Chemistry Quick notes

Energetics:
Standard enthalpy of formation: Enthalpy Change when 1 mole of a substance is made from its elements which are in there standard states, under standard conditions of 298K and 1 atmospheric pressure. Standard enthalpy of atomization: Enthalpy required making 1 mole of gaseous atoms from the element in its standard state at temperature of 298k and 1 atmospheric pressure Standard enthalpy of combustion: Enthalpy change when 1 mole of a substance is completely burn with oxygen under standard conditions of 298k and 1 atmospheric pressure with all substances in their standard state. Standard enthalpy of neutralization: Enthalpy change when 1 mole of water is formed by a reaction of 1 mol of H+ (aq) ions from and acid and 1 mol of OH- ions from an alkali, reactions accurs with solutions of 1moldm-3 under standard conditions of 298K and 1 atmospheric pressure. Mean bond enthalpy: Average quantity of energy required to break 1 mole of covalent bonds in a gaseous species. Bond dissociation enthalpy: Energy required to break 1 mole of specific bonds in 1 mole of molecules in the gaseous state.

Bond enthalpies aren t as accurate as Enthalpy of formation and combustion. Thermodynamic stability: Substances that have a higher Activation energy have a higher thermodynamic stability. These are usually the products in a reaction.

Calculations
There are three main triangles we need to know

1.

3.

2.

Equations:
Metal + Acid = Salt + Hydrogen Metal oxide + Acid = Salt + Water Metal hydroxide + Acid = Salt + Water Metal Carbonate + Acid = Salt + Water + Water

Metal Displacment:
Reactive metal + Compound of less reactive Metal = Compound of more reactive metal + Less reactive metal

Precipitation Reaction: Soluble compound + Soluble compound = Insoluble compound + Soluble compound Halogen/Metal halide displacement:
Reactive halogen + Compound of less reactive halogen = Compound of more reactive Halogen + Less reactive halogen

Metal carbonate = Metal oxide + Carbon Dioxide Metal Hydrogen Carbonate = Metal oxide + H20 + C02 Metal hydroxide = Metal + H20 Combustion of organic compounds containing only Carbon Hydrogen and Oxygen will only produce Carbon dioxide and Water as products.

Definitions of Quantities:
R.A.M (relative Atomic mass): Weighted Average mass of an atom of an element divided by 1/12 the mass of a carbon 12 atom. R.M.M (relative molecular mass): Is the average mass of the molecule of that element of compound divided by 1/12 the mass of a carbon 12 atom. Relative Isotopic mass: Mass of an atom of that isotope divided by 1/12 of the mass of carbon 12 atom.

First ionization energy Energy required removing 1 mole of electrons from 1 mole of gaseous atoms to form 1 mole of gaseous positive ions Second ionization energy Energy required removing 1 mole of electrons from 1 mole of gaseous positive ion to form 1 mole of gaseous dispositive ions.

Ionization energies are endothermic. As energy is needed to break the attraction between negative electrons and positive nucleus. - Periodic table and ionization Top to bottom = Decrease Left to right = Increase Ionization graphs allow us to find: Atomic number (electrons) Electronic structure.

There are four sub shells S, P, D, F An orbital can only hold 2 electrons 1 orbital ( 2 electrons) P 3 orbital (6 electrons) D 5 orbital (10 electrons) F 7 orbital (14 electrons)

Aufbau Describes how the electrons are placed into orbital s of an atom

Orbitals are filled up in order of stability. There for we add 4s before 3d

These are the S, D, P and F blocks on a periodic table. The last electron added to the element goes into that individual block 1st electron affinity Energy change when 1 mole of gaseous atoms absorbs one mole of electrons to form one mole of singly charged gaseous negative ions.

Organic chemistry
Alkanes: - General formulae Cn H2n +2 - Saturated (no double bond only sigma bond) - Made from Crude oil (fractional distillation) - Hydrocarbons - Show structural isomerism - Colorless in all states - Neutral - Combustion and incomplete combustion when products aren t fully formed. Isomers Different compounds with same molecular formulae but different structural formulae. Isotopes Different amount of neutrons same amount of protons Fractional distillation Separation of crude oil into fractions or mixtures which boil within certain ranges of temperature. Refinery gas - fuel Petrol - Cars Naphtha - chemicals Paraffin - Plane Diesel - Trucks Lubricant - Lubricating oil Bitumen Residue Cracking: - Thermal = high temperature - Catalytic = lower temperature with catalyst producing small chain alkane s. Hemolytic free radical substitution (alkanes): - Initiation UV light is absorbed - Propagation - Termination Free radicals join. Homolytic bond fission each bond of Cl gains one electron. Electrophyllic addition reaction (alkenes) - Mechanism has to be learnt - Hydrogen is first to lose electron and bind with Organic substance - Dative 2nd bond is formed Due to slight charge on substances. - Hetrolytic bond breaking Both electrons in a broken bond go to one atom - Hetrolytic bond forming electrons are supplied by one of the bonded atoms (dative). - Positively charged carbon atom (carbocation). Carbocations preference: - Tertiary - Secondary - Primary Less energy needed to form it, easier to form it.

Diols can be formed by Electrophyllic reactions: - Warm with a mixture of potassium manganate and sodium hydroxide - Color change from Purple to green, then green to colorless with Brown precipitate. - If cold there is instant decolourisation . Radical addition of hydrogen (hydrogenation): - Heat alkenes and hydrogen with nickel catalyst - Used to make margarine Addition polymerization of alkenes: - Forming long polymer chain from small unsaturated monomer molecules. - Polymer is saturated - Polymer melts over a range due to chains of different lengths - Polymers are macromolecular solids - Polymers are non-biodegradable. - Polymer chains are branched and arranged randomly (LDPE) - Low and high density poly ethenes are made for their respectable uses. - Polymer chains are less branched and in ordered pattern. (HDPE) HDPE Rigid high melting points for plastic bowls and containers. LDPE Soft and flexible used for packaging and plastic bags. Alkenes: - General formulae CnH2n - Unsaturated as they have a double bond - First three are gasses. - Molecular with intermolecular covalent bonding and intermolecular van der Waals attractions (London attractions). - There is NO methene. - Shows stereoisomerism (geometric isomerism) Stereoisomerism: - Due to restricted rotation about the C = C bond. - Identical atoms on top = CIS - Identical atoms on opposite ends = Trans

E, Z isomerism: - Elements with highest priority on the same side = Z - Elements with highest priority on different side = E

Bonding
Ionic: - High melting points due to strong intermolecular bonds between charged ions. - Compounds are often soluble of water, as water molecules attract opposite charged ions. - Electrolysis can act as proof.

Ions get bigger when they gain electrons and smaller when they lose. Ionic radius = radius of an ion Lattice = regularly arranged repeated order of particles in a solid.

Born Haber cycle:

Lattice enthalpy is usually the biggest line. USUALLY! Not always. Hess s law Enthalpy change accompanying a chemical reaction depends only on the final and initial states and is independent of the reaction route. What affects lattice enthalpy? - Charge of ions - Size of ions - Co-ordination number - Packing of ions Theoretical lattice energy is calculated from electrostatic theory. - If theoretical and experimental lattice energy values disagree the compound has covalent character and may be polarized. Polarization: - Where a cation attracts an electron cloud distributed around an anion causing it to change shape.

Covalent bonds: - When two atoms share a pair of electron each atom sharing one electron. - Dative = when both electrons come from one of the bonded atoms. - They are strong bonds as shown my macromolecular structures. (silicon iv oxide)

There may be a charge cloud representation.

Metallic bonding: - Giant structures of positive metallic ions surrounded by a sea of delocalized electrons. - A metallic bond is a strong attraction between metal cations and sea of delocalized electrons. Properties: - Electrical conducters dude to sea of delocalized electrons - Malleability hammered into shapes - Ductile - Higher melting point if there are more delocalized electrons, higher melting point if metal is small. Avogadro s constant used to find amount of particles in a mole Atom economy greater the better

Cause I had to take this subject .