1.

INTRODUCTION
Data processing and interpretation is required for identification of prospective fields (both
onshore and offshore) by using the seismic and well-log data available for an area. It plays
the pivotal role in modern day Exploration and Production (E & P) for the upstream
companies.

Data collected by seismic, gravity, magnetic or magneto-telluric methods is raw data and
cannot indicate towards the presence of hydrocarbons directly. The processing of data
involves refining of this data and integrating it with the nearby existing well data so as to give
a clearer picture of the geology and internal structure of the earth’s interior in that area.

Interpretation of this data gives us information about the existence of suitable traps which
may contain hydrocarbons at a particular depth. This is called data interpretation.

2. PROJECT OBJECTIVE
The main objective of the project was to use the SMT KINGDOM software, available at the
G&G workstation at GAIL (India) Ltd., E&P Department for interpretation of a Block X,
belonging to the company.

However actual geographic location and other sensitive details about Block X have been
withheld as per company policy.

3. THEORY
3.1 Oil and Gas
Oil and Gas are substances found within the earth’s crust. They are thought to come from
decomposed plant and animal matter. Scientists believe that the plants and animals that died
long ago were slowly buried by thick layers of sediments. Over a long period of time, and
with pressure and temperature, the organic materials were converted into the oil and gas
which are found today.

3.2 Natural Reserves

Most oil and gas is trapped in the tiny pore spaces between grains of rock or sand, contrary to
popular belief that it is found in big pools underground. These pores are too small to be seen
with the naked eye.

4. PETROLEUM SYSTEMS
4.1 Definition
A petroleum system comprises of an active source rock and its related oil and gas
accumulations. It includes all the geological elements and processes that are essential if an
oil and gas accumulation is to exist. (Fig. 1 Shows a typical petroleum system)

4.2 Elements 3
The essential elements of a petroleum system are as follows :

 Source Rock, mainly shale

They are the rocks from which hydrocarbons have been generated or are capable of
being generated. They are organic-rich sediments that may have been deposited in a
variety of environments including deep water marine, deltaic etc.

Types of source rock :

Source rocks are classified on the basis of the types of kerogen that they contain,
which in turn governs the type of hydrocarbons that will be generated.

 Type 1

Formed from algal remains deposited under anoxic conditions in deep lakes
and generate waxy crude oils when subjected to thermal stress during deep
burial.

 Type 2

Formed from marine planktonic remains under anoxic conditions in marine

environments and produce both oil and gas when thermally cracked during
deep burial.

 Type 3

Formed from terrestrial plant material decomposed by bacteria and fungi

under oxic or sub-oxic conditions and generate mostly gas with associated
light oils when thermally cracked during deep burial.

 Reservoir Rock, mainly sandstone or limestone with good porosity and

permeability
 All the oil created by the source rock won't be useful unless it winds up being stored
in an easily accessible container, a rock that has room to "suck it up". A reservoir rock
is a place that oil migrates to and is held underground.

 Trap and seal Rock, impermeable

The seal, or cap rock, is a unit with low permeability that impedes the escape of
hydrocarbons from the reservoir rock. Common seals include evaporates, chalks and
shale.

The trap is the stratigraphic or structural feature that ensures the juxtaposition of
reservoir and seal such that hydrocarbons remain trapped in the subsurface, rather
than escaping (due to their natural buoyancy) and being lost.

There are a variety of geologic traps,

1. Structural trap : anticline, fault, salt

2. Stratigraphic trap : unconformity, lens, pinch-out

3. Combination traps: Combination of Structural & Stratigraphic

4.3 Processes
Petroleum system has two processes : (Fig.2 shows the processes in a petroleum system)

 Generation, migration and accumulation of hydrocarbon

 Generation or maturation

With increasing burial by later sediments and increase in temperature,

the kerogen within the rock begins to break down. This thermal
degradation or cracking releases shorter chain hydrocarbons from the
original large and complex molecules found in the kerogen.

 Migration

The hydrocarbons generated from the source rock are expelled, along
with other pore fluids, due to the continuing effects of compaction and
start moving upwards towards the surface, a process known as
migration.

 Accumulation

After moving upwards through the porous reservoir rock layer, the
hydrocarbons make contact with the non-porous layer above it and stop
 moving further up and start accumulating in the uppermost part of the
reservoir rock layer.

 Trap formation

Traps are formed due to dome shaped four-way closures and other geological
structures of the cap rock. They cause the hydrocarbons to accumulate. They are of
several types. (Figures 3and 4 show a typical hydrocarbon trap and its various types
respectively)

4.4 Prospect and Lead

Prospect is a potential hydrocarbon trap that must be evaluated by drilling to determine
whether it contains commercial quantities of hydrocarbon, or if it is even viable for
production or not. After drilling is complete, the term “prospect” is no longer used and the
site becomes either a dry hole or a producing well.

Lead is a could-be “prospect” trap identified solely on the basis of 2-D seismic interpretation
and to be confirmed by a new 3-D survey so as to become a “prospect”.

4.5 Stock Tank Oil Initially In Place ( STOIIP )

Stock Tank Oil Initially In Place ( STOIIP ) or simply Oil in Place is the total hydrocarbon
content of an oil reservoir. It refers to the quantity of oil present before the commencement of
production. However 100% of the Oil in Place cannot be extracted to the surface for use. In
fact a mere 20-30 % of the Oil in Place can actually be economically recovered for
utilisation.

Accurate calculation of the Oil in Place requires the knowledge of :

 Volume of rock containing oil  Water content of the reservoir rock in %

 Porosity of reservoir rock in %  Shrinkage that the oil undergoes when brought to the
surface
It is calculated by :
Vb Φ ( 1 – Sw )
N=
Boi
Where,

 N = STOIIP ( m3 )

 Vb = Bulk (rock) volume ( m3 )

 Φ = Fluid filled porosity of the rock ( fraction )

  Sw = Water saturation (water filled portion of this porosity) ( fraction )

 Boi = Formation volume factor ( dimensionless factor for the change in volume
between reservoir and standard condition at surface )

4.6 Oil Reserves

It is the estimated quantity of crude oil that is claimed to be economically recoverable under
existing operating conditions.

The total amount of oil available is known as Oil in Place. The amount actually economically
recoverable is the oil Reserves. The ratio of Reserves to the Oil in Place is referred to as the
Recovery Factor. The recovery factor of a field may change over time based on operating
conditions and change in technology and economics.
5. EXPLORATION METHODS
 Geological

 Surface / Subsurface Geological Mapping

 Geophysical

 Reconnaissance Techniques

 Gravity Method

 Magnetic Method

 Magneto –Telluric Method

 Detail Techniques

 Seismic (2-D and 3-D) Acquisition, Processing and Interpretation

 Integration Of Geological and Geophysical Data

 Identification Of Hydrocarbon Traps

5.1 Seismic Methods

5.1.1 Introduction
In simple language, seismic method involves the generation of sound waves on the surface of
the earth and directed towards the earth’s interior and then having them reflected off the
various geological layers present inside the earth, followed by noting the time taken by the
waves to come back to the surface of the earth.

This data is then fed into computers which records this data in digital form that can be loaded
into software that can interpret what the interior of the earth is like in that region.

5.1.2 Elements
 Seismic Wave : Any mechanical vibration which is initiated by a source and travels to
the surrounding region after reflection where the vibration is recorded.
 Exploration seismic methods involve measuring seismic waves traveling through
Earth.
 The method depends upon the velocity of acoustic energy in earth materials.
  The objective of the method is to deduce information about the rocks from the
observed arrival times together with variations in amplitude, frequency and
waveform.

5.1.3 Basic Principles

 Energy source - Impulsive Dynamite generates elastic energy pulse.

 Pulse is reflected from the boundaries separating the geological layers.

 Reflected signals are recorded by geophones.

5.1.4 Procedure
Seismic data acquisition is done by reflection seismology (or seismic reflection) which is a
method of exploration geophysics that uses the principles of seismology to estimate the
properties of the Earth's subsurface from reflected seismic waves. The method requires a
controlled seismic source of energy, such as dynamite, a specialized air gun or a seismic
vibrator, commonly known by the trademark name Vibroseis. Reflection seismology is
similar to sonar and echolocation.

 Reflection experiments
A reflection experiment is carried out by initiating a seismic source (such as
a dynamite explosion) and recording the reflected waves using seismometers. On land,
the typical seismometer used in a reflection experiment is a small, portable instrument
known as a geophone, which converts ground motion into an electrical signal. In water,
hydrophones, which convert pressure changes into electrical signals, are used. As the
seismometers detect the arrival of the seismic waves, the signals are converted
to digital form and recorded. The signals may then be displayed by a computer
as seismograms for interpretation. The recorded signals are subjected to significant
amounts of signal processing and various imaging processes before they are ready to be
interpreted.

 Reflection and transmission

When a seismic wave encounters a boundary between two materials with different
impedances, some of the energy in the wave will be reflected at the boundary, while some
of the energy will continue through the boundary. For non-normal incidence (at an angle),
a phenomenon known as mode conversion occurs. Longitudinal waves (P-waves) are
converted to transverse waves (S-waves) and vice versa. The transmitted energy will be
bent, or refracted, according to Snell's law.
  Interpretation of reflections
The time it takes for a reflection from a particular boundary to arrive at the geophone is
called the travel time. If the seismic wave velocity in the rock is known, then the travel
time may be used to estimate the depth to the reflector. For a simple vertically travelling
wave, the travel time t from the surface to the reflector and back is called the Two-Way
Time (TWT) and is given by the formula

where d is the depth of the reflector and V is the wave velocity in the rock.

6. HYDROCARBON EXPLORATION
Seismic technology is used by geologists and geophysicists who interpret the data to map
structural traps that could potentially contain hydrocarbons. Seismic exploration is the
primary method of exploring for hydrocarbon deposits, on land, under the sea and in the
transition zone (the interface area between the sea and land).

The general principle is to send sound energy waves (using an energy source like dynamite
or Vibroseis) into the Earth, where the different layers within the Earth's crust reflect back
this energy. These reflected energy waves are recorded over a predetermined time period
(called the record length) by using hydrophones in water and geophones on land. Once the
data is recorded onto tape, it can then be processed using specialist software which will result
in processed seismic profiles being produced.
The three primary exploration environments for seismic exploration are land, the transition
zone and marine (shallow and deep water):

Land - The land environment can cover just about every type of terrain that exists on Earth
(such as jungle, desert, arctic tundra, swamp, forest, urban settings, mountain regions and
savannah).

Transition Zone (TZ) - The transition zone is considered to be the transition area between the
land and sea and can present unique challenges depending on the location. This may involve
setting source and receiver stations across river deltas, in swamps, across coral reefs, on
beach tidal areas and in the surf zone.

Marine - The marine zone is either in shallow water areas (water depths of less than 30 to 40
metres would normally be considered shallow water areas for 3D marine seismic operations)
or in the deep water areas normally associated with the seas and oceans (such as the Gulf of
Mexico).