for naturally occurring fibrous minerals. Asbestos includes chrysotile, crocidolite, amosite
(cummingtonite-grunerite asbestos), tremolite asbestos, actinolite asbestos, anthophyllite
asbestos, and any of these minerals that have been chemically treated and/or altered. The
precise chemical formulation of each species will vary with the location from which it was mined.
Nominal compositions are listed:

Chrysotile Mg3 Si2 O5 (OH)4

Crocidolite Na2 Fe(3)(2)+Fe(2)(3)+Si8 O22 (OH) 2
Amosite (Mg,Fe)7 Si8 O22 (OH)2
Tremolite-actinolite Ca2 (Mg,Fe)5 Si8 O22 (OH) 2
Anthophyllite (Mg,Fe)7 Si8 O22 (OH) 2

Asbestos Fiber: A fiber of asbestos which meets the criteria specified below for a fiber.

Aspect Ratio: The ratio of the length of a fiber to it's diameter (e.g. 3:1, 5:1 aspect ratios).

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Cleavage Fragments: Mineral particles formed by comminution of minerals, especially those
characterized by parallel sides and a moderate aspect ratio (usually less than 20:1).

Detection Limit: The number of fibers necessary to be 95% certain that the result is greater than zero.

Differential Counting: The term applied to the practice of excluding certain kinds of fibers from the fiber
count because they do not appear to be asbestos.

Fiber: A particle that is 5 µm or longer, with a length-to-width ratio of 3 to 1 or longer.

Field: The area within the graticule circle that is superimposed on the microscope image.

Set: The samples which are taken, submitted to the laboratory, analyzed, and for which, interim or final
result reports are generated.

Tremolite, Anthophyllite, and Actinolite: The non-asbestos form of these minerals which meet the
definition of a fiber. It includes any of these minerals that have been chemically treated and/or altered.

Walton-Beckett Graticule: An eyepiece graticule specifically designed for asbestos fiber counting. It
consists of a circle with a projected diameter of 100 plus or minus 2 µm (area of about 0.00785 mm2)
with a crosshair having tic-marks at 3-µm intervals in one direction and 5-µm in the orthogonal direction.
There are marks around the periphery of the circle to demonstrate the proper sizes and shapes of fibers.
This design is reproduced in Figure 2. The disk is placed in one of the microscope eyepieces so that
the design is superimposed on the field of view.

1.1. History

Early surveys to determine asbestos exposures were conducted using impinger counts of total
dust with the counts expressed as million particles per cubic foot. The British Asbestos Research
Council recommended filter membrane counting in 1969. In July 1969, the Bureau of
Occupational Safety and Health published a filter membrane method for counting asbestos fibers
in the United States. This method was refined by NIOSH and published as P & CAM 239. On
May 29, 1971, OSHA specified filter membrane sampling with phase contrast counting for
evaluation of asbestos exposures at work sites in the United States. The use of this technique
was again required by OSHA in 1986. Phase contrast microscopy has continued to be the
method of choice for the measurement of occupational exposure to asbestos.

1.2. Principle

Air is drawn through a MCE filter to capture airborne asbestos fibers. A wedge shaped portion
of the filter is removed, placed on a glass microscope slide and made transparent. A measured
area (field) is viewed by PCM. All the fibers meeting a defined criteria for asbestos are counted
and considered a measure of the airborne asbestos concentration.

1.3. Advantages and Disadvantages

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 There are four main advantages of PCM over other methods:

(1) The technique is specific for fibers. Phase contrast is a fiber counting technique which
excludes non-fibrous particles from the analysis.
(2) The technique is inexpensive and does not require specialized knowledge to carry out the
analysis for total fiber counts.
(3) The analysis is quick and can be performed on-site for rapid determination of air
concentrations of asbestos fibers.
(4) The technique has continuity with historical epidemiological studies so that estimates of
expected disease can be inferred from long-term determinations of asbestos exposures.

The main disadvantage of PCM is that it does not positively identify asbestos fibers. Other fibers
which are not asbestos may be included in the count unless differential counting is performed.
This requires a great deal of experience to adequately differentiate asbestos from non-asbestos
fibers. Positive identification of asbestos must be performed by polarized light or electron
microscopy techniques. A further disadvantage of PCM is that the smallest visible fibers are
about 0.2 µm in diameter while the finest asbestos fibers may be as small as 0.02 µm in
diameter. For some exposures, substantially more fibers may be present than are actually
counted.

1.4. Workplace Exposure

Asbestos is used by the construction industry in such products as shingles, floor tiles, asbestos
cement, roofing felts, insulation and acoustical products. Non-construction uses include brakes,
clutch facings, paper, paints, plastics, and fabrics. One of the most significant exposures in the
workplace is the removal and encapsulation of asbestos in schools, public buildings, and homes.
Many workers have the potential to be exposed to asbestos during these operations.

About 95% of the asbestos in commercial use in the United States is chrysotile. Crocidolite and
amosite make up most of the remainder. Anthophyllite and tremolite or actinolite are likely to be
encountered as contaminants in various industrial products.

1.5. Physical Properties

Asbestos fiber possesses a high tensile strength along its axis, is chemically inert, non-
combustible, and heat resistant. It has a high electrical resistance and good sound absorbing
properties. It can be weaved into cables, fabrics or other textiles, and also matted into asbestos
papers, felts, or mats.

2.0 Range and Detection Limit

2.1. The ideal counting range on the filter is 100 to 1,300 fibers/mm2. With a Walton-Beckett graticule
this range is equivalent to 0.8 to 10 fibers/field. Using NIOSH counting statistics, a count of 0.8
fibers/field would give an approximate coefficient of variation (CV) of 0.13.

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2.2. The detection limit for this method is 4.0 fibers per 100 fields or 5.5 fibers/mm2. This was
determined using an equation to estimate the maximum CV possible at a specific concentration
(95% confidence) and a Lower Control Limit of zero. The CV value was then used to determine a
corresponding concentration from historical CV vs. fiber relationships. As an example:

Lower Control Limit (95% Confidence) = AC - 1.645(CV)(AC)

Where:

AC = Estimate of the airborne fiber concentration (fibers/cc)

Setting the Lower Control Limit = 0 and solving for CV:
0 = AC - 1.645(CV)(AC)
CV = 0.61

This value was compared with CV vs. count curves. The count at which CV = 0.61 for Leidel-
Busch counting statistics or for an OSHA Salt Lake Technical Center (OSHA-SLTC) CV curve
(see Appendix A for further information) was 4.4 fibers or 3.9 fibers per 100 fields, respectively.
Although a lower detection limit of 4 fibers per 100 fields is supported by the OSHA-SLTC data,
both data sets support the 4.5 fibers per 100 fields value.

3. Method Performance -- Precision and Accuracy

Precision is dependent upon the total number of fibers counted and the uniformity of the fiber
distribution on the filter. A general rule is to count at least 20 and not more than 100 fields. The
count is discontinued when 100 fibers are counted, provided that 20 fields have already been
counted. Counting more than 100 fibers results in only a small gain in precision. As the total
count drops below 10 fibers, an accelerated loss of precision is noted.

At this time, there is no known method to determine the absolute accuracy of the asbestos
analysis. Results of samples prepared through the Proficiency Analytical Testing (PAT) Program
and analyzed by the OSHA-SLTC showed no significant bias when compared to PAT reference
values. The PAT samples were analyzed from 1987 to 1989 (N = 36) and the concentration range
was from 120 to 1,300 fibers/mm2.

4. Interferences

Fibrous substances, if present, may interfere with asbestos analysis.

Some common fibers are:

fiber glass
perlite veins
anhydrite plant fibers
gypsum
some synthetic fibers
membrane structures
sponge spicules
diatoms

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 microorganisms
wollastonite

The use of electron microscopy or optical tests such as polarized light, and dispersion staining
may be used to differentiate these materials from asbestos when necessary.

5. Sampling

5.1. Equipment

5.1.1. Sample assembly (The assembly is shown in Figure 3). Conductive filter holder consisting
of a 25-mm diameter, 3-piece cassette having a 50-mm long electrically conductive
extension cowl. Backup pad, 25-mm, cellulose. Membrane filter, mixed-cellulose ester
(MCE), 25-mm, plain, white, 0.8- to 1.2-µm pore size.

Notes:

1. DO NOT RE-USE CASSETTES.

2. Fully conductive cassettes are required to reduce fiber loss to the sides of the
cassette due to electrostatic attraction.

3. Purchase filters which have been selected by the manufacturer for asbestos
counting or analyze representative filters for fiber background before use. Discard
the filter lot if more than 4 fibers/ 100 fields are found.

4. To decrease the possibility of contamination, the sampling system (filter-backup

pad-cassette) for asbestos is usually pre-assembled by the manufacturer.

5. Other cassettes, such as the Bell-mouth, may be used within the limits of their
validation.

5.1.2. Gel bands for sealing cassettes.

5.1.3. Sampling pump.

Each pump must be a battery operated, self-contained unit small enough to be placed on
the monitored employee and not interfere with the work being performed. The pump must
be capable of sampling at the collection rate for the required sampling time.

5.1.4. Flexible tubing, 6-mm bore.

5.1.5. Pump calibration.

Stopwatch and bubble tube/burette or electronic meter.

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5.2. Sampling Procedure

5.2.1. Seal the point where the base and cowl of each cassette meet with a gel band or tape.

5.2.2. Charge the pumps completely before beginning.

5.2.3. Connect each pump to a calibration cassette with an appropriate length of 6-mm bore
plastic tubing. Do not use luer connectors -- the type of cassette specified above has built-
in adapters.

5.2.4. Select an appropriate flow rate for the situation being monitored. The sampling flow rate
must be between 0.5 and 5.0 L/min for personal sampling and is commonly set between 1
and 2 L/min. Always choose a flow rate that will not produce overloaded filters.

5.2.5. Calibrate each sampling pump before and after sampling with a calibration cassette in-line
(Note: This calibration cassette should be from the same lot of cassettes used for
sampling). Use a primary standard (e.g. bubble burette) to calibrate each pump. If
possible, calibrate at the sampling site.

Note: If sampling site calibration is not possible, environmental influences may affect the
flow rate. The extent is dependent on the type of pump used. Consult with the pump
manufacturer to determine dependence on environmental influences. If the pump is
affected by temperature and pressure changes, correct the flow rate using the farmula
shown in the section “Sampling Pump Flow Rate Corrections” at the end of this appendix.

5.2.6. Connect each pump to the base of each sampling cassette with flexible tubing. Remove
the end cap of each cassette and take each air sample open face. Assure that each
sample cassette is held open side down in the employee's breathing zone during
sampling. The distance from the nose/mouth of the employee to the cassette should be
about 10 cm. Secure the cassette on the collar or lapel of the employee using spring clips
or other similar devices.

5.2.7. A suggested minimum air volume when sampling to determine TWA compliance is 25 L..
For Excursion Limit (30 min sampling time) evaluations, a minimum air volume of 48 L is
recommended.

5.2.8. The most significant problem when sampling for asbestos is overloading the filter with non-
asbestos dust. Suggested maximum air sample volumes for specific environments are:

Environment Air Vol. (L)

Asbestos removal operations (visible dust) 100
Asbestos removal operations (little dust) 240
Office environments 400 to 2,400

CAUTION: Do not overload the filter with dust. High levels of non-fibrous dust particles

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 may obscure fibers on the filter and lower the count or make counting impossible. If more
than about 25 to 30% of the field area is obscured with dust, the result may be biased low.
Smaller air volumes may be necessary when there is excessive non-asbestos dust in the
air.

While sampling, observe the filter with a small flashlight. If there is a visible layer of dust on
the filter, stop sampling, remove and seal the cassette, and replace with a new sampling
assembly. The total dust loading should not exceed 1 mg.

5.2.9. Blank samples are used to determine if any contamination has occurred during sample
handling. Prepare two blanks for the first 1 to 20 samples. For sets containing greater
than 20 samples, prepare blanks as 10% of the samples. Handle blank samples in the
same manner as air samples with one exception: Do not draw any air through the blank
samples. Open the blank cassette in the place where the sample cassettes are mounted
on the employee. Hold it open for about 30 seconds. Close and seal the cassette
appropriately. Store blanks for shipment with the sample cassettes.

5.2.10. Immediately after sampling, close and seal each cassette with the base and plastic
plugs. Do not touch or puncture the filter membrane as this will invalidate the analysis.

5.2.11. Attach and secure a sample seal around each cassette in such a way as to assure
that the end cap plug and base plugs can not be removed without destroying the seal.
Tape the ends of the seal together since the seal is not long enough to be wrapped end-to-
end. Also wrap tape around the cassette at each joint to keep the seal secure.

5.3. Sample Shipment

5.3.1. Send the samples to the laboratory with paperwork requesting asbestos analysis. List any
known fibrous interferences present during sampling on the paperwork. Also, note the
workplace operation(s) sampled.

5.3.2. Secure and handle the samples in such that they will not rattle during shipment nor be
exposed to static electricity. Do not ship samples in expanded polystyrene peanuts,
vermiculite, paper shreds, or excelsior. Tape sample cassettes to sheet bubbles and
place in a container that will cushion the samples in such a manner that they will not rattle.

5.3.3. To avoid the possibility of sample contamination, always ship bulk samples in separate
mailing containers.

6. Analysis

6.1. Safety Precautions

6.1.1. Acetone is extremely flammable and precautions must be taken not to ignite it. Avoid
using large containers or quantities of acetone. Transfer the solvent in a ventilated
laboratory hood. Do not use acetone near any open flame. For generation of acetone
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 vapor, use a spark free heat source.

6.1.2. Any asbestos spills should be cleaned up immediately to prevent dispersal of fibers.
Prudence should be exercised to avoid contamination of laboratory facilities or exposure of
personnel to asbestos. Asbestos spills should be cleaned up with wet methods and/ or a
High Efficiency Particulate-Air (HEPA) filtered vacuum.

CAUTION: Do not use a vacuum without a HEPA filter -- It will disperse fine
asbestos fibers in the air.

6.2. Equipment

6.2.1. Phase contrast microscope with binocular or trinocular head.

6.2.2. Widefield or Huygenian 10X eyepieces (NOTE: The eyepiece containing the graticule
must be a focusing eyepiece. Use a 40X phase objective with a numerical aperture of
0.65 to 0.75).

6.2.3. Kohler illumination (if possible) with green or blue filter.

6.2.4. Walton-Beckett Graticule, type G-22 with 100 plus or minus 2 µm projected diameter.

6.2.5. Mechanical stage. A rotating mechanical stage is convenient for use with polarized light.

6.2.6. Phase telescope.

6.2.7. Stage micrometer with 0.01-mm subdivisions.

6.2.8. Phase-shift test slide, mark II (Available from PTR optics Ltd., and also McCrone).

6.2.9. Precleaned glass slides, 25 mm X 75 mm. One end can be frosted for convenience in
writing sample numbers, etc., or paste-on labels can be used.

6.2.10. Cover glass #1½.

6.2.11. Scalpel (#10, curved blade).

6.2.12. Fine tipped forceps.

6.2.13. Aluminum block for clearing filter (see Appendix D and Figure 4).

6.2.14. Automatic adjustable pipette, 100- to 500-µL.

6.2.15. Micropipette, 5 µL.

6.3. Reagents
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 6.3.1. Acetone (HPLC grade).

6.3.2. Triacetin (glycerol triacetate).

6.3.3. Lacquer or nail polish.

6.4. Standard Preparation

A way to prepare standard asbestos samples of known concentration has not been developed. It
is possible to prepare replicate samples of nearly equal concentration. This has been performed
through the PAT program. These asbestos samples are distributed by the AIHA to participating
laboratories.

Since only about one-fourth of a 25-mm sample membrane is required for an asbestos count, any
PAT sample can serve as a "standard" for replicate counting.

6.5. Sample Mounting

Note: See Safety Precautions in Section 6.1. before proceeding. The objective is to
produce samples with a smooth (non-grainy) background in a medium with a refractive index of
approximately 1.46. The technique below collapses the filter for easier focusing and produces
permanent mounts which are useful for quality control and interlaboratory comparison.

An aluminum block or similar device is required for sample preparation.

6.5.1. Heat the aluminum block to about 70 deg. C. The hot block should not be used on any
surface that can be damaged by either the heat or from exposure to acetone.

6.5.2. Ensure that the glass slides and cover glasses are free of dust and fibers.

6.5.3. Remove the top plug to prevent a vacuum when the cassette is opened. Clean the outside
of the cassette if necessary. Cut the seal and/or tape on the cassette with a razor blade.
Very carefully separate the base from the extension cowl, leaving the filter and backup pad
in the base.

6.5.4. With a rocking motion cut a triangular wedge from the filter using the scalpel. This wedge
should be one-sixth to one-fourth of the filter. Grasp the filter wedge with the forceps on the
perimeter of the filter which was clamped between the cassette pieces. DO NOT TOUCH
the filter with your finger. Place the filter on the glass slide sample side up. Static
electricity will usually keep the filter on the slide until it is cleared.

6.5.5. Place the tip of the micropipette containing about 200 µL acetone into the aluminum block.
Insert the glass slide into the receiving slot in the aluminum block. Inject the acetone into the
block with slow, steady pressure on the plunger while holding the pipette firmly in place.
Wait 3 to 5 seconds for the filter to clear, then remove the pipette and slide from the
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 aluminum block.

6.5.6. Immediately (less than 30 seconds) place 2.5 to 3.5 µL of triacetin on the filter (NOTE:
Waiting longer than 30 seconds will result in increased index of refraction and decreased
contrast between the fibers and the preparation. This may also lead to separation of the
cover slip from the slide).

6.5.7. Lower a cover slip gently onto the filter at a slight angle to reduce the possibility of forming
air bubbles. If more than 30 seconds have elapsed between acetone exposure and
triacetin application, glue the edges of the cover slip to the slide with lacquer or nail polish.

6.5.8. If clearing is slow, warm the slide for 15 min. on a hot plate having a surface temperature of
about 50 deg. C to hasten clearing. The top of the hot block can be used if the slide is not
heated too long.

6.5.9. Counting may proceed immediately after clearing and mounting are completed.

6.6. Sample Analysis

Completely align the microscope according to the manufacturer's instructions. Then, align the
microscope using the following general alignment routine at the beginning of every counting
session and more often if necessary.

6.6.1. Alignment

(1) Clean all optical surfaces. Even a small amount of dirt can significantly degrade the
image.

(2) Rough focus the objective on a sample.

(3) Close down the field iris so that it is visible in the field of view. Focus the image of
the iris with the condenser focus. Center the image of the iris in the field of view.

(4) Install the phase telescope and focus on the phase rings. Critically center the rings.
Misalignment of the rings results in astigmatism which will degrade the image.

(5) Place the phase-shift test slide on the microscope stage and focus on the lines.
The analyst must see line set 3 and should see at least parts of 4 and 5 but, not see
line set 6 or 7. A microscope/microscopist combination which does not pass this
test may not be used.

6.6.2. Counting Fibers

(1) Place the prepared sample slide on the mechanical stage of the microscope.
Position the center of the wedge under the objective lens and focus upon the
sample.
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 (2) Start counting from one end of the wedge and progress along a radial line to the
other end (count in either direction from perimeter to wedge tip). Select fields
randomly, without looking into the eyepieces, by slightly advancing the slide in one
direction with the mechanical stage control.

(3) Continually scan over a range of focal planes (generally the upper 10 to 15 µm of the
filter surface) with the fine focus control during each field count. Spend at least 5 to
15 seconds per field.

(4) Most samples will contain asbestos fibers with fiber diameters less than 1 µm.
Look carefully for faint fiber images. The small diameter fibers will be very hard to
see. However, they are an important contribution to the total count.

(5) Count only fibers equal to or longer than 5 µm. Measure the length of curved fibers
along the curve.

(6) Count fibers which have a length to width ratio of 3:1 or greater.

(7) Count all the fibers in at least 20 fields. Continue counting until either 100 fibers are
counted or 100 fields have been viewed; whichever occurs first. Count all the fibers
in the final field.

(8) Fibers lying entirely within the boundary of the Walton-Beckett graticule field shall
receive a count of 1. Fibers crossing the boundary once, having one end within the
circle shall receive a count of 1/2. Do not count any fiber that crosses the graticule
boundary more than once. Reject and do not count any other fibers even though
they may be visible outside the graticule area. If a fiber touches the circle, it is
considered to cross the line.

(9) Count bundles of fibers as one fiber unless individual fibers can be clearly identified
and each individual fiber is clearly not connected to another counted fiber. See
Figure 1 for counting conventions.

(10) Record the number of fibers in each field in a consistent way such that filter non-
uniformity can be assessed.

(11) Regularly check phase ring alignment.

(12) When an agglomerate (mass of material) covers more than 25% of the field of view,
reject the field and select another. Do not include it in the number of fields counted.

(13) Perform a "blind recount" of 1 in every 10 filter wedges (slides). Re-label the slides
using a person other than the original counter.

6.7. Fiber Identification

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 As previously mentioned in Section 1.3., PCM does not provide positive confirmation of asbestos
fibers. Alternate differential counting techniques should be used if discrimination is desirable.
Differential counting may include primary discrimination based on morphology, polarized light
analysis of fibers, or modification of PCM data by Scanning Electron or Transmission Electron
Microscopy.

A great deal of experience is required to routinely and correctly perform differential counting. It is
discouraged unless it is legally necessary. Then, only if a fiber is obviously not asbestos should it
be excluded from the count. Further discussion of this technique can be found in reference 8.10.

If there is a question whether a fiber is asbestos or not, follow the rule:

"WHEN IN DOUBT, COUNT."

6.8. Analytical Recommendations -- Quality Control System

6.8.1. All individuals performing asbestos analysis must have taken the NIOSH course for
sampling and evaluating airborne asbestos or an equivalent course.

6.8.2. Each laboratory engaged in asbestos counting shall set up a slide trading arrangement
with at least two other laboratories in order to compare performance and eliminate
inbreeding of error. The slide exchange occurs at least semiannually. The round robin
results shall be posted where all analysts can view individual analyst's results.

6.8.3. Each laboratory engaged in asbestos counting shall participate in the Proficiency
Analytical Testing Program, the Asbestos Analyst Registry or equivalent.

6.8.4. Each analyst shall select and count prepared slides from a "slide bank". These are quality
assurance counts. The slide bank shall be prepared using uniformly distributed samples
taken from the workload. Fiber densities should cover the entire range routinely analyzed
by the laboratory. These slides are counted blind by all counters to establish an original
standard deviation. This historical distribution is compared with the quality assurance
counts. A counter must have 95% of all quality control samples counted within three
standard deviations of the historical mean. This count is then integrated into a new
historical mean and standard deviation for the slide.

The analyses done by the counters to establish the slide bank may be used for an interim
quality control program if the data are treated in a proper statistical fashion.

7. Calculations

7.1. Calculate the estimated airborne asbestos fiber concentration on the filter sample using
the following formula:

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  FB   BFB  
 FL  −  BFL   X ECA
   
AC = 
1000 X FR X T X MFA
where:

AC = Airborne fiber concentration

FB = Total number of fibers greater than 5 µm counted
FL = Total number of fields counted on the filter
BFB = Total number of fibers greater than 5 µm counted in the blank
BFL = Total number of fields counted on the blank
ECA = Effective collecting area of filter (385 mm2 nominal for a 25-
mm filter.)
FR = Pump flow rate (L/min)
MFA = Microscope count field area (mm2 ). This is 0.00785 mm2 for
a Walton-Beckett Graticule.
T = Sample collection time (min)
1000 = Conversion of L to cc

Note: The collection area of a filter is seldom equal to 385 mm2. It is appropriate for laboratories to
routinely monitor the exact diameter using an inside micrometer. The collection area is calculated
according to the formula:

Area = π (d/2)2

7.2. Short-Cut Calculation

Since a given analyst always has the same interpupillary distance, the number of fields per filter
for a particular analyst will remain constant for a given size filter. The field size for that analyst is
constant (i.e. the analyst is using an assigned microscope and is not changing the reticule).

For example, if the exposed area of the filter is always 385 mm2 and the size of the field is always
0.00785 mm2 the number of fields per filter will always be 49,000. In addition it is necessary to
convert liters of air to cc. These three constants can then be combined such that ECA/(1,000 x
MFA) = 49. The previous equation simplifies to:

 FB   BFB  
 FL  −  BFL   X49
   
AC = 
FR X T

7.3. Recount Calculations

As mentioned in step 13 of Section 6.6.2., a "blind recount" of 10% of the slides is performed. In
all cases, differences will be observed between the first and second counts of the same filter

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wedge. Most of these differences will be due to chance alone, that is, due to the random
variability (precision) of the count method. Statistical recount criteria enables one to decide
whether observed differences can be explained due to chance alone or are probably due to
systematic differences between analysts, microscopes, or other biasing factors.

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 The following recount criterion is for a pair of counts that estimate AC in fibers/cc. The criterion is
given at the type-I error level. That is, there is 5% maximum risk that we will reject a pair of counts
for the reason that one might be biased, when the large observed difference is really due to
chance.

Reject a pair of counts if:

(
AC 2 − AC 1 > 2.78 X AC AVG X CVFB )
Where:

AC1 = lower estimated airborne fiber concentration

AC2 = higher estimated airborne fiber concentration
ACAVG = average of the two concentration estimates
CVFB = CV for the average of the two concentration estimates

If a pair of counts are rejected by this criterion then, recount the rest of the filters in the submitted
set. Apply the test and reject any other pairs failing the test. Rejection shall include a memo to the
industrial hygienist stating that the sample failed a statistical test for homogeneity and the true air
concentration may be significantly different than the reported value.

7.4. Reporting Results

Report results to the industrial hygienist as fibers/cc. Use two significant figures. If multiple
analyses are performed on a sample, an average of the results is to be reported unless any of the
results can be rejected for cause.

8. References

8.1. Dreesen, W.C., et al., U.S. Public Health Service: A Study of Asbestosis in the Asbestos Textile
Industry (Public Health Bulletin No. 241), U.S. Treasury Dept., Washington, DC, 1938.

8.2. Asbestos Research Council: The Measurement of Airborne Asbestos Dust by the Membrane
Filter Method (Technical Note), Asbestos Research Council, Rockdale, Lancashire, Great Britain,
1969.

8.3. Bayer, S.G., Zumwalde, R.D., Brown, T.A., Equipment and Procedure for Mounting Millipore
Filters and Counting Asbestos Fibers by Phase Contrast Microscopy, Bureau of Occupational
Health, U.S. Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare, Cincinnati, OH, 1969.

8.4. NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods, 2nd ed., Vol. 1 (DHEW/ NIOSH Pub. No. 77-157-A).
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati, OH, 1977. pp. 239-1 -- 239-21.
10-65
8.5. Asbestos, Code of Federal Regulations 29 CFR 1910.1001. 1971.

8.6. Occupational Exposure to Asbestos, Tremolite, Anthophyllite, and Actinolite. Final Rule, Federal
Register 51:119 (20 June 1986). pp. 22612-22790.

8.7. Asbestos, Tremolite, Anthophyllite, and Actinolite, Code of Federal Regulations 1910.1001. 1988.
pp. 711-752.

8.8. Criteria for a Recommended Standard -- Occupational Exposure to Asbestos (DHEW/NIOSH

Pub. No. HSM 72-10267), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, NIOSH,
Cincinnati, OH, 1972. pp. III-1 -- III-24.

8.9. Leidel, N.A., Bayer, S.G., Zumwalde, R.D., Busch, K.A., USPHS/NIOSH Membrane Filter Method
for Evaluating Airborne Asbestos Fibers (DHEW/NIOSH Pub. No. 79-127). National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati, OH, 1979.

8.10. Dixon, W.C., Applications of Optical Microscopy in Analysis of Asbestos and Quartz, Analytical
Techniques in Occupational Health Chemistry, edited by D.D. Dollberg and A.W. Verstuyft. Wash.
D.C.: American Chemical Society, (ACS Symposium Series 120) 1980. pp. 13-41.

Quality Control

The OSHA asbestos regulations require each laboratory to establish a quality control program. The
following is presented as an example of how the OSHA-SLTC constructed its internal CV curve as part of
meeting this requirement. Data for the CV curve shown below is from 395 samples collected during
OSHA compliance inspections and analyzed from October 1980 through April 1986.

Each sample was counted by 2 to 5 different counters independently of one another. The standard
deviation and the CV statistic was calculated for each sample. This data was then plotted on a graph of
CV vs. fibers/mm2. A least squares regression was performed using the following equation:

[( )
CV = anti log10 A log10 ( X)2 + B(log10 ( X)) + C ]
where:

X = the number of fibers/ mm2

Application of least squares gave: A = 0.182205

B = -0.973343
C = 0.327499
Using these values, the equation becomes:

[ ( )
CV = anti log 10 0. 182205 log10 (X )2 − 0.973343(log 10 (X)) + 0.327499 ]
10-66
Sampling Pump Flow Rate Corrections

This correction is used if a difference greater than 5% in ambient temperature and/or pressure is noted
between calibration and sampling sites and the pump does not compensate for the differences.

P   Tact 
Q act = Q cal x  cal x 
 T

 Where:
 Pact   cal 
Qact = actual flow rate Qcal = calibrated flow rate (if used, the rotameter
value)
Pcal = uncorrected air pressure at Pact = uncorrected air pressure at sampling site
calibration
T act = temperature at sampling site (°K) T cal = temperature at calibration (°K)

Walton-Beckett Graticule

When ordering the Graticule for asbestos counting, specify the exact disc diameter needed to fit the
ocular of the microscope and the diameter (mm) of the circular counting area. Instructions for measuring
the dimensions necessary are listed:

(1) Insert any available graticule into the focusing eyepiece and focus so that the graticule lines
are sharp and clear.

(2) Align the microscope.

(3) Place a stage micrometer on the microscope object stage and focus the microscope on
the graduated lines.

(4) Measure the magnified grid length, PL (µm), using the stage micrometer.

(5) Remove the graticule from the microscope and measure its actual grid length, AL (mm).
This can be accomplished by using a mechanical stage fitted with verniers, or a jeweler's
loupe with a direct reading scale.

(6) Let D = 100 µm. Calculate the circle diameter, d c (mm), for the Walton-Beckett graticule
and specify the diameter when making a purchase:

ALxD
dc =
PL

Example:

If PL = 108 µm, AL = 2.93 mm and D = 100 µm,

then,

10-67
 2.93 x100
dc = = 2.71mm
108

(7) Each eyepiece-objective-reticule combination on the microscope must be calibrated.

Should any of the three be changed (by zoom adjustment, disassembly, replacement, etc.),
the combination must be recalibrated. Calibration may change if interpupillary distance is
changed. Measure the field diameter, D (acceptable range: 100 plus or minus 2 µm) with
a stage micrometer upon receipt of the graticule from the manufacturer. Determine the field
area (mm2).

Field Area = Area = π (d/2)2

If D = 100 µm = 0.1 mm, then
Field Area = π (0.1 mm/2)2 = 0.00785 mm2

The Graticule is available from: Graticules Ltd., Morley Road, Tonbridge TN9
IRN, Kent, England (Telephone 011-44-732-359061). Also available from PTR
Optics Ltd., 145 Newton Street, Waltham, MA 02154 [telephone (617) 891-6000]
or McCrone Accessories and Components, 2506 S. Michigan Ave., Chicago, IL
60616 [phone (312)-842-7100]. The graticule is custom made for each
microscope.

10-68
Counts for the Fibers in the Figure

Structure Count Explanation

No.
1 to 6 .......... 1 Single fibers all contained within the Circle.
7.................. ½ Fiber crosses circle once.
8.................. 0 Fiber is less than 5 µm in length.
9.................. 2 Two crossing fibers.
10 ................. 0 Fiber outside graticule.
11 ................. 0 Fiber crosses graticule twice.
12 ................. ½ Although split, fiber only crosses once.

10-69
 ATTACHMENT F

PROCEDURES FOR CORRECTIONS TO ROTAMETERS

10-70
PROCEDURES FOR ROTAMETER CORRECTIONS

When calibrating pumps with a rotameter at elevations, pressures, or temperatures which are different
than the location where the rotameter was calibrated, adjustments have to be made to ensure the flow
rate read from the rotameter reflects the actual flow rate of the sampling pump. In most cases,
sampling in the Phoenix metropolitan area will not require corrections to the flow rates. However, if
you are out of town, especially at a different elevation, you need to find the uncorrected barometric
pressure (or "station pressure") and the local temperature to make the proper corrections. Recall from
the 40-hour course that primary standards are unaffected by temperature and/or pressure; however,
secondary standards must be calibrated against a primary as they are affected by temperature and
pressure differences.

Because of the affects of temperature and pressure, we will use this information to determine if
corrections to the flow rate need to be made. Corrections need to be made if there is more than a 5%
difference in the ambient temperature and/or pressure at the sampling site versus the ambient
temperature and/or pressure where the rotameter was calibrated.

Multiply the temperature listed on the rotameter calibration sheet by 0.05 (5%) and then, both add and
subtract this number from the listed calibration temperature to find the 5% range above and below the
calibration temperature. Do the same for the barometric pressure. If the temperature and "station
pressure" at the sampling site are within these two ranges, no corrections are necessary. However, if
they are greater than 5% (outside the range calculations), a correction for temperature and pressure is
required.

To make the correction, the following formula is used. However, there are a couple of items that need
to be explained in order to use the formula. It is based on “absolute temperatures” which are based,
not on Fahrenheit (° F) or Centigrade(° C), but on “degrees Kelvin.” This temperature is based on the
premise that the coldest temperature that can exist in the universe is “absolute zero” and on this
temperature scale, water boils at 373.16° K. To convert the temperature at a sampling site to Kelvin
we can add 273.16 to the temperature in ° C. Usually, most temperatures are in degrees ° F, so there
is a lot of converting necessary to complete this formula. However, just follow the instructions below
and all should progress pretty easily.

 Pc   Ta 
Qa = Qc x   X  Equation F-1
 Pa   Tc 

Where: Qa = actual corrected flow rate

Qc = rotameter reading from the calibration sheet
Pc = uncorrected air pressure from the calibration sheet
Pa = uncorrected air pressure at the sampling site
Tc = temperature from the calibrations sheet (in K )
Ta = temperature at the sampling site (in K )
K = temperature in Kelvin ( °C+ 273.16)
[when °C = 5/9 x (F° - 32)]

10-71
As an example of how this works: suppose your rotameter was calibrated in Phoenix (Elevation -
1,100 ft.) and you are sampling in Flagstaff (Elevation - 6,905 ft.). Your rotameter reading on your
sampling pump at the job-site was 2.2 liters of air per minute. Do you need to correct for temperature
and/or pressure?

The site temperature was 65° F. and you called the airport and ask for the uncorrected barometric
pressure, or “station pressure”. Double check to make sure you get the uncorrected or "station
pressure”. Airports apply an elevation correction to the barometric pressure for pilots and the number
you need should not have that elevation correction. Let’s say the airport reported the “station
pressure” as 27.05 inches of mercury.

Now, after getting the temperature and uncorrected barometric pressure in Flagstaff, you need to see
if this temperature is within 5% of the temperature and pressure from where the rotameter was
calibrated. Looking at the rotameter calibration sheet you can see it records the temperature at the
time the rotameter was calibrated and it was 74° F. Multiply 74 x 0.05 = 3.7. Now calculate the range
by subtracting 3.7 from 74 and adding 3.7 to 74. To be within 5% of the temperature when the
rotameter was calibrated, the temperature in Flagstaff has to be between 70.3 (74° - 3.7) and 77.7° F.
(74° + 3.7). Since the temperature in Flagstaff is 68° F; this is outside the 5% range. You need to
correct for temperature; and maybe pressure too.

Looking at the rotameter calibrations sheet, you note the pressure (in Phoenix) at the time of
calibration was 739.1 millimeters of mercury (mmHg). The airport reported the "station pressure" as
27.05 inches of mercury. You have to convert inches of mercury to millimeters of mercury by
multiplying the 27.05 inches times 25.4 (millimeters per inch). This means the barometric pressure in
Flagstaff is 687.07 mmHg. The barometric pressure at calibration was 739.1 x 0.05 = 36.955. The
acceptable pressure range is (739.1 - 36.955) to (739.1 + 36.955), or 702.14 to 776.05 mmHg.
Since the "station pressure" in Flagstaff is 687.07 mmHg, the pressure is also outside the 5% range.
You need to correct for pressure too.

First, convert both temperatures levels (calibration and ambient) to “absolute” temperature (degrees
Kelvin) by converting to Celsius and then adding 273.16 to each. The temperature at the sampling
site in Flagstaff is 68° F and will be “Ta“ in the formula above. The temperature in Phoenix, at the time
of calibration, was 74° F and will be “Tc.” Plug 68 and 74 into the formulas below.

Formula to convert ° F to ° C................................. °C = 5/9 x (F° - 32) °C = 5/9 x (F° - 32)

Plug in the temperature in-place of “F °”.............. °C = 5/9 x (68 - 32) °C = 5/9 x (74 - 32)
(5/9 is equal to 0.55555) ....................................... °C = 0.55555 x (36) °C = .55555 x (42)
Temperature in ° C................................................. °C = 20.0 °C = 23.3
Add 273.16 to ° C and get.................................... K = 273.16 + 20 K = 273.16 + 23.3
Temperature for formula calculation..................... K = 293 = T a K = 296 = T c

10-72
These two numbers will be the temperature values to be used in the formula at the top of this
document. We have already calculated the value for the barometric pressure for Flagstaff into mmHg
and the calibration sheet gives us the pressure when the rotameter was calibrated, in mmHg. Now all
we do is plug the numbers into the formula based on the following values:

Where:
Qa = actual corrected flow rate Qc = rotameter reading from calibration
sheet
Pc = uncorrected pressure from calibration Pa = uncorrected air pressure at the
sheet sampling site
Tc = temperature from calibrations sheet Ta = temperature at the sampling site (in °
(in ° K ) K)

If the flow rate reading from your rotameter at the job-site was 2.2 Liters per minute:

 Pc   Ta 
Qa = Qc x   X  Equation F-1
 Pa   Tc 

Qa = 2.2 x 
739.1   296 
 X 
 687.07   293 

Qa = 2.2 x (1.076) X(1.010)

Qa = 2.2 x ( 1.087)

Qa = 2.2 x (1.043) which = Qa = 2.29 or 2.3 liters per minute

10-73
ROTAMETER CORRECTIONS EXAMPLE
1. Known data points.
Temperature at time of calibration: ............ 74° F = Tc
Temperature at sampling site:.................... 68° F = Ta
Pressure at time of calibration:................... 739.1 mmHg = Pc
Pressure at sampling site:........................... 687.07 mmHg = P a

2. Determine need to do corrections.

a. Tc ± 5% (Tc) 74 x 0.05 = 3.7 = (A)
(Tc) 74 + (A) = 77.7
(Tc) 74 — (A) = 70.3
Is Ta greater or less than these values? If no, proceed to 2b. If yes, do a correction.

b. Pc ± 5% (P c) 739.1 x 0.05 = 36.955 = (B)

(P c) 739.1 + (B) = 776.1 mmHg
(P c) 739.1 — (B) = 702.1 mmHg
Is Pa greater or less than these values? If no, no correction is necessary. If yes, do a correction.

3. Correction calculation.
a. Convert °F to Kelvin:
Ta = (5/9) x (Ta 68 - 32) + 273 = 293
Tc = (5/9) x (Tc 74 - 32) + 273 = 296
b. Convert inches of mercury (in Hg) to millimeters of mercury (mmHg) (if applicable)
Pa = 27.05 in Hg x 25.4 = 687.07 mm Hg
c. Correction calculation:

Qa = Qc x   X 
Pc Ta
 Pa   Tc 

 739.1   296 
Qa = 2.2 x  X 
 687. 07   293 

Qa = 2.2 x (1.076) X (1.010) = Qa = 2.2 x 1.087

Qa = 2.2 x 1.043 = Qa = 2.3

10-74
ROTAMETER CORRECTIONS WORKSHEET
1. Known data points.
Temperature at time of calibration: ............ = Tc
Temperature at sampling site:.................... = Ta
Pressure at time of calibration:................... = Pc
Pressure at sampling site:........................... = Pa

2. Determine need to do corrections.

a. Tc ± 5% (Tc) x 0.05 = = (A)
(Tc) + (A) =
(Tc) — (A) =
Is Ta greater or less than these values? If no, proceed to 2b. If yes, do a correction.

b. Pc ± 5% (P c) x 0.05 = = (B)
(P c) + (B) =
(P c) — (B) =
Is Pa greater or less than these values? If no, no correction is necessary. If yes, do a correction.

3. Correction calculation.
a. Convert °F to Kelvin:
Ta = (5/9) x (Ta - 32) + 273 =
Tc = (5/9) x (Tc - 32) + 273 =
b. Convert inches of mercury (inHg) to millimeters of mercury (mmHg) (if applicable)
Pa = inHg x 25.4 = mm Hg
c. Correction calculation:

Qa = Qc x   X 
Pc Ta
 Pa   Tc 

 _ _ _  _ _ _
Qa = Qc x   X 
 _ _ _  _ _ _

Qa = Qc x ( _ _ _ ) X( _ _ _ ) = Qa = Qc x _ _ _ _ _

Qa = Qc x ___________ = Qa = ___________

10-75
 ATTACHMENT G

PROCEDURES FOR BUILDING AN

INEXPENSIVE PRIMARY STANDARD

10-76
PROCEDURES FOR BUILDING A TUBE-STYLE
PRIMARY STANDARD CALIBRATOR

To build your own primary standard from a piece of acrylic tubing you need to start with the tubing. Go to
any plastics supply house and pick up a piece of 2 to 3 inch diameter tubing about 3 feet long. The 3
inch diameter is probably better than the 2 inch, though the 2 inch would be better to use with high flow (1
to 3 liters per minute) pumps. For the cost, it might be worth getting 2 tubes in case you "opps" the first
one. Also buy their smallest can or jar of acrylic "glue", which is primarily methylene chloride (a pretty
toxic chemical and should be used outdoors or in a well ventilated garage).

The next step will be to graduate the tube by placing markings for various volume levels. Start by scoring
a line on one end of the tube, approximately 4 inches from the edge of the tube (see Figure 1). You will
need the 4 inches of space so that you can start a bubble, set down the bowl of soap, and start your
stopwatch. The easiest way to score the tube is to use a hack saw blade or plastic tool (available from
the plastic shop where you bought the tubing) for "cutting" sheet plastic (you don't actually cut plastic - you
score and break it, like glass). Lay the tubing on a smooth surface like carpeting, butt the end against a
wall, and while holding the scoring tool at one spot, have someone else turn the tube to make a mark
around the circumference of the tubing. An alternate way is to take a sheet of paper at least 12 - 14
inches long or longer and 12 - 14 inches wide then wrap it around the plastic tubing at the 4 inch high
spot. This size paper will ensure a "square" relationship between the length and circumference.

Once you've scored the tube you

need to calculate where the
graduated markings will go on the
outside of the tubing to indicate the
volume of air for the calibrator. The
original mark at the bottom of the
tube will be the "zero" line or the
"start" point for your stopwatch. You
will then calculate the "height"
needed on the tubing to indicate
either 100 or 200 milliliters of volume
inside the tube. Remember, the Figure 1
formula for the volume of a cylinder
is:

V = π xr2 x h Equation G-1

where V = volume; π = 3.1416; r = radius of the tube (½ the diameter); and h = height of the cylinder.

10-77
Since we know "V" (the volume will be either 100 or 200 milliliters), we will solve the formula for "h" which
now makes the formula:

h= V Equation G-2
π xr2

Now comes the tricky part: since we need to measure the volume of the cylinder in liters, we need to
measure the height in meters. Our calibration flow rate will be in liters (or milliliters) per minute and
therefore we must use metric measurements for the "height" of the cylinder for the 100 or 200 milliliter
graduations. (Remember that 1 milliliter and 1 cubic centimeter are the same volumetric
measurements).

So, let's measure the diameter of the acrylic tubing. You have a micrometer that measures in inches, and
that's OK. We measure the tubing and find that the inside diameter is a specific diameter, say 2.987
inches. Convert the inches to millimeters by multiplying the inches by 25.4 millimeters per inch.

2 .987 in. x 25 .4 mm = 75 .87 mm diameter Equation G-3

Radius = ½ the diameter:

75 .87 mm = 37 .9 mm radius Equation G-4

2

We now have all the data points to measure out the graduated calibration marks for the tubing. Our "V"
is 200 cubic centimeters (cc); π is 3.1416; and r = 37.9 mm (3.79 cm). Since we have to keep all of the
units on the formula the same we must convert the volume to cubic centimeters and the diameter/radius
to centimeters. Plug these numbers into Equation 2 and solve for "h". If you are making a calibrator for
high flow (1 to 3 liters per minute) pumps, you should use 100 cc for “V” in formula G-2 above.

h= V
π xr2

h = 200
π x (3.79 mm )2

h = 200
3.1416 x 14 .36

h = 200
45 .11

h= 4.43 cm

10-78
Now we have calculated the
height, on the side of the tube,
that it takes to indicate a volume
of 200 cc inside the tube.
Starting at the "zero" line
scribed at one end of the tube,
we mark off a line every 4.43 cm
all the way up to the top of the
tube as illustrated in Figure 2.

Stop marking at some

convenient number near the top
of the tube. Suppose you get
about 3 inches from the top and
you mark a line that would
indicate 2.2 liters, you can stop
at that point.
Figure 2

Now that the tube is calibrated, we can finish construction of the calibrator. We will need a conical
shaped device to put in the top of the tube so that we can attach the sampling pump and sampling
cassette to the calibrator. I have used a 2-liter soda pop bottle and it works just fine. If you are using a 2
inch diameter tube for a high flow pump, try a 12 ounce soda or water bottle…be sure to save the cap for
later. Stick the pour spout of the soda pop bottle inside the tubing to see how big a piece of the bottle
you will need to cut off. Use a fine tipped permanent marker to draw a line around the neck of the pop
bottle where it touches the tubing (See Figure 3). Remove the bottle from the tubing and use a razor
knife to cut the top from the bottle at, or just below, the felt tip mark. Set the bottle top aside.

Use a hack saw or coping saw with a fine tooth to saw a thin ring from the "top" of the acrylic tubing. The
ring should be approximately ¼ inch thick (high) as cut from the tubing. Being careful not to break the
ring (try clamping it between two thin pieces of wood), cut a short piece from the ring that is
approximately 3 8 inch wide (See Figure 4). After cutting the section out of the ring, squeeze the ring so
that the two ends touch and slide the closed ring down inside the top of the tubing. If it won't fit inside the
tubing, the "gap" needs to be wider. This can be widened by using the saw and cutting a thin piece from
one side of the gap or using a piece of course (120 to 60 grit) sandpaper and sanding one or both sides
of the gap. Once the ring fits into the tubing, slide the ring to about ¼ inch below the top edge of the
tubing, pick up the top of the soda pop bottle and set it into the tubing so that it rests on the ring. If all
these parts fit together fairly snug, we are ready for final assembly.

10-79
 Figure 3 Figure 4

The plastic ring should hold itself in place by friction, but we'll want to glue it into place. Use the acrylic
glue you bought from the plastic store. I don't believe that "super-glues" will work as well on acrylics as
the methylene chloride. Let the glue dry for about 15 - 20 minutes, then set a nice smooth bead of silicon
glue around the top side of the ring. Carefully set the soda pop bottle into the tubing and down against
the plastic ring, into the silicon glue, as illustrated in Figure 5.

Using the silicon glue, place a thick bead of

glue around the top of the tube to seal the
soda bottle into place and ensure there are
no air leaks between the tubing and the bottle.

To finish off the calibrator, drill a hole in the

screw cap for the soda bottle that is
approximately 1/64" smaller than the outside
diameter of the Tygon tubing used to attach
the sampling cassette to the sampling pump.
Get the tubing soft by placing it in hot water
for a few minutes
Figure 5
then insert the tubing into the hole in the cap approximately 1 inch deep. Screw the cap down onto the
soda bottle top and you're about ready to calibrate.

Let the silicon glue dry for at least 24 hours. You can buy chemistry equipment such as a ring stand and
tube/glassware clamps to build a stand to hold the calibrator. You will also need a stop watch to time the
bubble calibrations. Once everything is assembled you are ready to calibrate your sampling pump.

10-80
Attach a sampling cassette to the pump just as if you were going to collect an air sample. Attach the
tubing from the soda bottle cap to the front opening of the sample cassette (remember, you have to leave
the cassette cap in-place to do calibrations). Place some water (approximately ½ cup) in a small dish
that is slightly larger than the outside diameter of the calibration tube and add about a tablespoon of
liquid dish soap. Slowly stir up this mixture till well mixed. Turn on the sampling pump, pick up the soap
dish and place it against the open end of tubing. The soap solution will create a soap film across the
opening of the tube and the sampling pump will pull the soap "bubble" up the tubing. The bubble will
travel only a short distance and will pop because the tubing is dry. Sometimes it easier to take the tubing
and pour some of the soap solution into the tubing and wet the inside of the tube before starting the
sampling pump or you can just keep putting bubbles into the tube till a bubble travels all the way to the top
of the tube before popping. Also, if the soap solution is too “thin” (not enough soap) the bubble will pop
before reaching the top.

Once the tube is fully wet and a bubble will travel to the top, get the stopwatch ready, start a bubble and
when it passes the "zero" mark start the stopwatch. When it passes the top mark stop the stopwatch.
You will have collected 2.2 (whatever the top mark on your tubing was) liters of air per 13 (or whatever
time the stop watch reads) seconds. Time the flow rate for at least 3 different bubbles (4 or 5 bubbles
will average out more potential errors in the system). Average the timing of the bubbles, convert the time
in seconds to minutes (divide by 60 seconds per minute), then divide the volume measurement (2.2 liters
in this example) by the average time in minutes and you have the "actual" flow rate in minutes.

Example: Timing of 5 soap bubbles = 12.25 seconds; 12.22 seconds; 12.33 seconds; 12.51 seconds;
and 12.28 seconds.

The average = 12.25 + 12.22 + 12.33 + 12.51 + 12.28 = 61.59/5 = 12.318 seconds

12.318 sec = 0.2053 minutes to collect 2.2 liters of soap bubble volume
60 sec min

Therefore, the average time to collect 2.2 liters of air was 0.2053 minutes and we would have:

2 .2 Liters = 10.72 Liters/Minute, Actual Flow Rate

0 .2053 Minutes

10-81
 ATTACHMENT H

DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING
PARTS OF A 25 MM MCE CASSETTE

10-82
SAMPLING CASSETTE CONFIGURATION
FROM AHERA – 40 CFR 763
APPENDIX A

10-83