PETROLEUM GEOLOGY AND BASIC ROCK PROPERTIES

Petroleum is not found in underground lakes or rivers, but it

exists within the void space of certain rocks.

Requirements for Commercial Oil Accumulations

Certain requirements must be fulfilled for a commercial

petroleum deposit to be present. These are

1. A source: material from which oil is formed

2. Porous and permeable beds (reservoir rocks) in which

the petroleum may migrate and accumulate after being

formed.

3. A trap: subsurface condition restricting further

movement of oil such that it may accumulate in

commercial quantities.

1
Source of Petroleum

Most geologists conclude that:

1. Petroleum originates from organic material, primarily

vegetable, which has been altered by heat, bacterial

action, pressure and other agents over long periods

of time.

2. Conditions favouring petroleum formation are found

only in sedimentary rocks.

3. The principal sediments generally considered as

probable source rocks are shales and limestones that

were originally muds under saline water.

2
Porous and Permeable Beds (Reservoir Rocks)

After its formation, petroleum may migrate from the

source rock into porous and permeable beds where it

accumulates and continues its migration until finally

trapped. The forces causing this migration are

1. Compaction of sediments as depth of burial increases.

2. Diastrophism: crustal movements causing pressure

differentials and consequent subsurface fluid

movements.

3. Capillary forces causing oil to be expelled from fine

pores by the preferential entry of water.

4. Gravity which promotes fluid segregation according to

density differences.

3
4
Porosity

Porosity is a measure of the void space within a rock

expressed as a fraction (or percentage) of the bulk volume

of rock

Vb − Vs Vp
φ= =
Vb Vb

where φ = porosity

Vb = bulk volume of rock

Vs = net volume occupied by solid

Vp = pore volume

Rock porosity can be classified as

1. Absolute porosity: total porosity of the rock,

regardless of whether or not the individual voids are

connected, and

2. Effective porosity: only that porosity due to voids

which are interconnected.

It is the effective porosity which is of interest to the oil

industry.

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Geological porosity has been classified in two types:

1. Primary porosity (intergranular): Porosity formed at

the time sediment was deposited. The voids

contributing to this type are the spaces between

individual grains of the sediment.

2. Secondary porosity: Voids formed after the

sediment was deposited. Porosity of this type is

subdivided into three classes based on the

mechanism of formation.

i. Solution porosity: voids formed by the solution

of the more soluble portions of the rock in

percolating surface and subsurface waters

containing carbonic and other organic acids.

Voids of this origin may range from small vugs

to cavernous openings.

ii. Fractures, fissures and joints: voids of this

type are common in many sedimentary rocks and

6
 are formed by structural failure of the rock

under loads caused by various diastrophism such

as folding and faulting. This form of porosity is

extremely hard to evaluate quantitatively due

to its irregularity.

iii. Dolomitization: This is a process by which

limestone (CaCO3) is transformed into dolomite

Ca Mg(CO3)2.

2CaCO3 + MgCl2 CaMg(CO3)2 + CaCl2

Dolomite is normally more porous than

limestone.

Typical Porosity Magnitude

Type of sedimentary rocks porosity

Clean, consolidated and reasonably uniform 20%
sand

Carboniferous rocks (limestone and dolomite) 6 – 8%

7
Quantitative Use of Porosity Data

Let us assume that porosity has been measured and may be

used to determine the quantity of fluid which may be stored

within the rock.

Consider a bulk volume of rock with a surface area of 1 acre

and a thickness of 1 foot. This constitutes the basic rock

volume measurement used in oil field calculations, an acre-

foot.

It is a standard practice to express all liquid volumes in

terms of barrels (bbl). Conversion factors used are:

1 acre = 43,560 ft2

1 acre-ft = 43,560 ft3

1 bbl = 42 gal = 5.61 ft3

43,560
1 acre-ft = 5.61
= 7758 bbl

Then the pore space within a rock,

Vp (bbl/acre-ft) = 7758 x φ

where φ is the porosity of the rock

8
 7758 φ So 7758 φ (1 - Sw )
Oil in Place = N = Bo
=
Bo

where N = tank oil in place, bbl/acre-ft

So = Fraction of pore space occupied by
oil (the oil saturation)

Sw = The water saturation

Bo = The formation volume factor for the
oil at the reservoir pressure,
res. bbl/STB

The water within the pore is commonly called the connate

water.

The pore space is assumed to be occupied by oil and water

only and that no free gas is present. So the equation above

must be applied to the reservoir at or above the bubble

point and is generally used to compute the initial oil in place

(IOIP).

For the gas stored in a particular sand a similar expression

may be derived. The gas volume is commonly expressed in

terms of SCF or in MCF (thousands of standard cubic feet).

From the Gas Law

9
 PsVs PVp
=
Ts zT

where subscript, s, denotes standard conditions, zs = 1.0,

and is not shown. Then;

PTs
Vs = G = Vp ×
zTPs

where G is the standard gas volume contained in Vp at

conditions P, T, z.

But: Vp = 43,560φ (1-Sw) ft3/acre-ft

Ts = 4600 + 600 = 5200F

Ps = 14.7 psia

Substituting of these values in the equation gives:

520 p
G = 43,560φ (1-Sw)x 14 .7 × zT

Or
1540φ(1 - S w )P
G= MCF/acre- ft
zT

Reserve estimation

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 Any oil finding has to be interpretated in term of money or

in term of economic evaluation.

Initial Oil in Place (IOIP) has already being defined in term

of bbl/acre.ft. It can also be expressed as

7758 × volume of reservoir × porosity × oil saturation

IOIP = bbl
oil formation volume factor

Where A = area of reservoir in acre

7758× Ah × φ × So
IOIP =
Bo

h = height or thickness of reservoir in feet

φ = porosity in fraction

So = oil saturation in fraction

Bo = Oil formation volume factor, res bbl/STB

Only a portion of the IOIP that can be recovered. This

portion is known as the oil reserve.

Oil reserve is dependent on the recovery factor (RF).

Reserve = IOIP x RF

11
Permeability

Permeability is defined as a measure of a rock’s ability to

transmit fluids.

An empirical relationship was developed by a French

hydrologist Henry D’arcy who studied the flow of water

through unconsolidated sand.

This law in its differential form is:

k dP
v=− (1)
µ dL

where v = apparent flow velocity

µ = viscosity of the flowing fluid

dP/dL = pressure gradient in the direction of

the flow
k = permeability of the porous media

Consider the linear system of the figure below

dP

P1
q1
q2

L dL

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The following assumptions are necessary to the
development of the basic flow equations:

1. Steady state flow conditions exists

2. The pore space of the rock is 100% saturated with
the flowing fluid. Under this restriction, k is the
absolute permeability.
3. The viscosity of the flowing fluid is constant.
4. Isothermal conditions prevail.
5. Flow is horizontal and linear.
6. Flow is laminar.

With these restrictions, let

q
v= (2)
A

where q = volumetric rate of flow of fluid

A = cross-sectional area perpendicular to
flow direction
Case 1: Linear Incompressible Fluid Flow

Substitution of (2) into (1) gives

q k dP
=− (3)
A µ dL

Separation of variables and insertion of the limits depicted

by the figure, gives

13
q L k P2

A ∫dL
0
=−
µ ∫
P1
dP

kA(P1 P2 )
q= (4)
μL

or
quL
k= (5)
AΔ P

Unit for the above relationship is

If q = 1 cm3/s
A = 1 cm2
µ = 1 centipoise
∆ P/L = 1 atmosphere/cm

then, k = 1 darcy
A permeability of one darcy is much higher than that

commonly found in reservoir rocks. Consequently, a more

common unit is the millidarcy, where

1 darcy = 1000 millidarcys

Case II: Linear Compressible Fluid Flow

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Consider the same linear system(referring to the box

figure), but the flowing fluid is now compressible.

Assuming that Boyle’s law is valid (z = 1)

P1q1 = P2q2 = constant

kA dP
P.q = - μ
×
dL
P = P2q2

L kA 1 P2
q2 ∫ dL = − µ
0
x
P2 ∫
P1
P dP

From which
kA P12 − P22 1
q2 = x x
µL 2 P2

Expressing the above equation in term of qg, the rate of gas

flow at the average pressure in the system is

kA P12 − P22 1
qg = x x
µL 2 P

P +P P12 − P22 (P1 + P2 )(P1 − P2 )

But P = 1 2 , and =
2 2 2

kA ∆P
Therefore qg =
µL

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Which is exactly the same as equation (4).

An expression for the standard flow rate, qgas is obtained

from Charles’ Law:

Ps qgs P2 − q2 kA 1
= = (P12 − P22 )
Ts Tf 2µL Tf

Where Ts = 600F (5200R)

Ps = 1 atm

Tf = flowing temperature

kA(P12 − P22 ) Ts 1
Thus, qgs = x x
2µL Tf Ps

Case III: Radial Incompressible Fluid Flow

From the diffrential form of equation (1) with notation and

sign convention as applied to radial flow in the figure.

q k dp
= x
A µ dr

q
re Pe
Pw q
q
rw

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 h

But radial flow A = 2π rh

Where r = radius or distance from centre, cm

h = thickness of the bed, cm

Substitution of 2π rh for A and separation of variables

gives
re dr 2πhk Pe
q ∫
rw r
=
µ ∫
Pw
dP

Which when integrated is

This is the basic expression for the steady state radial flow

of a liquid. The units are the same as previously defined.

Case IV: Radial Compressible Fluid Flow

The same manner as in case II, the radial equations for

gases may be obtained.

By Boyle’s Law

17
Where subscripts refer to position at which q is specified:

well, external boundary, etc.

Conversions to Practical Units

The standard units which define the darcy are useful in

laboratory calculations. For computations pertaining to

field problems it is more convenient to convert to practical

units by use of appropriate constant.

2πhk( Pe − Pw )
For example, convert q=
µ ln( re / rw )

Chk( Pe − Pw )
to q=
µ ln( re / rw )

where h = ft, k = darcy, Pe, Pw = psia, µ = cp, q = bbl/day

Conversion factors needed: 1 bbl = 159,000 cm3

1 ft = 30.48 cm

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 1 atm = 14.7 psi
159,000 cm3 / bbl
Then: q bbl/day x
24 x 3,600 s / day

cm   1 atm 
2πh ft x 30.48 k ( Pe − Pw ) psi x
 ft   14.7 psi 
=
µ ln ( re / rw )

(24)(3600 )(2π)(30.48) hk(Pe − Pw )

or q= x
(159,000)(14.7) µ ln(re / rw )

7.07 hk (Pe − Pw )
q=
µ ln(re − rw )

Typical permeability magnitude

In general, rocks having a permeability of 100 md or greater

are considered fairly permeable, while rocks with less than

50 md are considered tight.

Many productive limestone and dolomite matrices have

permeability below 1 md but due to the associated solution

cavities and fractures which contribute the bulk flow of the

flow capacity.

Current stimulation techniques of acidizing and hydraulic

fracturing allow commercial production to be obtained from

reservoir rocks once considered too tight to be of interest.

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The oil and gas reservoirs in Malaysia are having

permeability between 50 to 2000 millidarcy.

Petroleum Traps

In order for petroleum to accumulate in commercial

quantities , it must, in its migration process, encounter a

subsurface rock condition which halts further migration and

causes the accumulation to take place.

Numerous systems of trap classification exist, such as:

1. Structural traps: those traps formed by

deformation of the earth’s crust by either
faulting or folding.

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2. Stratigraphic traps: those traps formed by

changes in lithology, generally a disappearance of

the containing bed or porosity zone.

21
3. Combination traps: traps having both structural

and stratigraphic features.

22
 Oil is found in flank sands, upper beds
or the caprock

A feature of all traps is the impermeable cap rock which

forms the top of the trap.

Subsurface Pressure

23
The elevated pressures encountered with depth are due to

one or both of the causes:

1. Hydrostatic pressure imposed by the weight of fluid

(predominantly water) which fills the voids of the

rocks above and/ or contiguous with the reservoir in

question.

2. Overburden pressure die to the weight of the rocks

and their fluid content existing above the reservoir.

It is more common to find subsurface pressures varying as

a linear function of depth with a gradient close to the

hydrostatic gradient of fresh to moderately saline water.

Departures from this behaviour, both higher or lower, are

considered abnormal.

The abnormally high pressures are more important as a

source of serious drilling and production hazards.

Magnitude of subsurface Pressure

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Pressure-depth relationships are commonly spoken of in

terms of gradients. The hydrostatic gradient in fresh

water is 0.433 psi/ft of depth which is the quotient of 62.4

lb/ft3 divided by 144 in2/ft2.

Since most subsurface waters are saline, it is common to

find the gradient to be more than 0.433 psi/ft.

Studies from 100 high pressure wells in Texas-Louisiana

Gulf Coast showed a pressure gradient of 1.0 psi/ft.

This figure is commonly used and may be obtained by using

an average water saturated rock specific gravity 0f 2.3.

Hence the overburden gradient is

2.3 x 0.433 ≅ 1.0 psi/ft

Subsurface Temperature

25
The earth is assumed to contain a molten core, it is logical

to assume that temperature should increase with depth.

This temperature-depth relationship is commonly a linear

function of the form:

TD = Ta + α D

Where TD = temperature of the reservoir at any depth, D

Ta = average surface temperature

α = temperature gradient, degrees/100 ft

D = depth, hundreds of ft

A normal gradient seems to about 1.60F/100 ft, although it

should be noted considerable variations occur in various

areas.

Several devices for measuring subsurface temperature are

available and will be discussed under temperature logging.

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