MM1DM1-E1 Solution 2008

2008-2009 Design and Manufacture 1

SECTION A – Machine Elements

1. (a) What is the main objective of shaft connection in the context of machine
element? [1 marks]

The main objective of shafts connection is to transmit rotational motion and

power between machine elements.

(b) Outline three factors that should be considered in selecting a method for shaft-
shaft
hub connection. [3 marks]

Any of the three factors below:

- The magnitude and direction of the forces between the hub and the shaft.
(E.g.. torque, radial forces due to belt tension etc. and axial forces due to
reactions from helical gears or a fan).
- The need for axial restraint (should the hub be able to move freely along the
shaft or not) and/or axial location (does the hub need to be located axially at
a particular place
place?)
- The need for angular location of the hub on the shaft (e.g.
(e where hub must
never be allowed to rotate on the hub – e.g.g. camshaft on a car engine or any
other shaft where a timing action is required)
- The need for (relatively more or less) accurate alignment between the hub
and the shaft.

(c) List and briefly describe (using sketches if necessary) the three most common
types of positive drives for shaft
shaft-hub connection. [6 marks]

Pin:
A hole may be drilled radially through the hub and shaft and a pin inserted
connecting the two..
The pin may be straight, tapered or a 'roll' or 'spring' pin. The load is transmitted
by shear in the pin.
Pins provide positive axial and rotational restraint but are only used for relatively
light loads.

Key:
Keys make a positive shaft coupling and can be used to transmit loads of all
type.
- Plain keys do not provide any axial restraint to the hub. The key may be held
in position either by fitting in a profiled keyway or by set screws.

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- Taper keys provide some axial restraint due to friction; the radial force
between the shaft and hub allows som
somee of the torque to be transmitted by
friction between shaft and hub.
- A GIB head taper key may be used to assist removal.
- Woodruff keys are easy to make and locate but can only be used for light
loads.
- Frictional connectors ((e.g. taper locking devices) are preferred to keys
wherever possible.

Splines:
A spline is a series of axial ribs machined onto a shaft with corresponding
grooves machined into the hub. As the ribs are integral with the shaft they do
not weaken the shaft in the same way as a key.
Also the load is shared between a number of ribs rather than being taken on one
key. Splines are often used for heavy loads.
The other main application of splines is where axial movement is required
between the hub and the shaft.

(d) Ann 80mm diameter shaft is made from a material with yield strength of 400MPa.
A 20mm square key is to be used, as shown in figure 1(d). The key is made from
a material with yield strength of 300MPa. Assuming the shear yield stress is half
the uniaxiall yield stress and the factor of safety required is 2. Consider both
shear stresses and bearing stresses on the shaft and key, determine the required
length (to the nearest mm) of the key based on the torque value of the gross
shaft. [15 marks]

Figure 1(d)

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MM1DM1-E1 Solution 2008-2009 Design and Manufacture 1

Given:
Factor of safety, Fs = 2
Shear yield stress = ½ × uniaxial yield stress

Shaft:
• σy,s = 400 MPa
• D = 80 mm

Key:
• σy,k = 300 MPa
• Height = Width = 20 mm

For the shaft:

Working normal stress for the shaft based on the factor of safety of 2
400 MPa
σ w ,s = = 200 MPa
2

Working shear stress for the shaft is thus

200 MPa σy
τ w ,s = = 100 MPa since τ y =
2 2
[1 marks]

For the key:

Working normal stress for the key based on the factor of safety of 2
300 MPa
σ w,k = = 150 MPa
2

Working shear stress for the key is thus

150 MPa σy
τ w, k = = 75 MPa again since τ y =
2 2
[1 marks]

T τ τ ⋅J
From the equation of torsion, = ⇒ T=
J r r
For a circular solid shaft, the polar second moment of area,
π ⋅d4
J=
32
π ⋅ (80)4 π ⋅ (40.96 × 10 6 ) 128.6796351 × 10 6
⇒ J = = = = 4.021238597 × 10 6 mm 4
32 32 32
[2 marks]

Hence the maximum torque that the shaft can carry, based on the gross shaft
section is
τ ⋅J
T=
r

=
(
100 N
mm
)(4.021238597 ×10 mm ) = 10053096.49 N ⋅ mm = 10.05309649 N ⋅ m
2
6 4

40 mm
[2 marks]
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MM1DM1-E1 Solution 2008-2009 Design and Manufacture 1

From torque equation, T = r ⋅ F

The force at the shaft surface (which is the shear force acting on the key) is
T 10053096.49 N ⋅ mm
F= = = 251327.4123 N
r 40 mm
[2 marks]
Hence the required length of the key (based on the bearing stress on the
shaft) can be calculated from
F F
σ w,s = ⇒l =
 Height key   Height key 
 2 
(l )  2 (σ w, s )
  
251327 .4123 N
⇒ l= = 125.6637062 mm
 20 mm  200 N

 2 
( mm 2
)
Note: This is essentially the compressive stress acting on the shaft surface due
to the contact with the key.
[2 marks]

The required length of the key (based on the bearing stress on the key) can
be calculated from
F F
σ w,k = ⇒l =
 Height key   Height key 
 
2
(l)  (σ )
2  w,k
 
251327 .4123 N
⇒ l= = 167.5516082 mm
 20 mm  150 N

 2 
(
mm 2
)
Note: This is essentially the compressive stress acting on the key surface due to
the contact with the shaft.
[2 marks]

The required length of the key (based on the shear stress on the key) can be
calculated from
F F
τ w, k = ⇒l =
(widthkey )(l ) (widthkey )(τ w,k )
251327.4123 N
⇒ l=
(
(20 mm) 75 N mm 2 )
= 167.5516082 mm

[2 marks]

Therefore, the required length of the key is 168 mm.

[1 marks]

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MM1DM1-E1 Solution 2008-2009 Design and Manufacture 1

2. (a) List and describe (using sketches if necessary) four different types of lubrication
used in plain bearings. [8 marks]

Any four from the following:

- Boundary lubrication occurs when the film of lubricant is not thick enough to
prevent contact between the surfaces. The lubricant carries only part of the
load and helps to reduce the coefficient of friction and wear. This type of
lubrication is used where the loads are not heavy and speeds not too high.
Examples are small electric motors, slowly rotating wheels (children's
bicycles), and linkages in car steering mechanism.
- Hydrodynamic lubrication occurs where the two surfaces are moving fast
enough for a wedge of lubricant to form between the surfaces holding them
apart so that there is no contact and low friction. The pressure within the
fluid film is generated solely by the relative motion of the surfaces. This type
of lubrication is often used for heavy loads operating continuously at high
speeds, e.g. crankshaft and camshaft bearings on a car engine, steam turbine
shafts (wear is minimised and shock is taken by the lubricant film so there is
no damage to the bearing). Boundary lubrication may occur during start up.
- In hydrostatic lubrication a film of lubricant also holds the surfaces apart but
the pressure is generated by some external means (e.g. a pump). It is
applicable for low speed applications where the speed is insufficient to
generate a hydrodynamic film. Examples include machine tools, measuring
instruments, any large load which needs precise positioning.
- Dry lubrication in the form of a graphite powder or other dry lubricant is
sometimes used. It has the advantage of being easily retained in the bearing
but as coefficients of friction are higher than for fluid lubrication it is
restricted to low load/speed applications.
- No lubricant may be used in certain light duty applications where plastic
materials are used on one of the bearing surfaces. Examples include domestic
appliances.

(b) List and describe (using sketches if necessary) three different types of frictional
belt drives and their application. [6 marks]

Vee belts: These are the most common form of belt.

- vee shape enhances friction
- several belts side by side for heavy loads
- flexing of belt around pulley and wedging of belt into vee generates heat -
hence losses - low efficiency.
- Poly-vee and cogged vee belts have higher efficiency.

Flat belts: These were once very common and made from leather or woven
cotton. They are now making a comeback made from reinforced polymeric
materials.
- quieter than vee belts
- higher efficiency than vee belts ( up to 98%) - thinner cross section is more
flexible hence lower losses.
- barrelled pulleys prevent belt slipping off
- require higher belt tension than vee belts

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MM1DM1-E1 Solution 2008
2008-2009 Design and Manufacture 1

Linked belts: These are made of small sections of vee belt joined together by
pins, which enable the belt to be split. They are of use where a shaft would have
to be dismantled to fit a continuous belt.

(c) Describe (in a few sentences) about chain drives and its advantages over
belt drive system. [4 mark]

- Chain drives are most commonly used in low speed high torque applications,
especially where space is limited. The most common type of chain is roller
chain (as on a bicycle).
- For high load applications
pplications two or more rollers can be placed side by side.
- An alternative
lternative chain form is the inverted tooth.. This is quieter than the roller
chain and may be run at higher speed.
- Chain drives have the advantage of having longer lives than belts but they
need good lubrication.

(d) There are two general types of shaft couplings,, namely rigid and flexible. Outline
the functionality for each of these shaft couplings techniques.
techniques [4 marks]

Rigid Couplings
- Rigid couplings are designed to connect two shafts together so that no
relative motion occurs between them.
- Rigid couplings are suitable when precise alignment of two shafts is required.
- If significant radial or axial misalignment occurs, high stresses may result
which can lead to early failure.
Flexible Couplings
- Flexible couplings are designed to transmit torq torque,
ue, whilst permitting some
axial, radial and angular misalignment.
- There are two sorts of flexibility couplings:
o Kinematic flexibility that allows for misalignment but does not dampen
out shock, and
o Resilient flexibility that can absorb shock and vibration
vibratio as well as allow
for misalignment.
- Generally flexible couplings are able to tolerate up to ±3° of angular
misalignment and up to 0.75mm parallel misalignment depending on their
design.

(e) Name two main objectives of applying pre

pre-tensioning to fastened components.
[3 marks]

- Pre-tensioning
tensioning is essential to prevent the fastened components from moving
apart when under load.
- Pre-tensioning
tensioning reduces the magnitude of stress fluctuations in the bolt when
the loads on the component fluctuate and this reduces the effects of failure,
e.g. in the cylinder head bolts of an internal combustion engine.

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MM1DM1-E1 Solution 2008
2008-2009 Design and Manufacture 1

SECTION B – Machining

3. (a) Explain the formation of built

built-up
up edge (BUE) chips. Identify an advantage of
these chips during machining process. [6 marks]

a) Layers of material from the workpiece that are gradually deposited on the
tool. Adversely affect surface finish in cutting. BUE hardness increases
significantly (work hardening or material layer deposition) BUE is generally
undesirable. But a thin, stable BUE can reduce the tool wear. Cutting speed
increases the size of the BUE decreases (or may not form at all) To reduce the
BUE: Decrease the depth of cut; increase the rake angle; using sharp tool and
effective cutting fluid.

(b) Why does the temperature in cutting depend on the cutting speed, feed and
depth of cut? Explain in terms of the relevant process variables. [9 marks]

When cutting speed increases, time required to dissipate heat reduces, therefore
increase thee temperature at the cutting zone. When feed rate is increased, a
large amount of metal removed is subjected to higher temperature and plastic
deformation because of an increase in cutting force and normal force which
result in temperature. When depth of c cut
ut increases, more material is removed
and a large cutting force is required. This large force will cause dissipation of
high heat and increase the temperature.

(c) For a turning operation using a ceramic cutting tool, if the speed is increased
by 50%, by what factor must the feed rate be modified to obtain a constant
tool life? Use n = 0.5 and y = 0.6. Explain how th
this
is modification will maintain
tool life. [10 marks]

1 −1 −x y
T =C n
⋅V n
⋅d n
⋅f n

n = 0.5
y = 0.6
−x −x
= C 2 ⋅ (1.5V1 )
− 0.2 −1.2 −0.2 −1.2
C 2 ⋅ V1 ⋅d 0.5
⋅ f1 ⋅d 0.5
⋅ f2
−1.2 −1.2
1.084 f1 = f2
0.93 f 1 = f 2
Feed rate reduce by 7%

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MM1DM1-E1 Solution 2008-2009 Design and Manufacture 1

4. (a) Explain the reason for the development of cutting inserts. [5 marks]

Cutting inserts were developed to make changing of cutting tool to be fast. They
also avoid the entire cutting tool to be removed from the machine for grinding
which would therefore require resetting. Cutting inserts also made the
manufacturing of the cutting tool to be cheaper because only the cutting tip has
to make out of carbide while the shank can be made of HSS.

(b) Thermal conductivity and coefficient of thermal expansion are properties that can
be important to the life of a cutting tool. Explain the reasons. [10 marks]

Thermal conductivity is the ability of the heat to flow. Coefficient of thermal

expansion is the dimensional response to temperature change. Tool wear occurs
due to the high temperature produced during cutting. A high thermal
conductivity will make sure heat flows and dissipate faster from the cutting zone.
Coefficient of thermal expansion will also reduce thermal fatigue and thermal
cracks due to expansion and compression of tool materials due to high heat.

(c) A machining operation is being carried out with a cutting fluid that is an effective
lubricant. Explain the changes in the mechanics of the cutting operation if the
fluid is shut off. [10 marks]

Friction at tool-chip interface will increase

Chip will become thicker
Built-up edges likely to occur
Temperature in cutting zone increase
Surface finish deteriorate
Dimensional tolerance difficult to control

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MM1DM1-E1 Solution 2008-2009 Design and Manufacture 1

SECTION C – Metrology & Tolerancing

5. (a) Explain the specifications that need to be considered when choosing a measuring
instrument. [10 marks]

Range
Accuracy
Resolution
Repeatability

(b) Explain the need for automated inspection and give an example of an industrial
automated inspection system. [10 marks]

Automated inspection is required to decrease the inspection time which will

decrease the overall production time. Automated inspection also will reduce
human error during inspection which will cause product quality problem.
Automated inspection also will allow quality to be maintained at a tighter
tolerance band. Example of automated inspection is vision system to inspect part
geometry and infra-red sensor to detect changes in liquid level in bottle.

(c) Describe how flatness of a surface can be measured. [5 marks]

Flatness of surface can be measured using a stylus in a surface measuring

instrument. (Student expands on this).

6. (a) Explain with the aid of neat diagrams what is meant by clearance fit,
interference fit and transition fit. [9 marks]

(b) A shaft with nominal diameter of 50 mm has to be connected to a hole with the
same diameter. Calculate the maximum and minimum required to produce:-

(i) interference fit [5 marks]

50H7p6 50H7s6
0.0025 0.0042
50 0.0000 50 0.0026 50 00..0025
0000 50 00..0059
0043

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MM1DM1-E1 Solution 2008-2009 Design and Manufacture 1

(ii) transition fit [5 marks]

50H7k6 50H7n6
50 00..0025
0000 50 00..0018
0002 50 00..0025
0000 50 00..0033
0017

(c) Explain the difference between dimensional tolerance and geometrical tolerance
and their importance in manufacturing. [6 marks]

Necessity of Dimensional Tolerance

It is almost impossible (and sometimes uneconomical) to maintain the strict
degree of accuracy as listed on a plan. To accommodate this, it is normal to
display measurements with a plus or minus (+/-) tolerance which allows for
some margin of error. Care needs to be taken however when determining such
+/- tolerance, particularly where there are mating parts. For example, a shaft
which is machined to its maximum tolerance may not fit a gear center that has
been machined to it minimum tolerance or an unsatisfactory loose fit would
result from the shaft being machined to its minimum tolerance with the gear
center machined to its maximum tolerance.
Usually, the dimensional tolerance is decided at the design stage and a Machinist
must take care to apply the required dimensional tolerance and to ensure that
discrepancies are not introduced as a result of poor workmanship of measuring
techniques.

Necessity of Geometrical Tolerance

Geometric tolerances specify the maximum variation that is allowed in form or
position from true geometry. The geometric tolerance is, in essence, the width
or diameter of tolerance zone within which a surface or axis of hole or cylinder
can lie which results in resulting feature being acceptable for proper function and
interchangeability.
If a tolerance of form is not specified on a drawing for a feature, then the feature
as made will be acceptable regardless of form variation. The tolerances of form
control straightness, flatness, parallelism, angular displacement etc. etc.

MM1DM1 End
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