01/07/1432

1
Assumption:
Surface is a diffuse emitter.
Example 12.5
Find:
1) Hemispherical total emissivity, c
2) Total emissive power, E
3) Wavelength at which spectral emissive power will
be a max
1) Hemispherical total emissivity
o
e
u
e
I
.e
dA

O
n
de
e
, ,
, ,
cos
cos
e e e
b e e b e
I I
I I

u
c
u
' = =
,
,
cos
cos
e e e
b e e e
I d
I d

u e
c
u e

,
cos
b e e e
b
I d
E

c u e

'
=

0
0
1
cos
b e e
b
E d d
E d

c u
c
e
t

| |
'
|
\ .
=

0
4
b
E d
T

c
o

=

2 5
1 , 2 ,
0 2
4 4
b b
E d E d
T T

c c
o o
= +

2) Total emissive power
From Table 12.1
2 5
1 , 2 ,
0 2
4 4
b b
E d E d
T T

c c
c

o o
= +

1 (0 2 m) 2 (0 5 m) (0 2 m)
F F F
u u u
c c c

= +

1
2 m 1600K 3200 m K T u u = =
(0 2 m)
0.318102 F
u
=
2
5 m 1600K 8000 m K T u u = =
(0 5 m)
0.856288 F
u
=
( ) 0.4 0.318102 0.8 0.856282 0.318102 c = +
0.4 0.318102 0.8 0.53818 0.558 = + =
b
E E c =
4
T co =
4 2
0.558 5.67 16 207 kW/m = =
Maximum E

may occur
in 0 < 2 um or 2 < 5 um.
3) Wavelength at which spectral
emissive power will be a max
Thus, maximum may occur at = 1.81 um or = 2 um
From Wiens law
First check where maximum E
b
occurs.
,
,
cos
cos
e e e
b e e e
I d
I d

u e
c
u e

b
E
E

=
b
E E

c =
( )
max
2898 m K
1.81 m < 2 m
1600K
u
u u

= =
= 1.81 um
at = 1.81 um
From Table 12.1, T = 2898 um
.
K
at = 2 um
From Table 12.1, T = 3200 um
.
K
Maximum spectral emissive power occurs at = 2 um.
b
E E

c = ( )
b
I

c t =
5
5
b
I
T
T

tc o
o
| |
=
|
\ .
4
5
0.722 10
b
I
T

o

=
4 8 5
(1.81 m,1600 K) 0.4 0.722 10 5.67 10 1600 E

u t

=
2
54 kW/m m u =
4
5
0.706 10
b
I
T

o

=
4 8 5
(2 m,1600 K) 0.8 0.706 10 5.67 10 1600 E

u t

=
2
105.5 kW/m m u =
Peak emission
01/07/1432
2
dA
Absorptivity
Directional spectral absorptivity
dependence on the directional and spectral
distributions of the incident radiation, thus
not a material property except

o'
( , , , )
i i
T

o u o '

o'
o
i
u
i
,

i i
I

O
n
,
( , )
cos
i i
i i
I

u o
u
=
absorbed energy at and
Kirchhoffs law
absorbed energy
emitted energy
in equilibrium
dA at T
u
de
I
b
I

blackbody
at T
: no restriction
( , , , ) ( , , , ) T T

o u o c u o ' ' =
cos
b
I dA d d

o u e ' =
cos
b
I dA d d

c u e ' =
Directional total absorptivity
directional-gray surface
( , , )
i i
T o u o '
,
cos
i i
I

o u ' = absorbed energy at and (u
i
, o
i
)
o'
,
0
,
0
cos
cos
i i
i i
I d
I d

o u
u

'
=

,
0
,
0
i
i
I d
I d

'
=

,
0
,
0
i
i
I d
I d

'
=

0
4
b
E d
T

c
c
o

'
' =
0
0
b
b
I d
I d

'
=

i) when
, ,
( , , ) ( , ) ( , )
i i i i i b i
I C I T

u o u o =
o c ' ' =
ii) when not function of

c'

c c ' ' =
o c ' ' =
Hemispherical spectral absorptivity
diffuse-spectral surface
( , ) T

o
,
,
cos
cos
i i i
i i i
I d
I d

o u e
u e

'
=

,
,
cos
cos
i i i
i i i
I d
I d

c u e
u e

'
=

,
cos
i i i
I d
G

c u e

'
=

1
cos
e e
d

c c u e
t

' =

i) when only:
, ,
( , , ) ( )
i i i i
I I

u o =

o c =
ii) when independent of direction

c'

o c =

c c ' =
diffuse irradiation
Hemispherical total absorptivity
: diffuse-gray surface
iii) when ( , , , ) ( , , )
e e e e
T T

c u o c u o ' ' =
, ,
( , , ) ( )
i i i i
I I

u o = and
iv) when ( , , , ) ( , )
e e
T T

c u o c ' =
, ,
( , , ) ( , ) ( , )
i i i i i b i
I C I T

u o u o = and
ii) when
, ,
( , , ) ( , )
i i i b i
I CI T

u o = o c =
( ) T o
o
,
0
,
0
cos
cos
i i i
i i i
I d d
I d d

o u e
u e

'
=


0
G d
G

o

=

,
,
cos
cos
i i i
i i i
I d
I d

o u e
o
u e

| | '
=
|
|
\ .

,
0
,
0
cos
,
cos
i i i
i i i
I d d
I d d

c u e
o
u e

'
=


0
0
cos
cos
b e e
b e e
I d d
I d d

c u e
c
u e

'
=


i) when ( , , , ) ( )
e e
T T

c u o c ' =
o c =
Relations among
reflectivity, absorptivity, and emissivity
Kirchhoffs law
for a directional-gray surface,
a) ( , , , ) ( , , , ) 1 T T

o u o p u o ' ' + =
( , , , ) ( , , , ) T T

o u o c u o ' ' =
( , , , ) ( , , , ) 1 T T

c u o p u o ' ' + =
b) ( , , ) ( , , ) 1 T T o u o p u o ' ' + =
( , , ) ( , , ) T T o u o c u o ' ' =
( , , ) ( , , ) 1 T T c u o p u o ' ' + =
01/07/1432
3
for a diffuse-spectral surface,
for a diffuse-gray surface,
c) ( , ) ( , ) 1 T T

o p + =
( , ) ( , ) T T

o c =
( , ) ( , ) 1 T T

c p + =
d) ( ) ( ) 1 T T o p + =
( ) ( ) 1 T T c p + =
( ) ( ) T T o c =
Example 12.7
Find:
1) Spectral distribution of reflectivity
2) Hemispherical total absorptivity
3) Nature of surface temperature change
b
E E c = G o
500 K
0.8
s
T
c
=
=
1) Spectral reflectivity

p 1

o =
2) Hemispherical total absorptivity o
,
cos
i i
I

u
,
cos
i i
I

o u '
incident radiation in O at :
absorbed energy:
Why is the value of o (= 0.76) closer to unity ?
,
,
cos
cos
i i i
i i i
I d
I d

o u e
o
u e

'
=

,
cos
i i i
I d
G

o u e

'
=

( ) ,
0
,
0
cos
cos
i i i
i i i
I d d
I d d

o u e
u e
o

'
=


0
G d
G

o

=

6 8 16
2 6 8
6 12 16
2 6 12
0.2 500 1.0
0.76
G d d G d
G d G d G d


o

o
+ +
= =
+ +

= 5000 W/m
2
3) Nature of surface temperature change
Does the surface temperature increase or decrease?
b
E E c = G o
500 K
0.8
s
T
c
=
=
st in out g
E E E E = +

4
b s
G E G T o c o co = =
8 4
0.76 5000 0.8 5.67 10 500

=
2
3800 2835 965 W/m = =
Since , the surface temperature will increase
with time.
st
0 E >

Example 12.9
Coals
Brick
wall
(diffuse)
Find:
1) Hemispherical total emissivity of the fire brick wall c
2) Total emissive power of the brick wall E
3) Absorptivity of the wall to irradiation from the coals o
Assumptions:
Spectral distribution of irradiation at the brick wall
approximates that due to emission from a blackbody
at 2000 K
spectral emissivity of brick wall
500 K
s
T =
2000 K
c
T =
01/07/1432
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1) Hemispherical total emissivity c
From Table 12.1
Hence,
0
4
( )
b
s
s
E d
T
T

c
c
o

=

( )
1 2
1 2
,1 ,2 ,3 4
0
1
b b b
s
E d E d E d
T



c c c
o

= + +

1 2 1 2
,1 (0 ) ,2 (0 ) (0 ) ,3 (0 )
1 F F F F

c c c

= + +

1
1.5 500 750 m K :
s
T u = =
1
(0 )
0.000 F

=
2
10 500 5000 m K :
s
T u = =
2
(0 )
0.634 F

=
( )
S
0.1 0 0.5 0.634 0.8 1 0. ( 6 ) 34 0.610 T c = + + =
2) total emissive power E
Coals
Brick
wall
(diffuse)
500 K
s
T =
2000 K
c
T =
4
( ) ( ( ) ) ( )
s b s s s s
T E T T T E T c c o = =
8 4 2
0.61 5.67 10 500 2161W/ ) m (
s
E T

= =
Since brick wall is diffuse, ( ) ( )

o c =
( ) ( , )
b c
G E T


From Table 12.1
irradiation from the coal:
Thus, the brick wall cannot be regarded as a gray surface.
3) total absorptivity to irradiation from coal o
0.610 c =
0
0
( ) ( )
( )
G d
G d

o

o

0
0
( ) ( , )
( , )
b c
b c
E T d
E T d

1 2 1 2
,1 (0 ) ,2 (0 ) (0 ) ,3 (0 )
1 F F F F

o c c c

= + +

1
1.5 2000 3000 m K :
c
T u = =
1
(0 )
0.273 F

=
2
10 2000 20, 000 m K :
c
T u = =
2
(0 )
0.986 F

=
( ) ( ) 0.1 0.273 0.5 0.986 0.273 0.8 1 0.986 0.395 o = + + =
Comments:
The foregoing expressions for c and o may be used
to determine their equivalent variation with T
s
and T
c
0.610
0.395
Environmental Radiation
extraterrestrial solar irradiation
S
c
: solar constant (flux of solar energy incident on a
surface oriented normal to the suns rays, when
the earth is at its mean distance from the sun)
f : correction factor to account for the eccentricity of
the earths orbit about the sun
u : incident angle of solar irradiation
Solar rays
Earth surface
Earth atmosphere
u
S
c
G
s,o
0.97 1.03 f s s
2
= 1353 W/m
c
S
,
cos
S o c
G S f u =
n
The earth surface can not be considered as gray
surface to the solar irradiation
Earth irradiation due to atmospheric emission:
sun
earth
T
S
= 5780 K
I
b,s
de
L = 1.50 10
11
m
R = 6.95 10
8
m
,
cos
c b s
S I d u e =
4 2
2
(cos 1)
S
T R
L
o t
u
t
= ~
( ) ( )
( )
4 2
16
2
2
22
5.67 57.8 6.95 10
= 1358 W/m
1.5 10

=

Because:
max
max
5780 K ~ 0.5 m
250 ~ 300 K ~ 10 m
S
E
T
T
u
u
=
=
4
atm sky
G T o =
01/07/1432
5
Spectral distribution of solar radiation Directional distribution of solar radiation
at earths surface
actual diffuse
Scattering of solar radiation
in the earths atmosphere
Assumptions:
steady-state
absorber surface diffuse
Example 12.11
: useful heat removal
flat-plate solar
collector
sky
10 C T =
sky
G
( )
1/ 3
30 C, 0.22
s
T h T T

= =

120 C
s
T =

2
750W/m
S
G =
0.1
0.95
S
c
o
=
=
u
q''
Find:
1) Useful heat removal rate per unit area,
2) Efficiency n of the collector.
u
2
[W/m ] q''
sky sky
G o
conv
q''
u
q''
1) Useful heat removal rate
S S
G o
E
sky
G
S
0.95 o =
0.1 c =
u
q''
: useful heat removal
( )
1/ 3
, 0.22
s
T h T T

=
120 C
s
T =

sky
10 C T =
2
S
750 W/m G =
in out
E E =

S S sky s c u ky onv
q G G q E o o '' + + '' + =
S S sky sky co v u n
G G q q E o o '' = ' ' +
4
sky sky
, G T o =
sky
0.1 o c ~ =
( ) ( )
4/ 3
conv
0.22
s s
q h T T T T

'' = =
4
s
E T co =
( )
4/ 3
4 4
S s u S ky
0.22
s s
G T T q T T o co co

= + ''
2
712.5 27.1 88.7 135.2 516 W/m = + =
2) The collector efficiency
2
u
2
S
516W/m
0.69
750W/m
q
G
n
''
= = =
sky
G
S
0.95 o =
0.1 c =
u
q''
: useful heat removal
120 C
s
T =

sky
10 C T =
2
S
750 W/m G =
Comments:
1) Since the spectral range of G
sky
is entirely different
from that of G
S
, it would be incorrect to assume that
o
sky
= o
S .
2) With a convection coefficient , the
useful heat flux and the efficiency are reduced to
and . A cover plate can
contribute significantly to reducing convection (and
radiation) heat loss from the absorber plate.
2
u
161W/m q'' = 0.21 n =
2
5W/m K h =
( ) ( )
1/ 3 1/ 3
2
0.22 0.22 120 30 0.986 W/m K
s
h T T

= = =
( )
1/ 3
, 0.22
s
T h T T

=
01/07/1432
6
Reflectivity
Directional-hemispherical spectral reflectivity
dA
I
,i de
i
dI
,r
de
r
( , , )
i i
p u o '
,
,
( , , , , )cos
( , , )
( , , )cos
r r r i i r r
i i
i i i i i
dI d
I d

u o u o u e
p u o
u o u e

' =

,
( , , , , )cos
r r r i i r r
dI d

u o u o u e

,
( , , ) ( , , )cos
i i i i i i i
I d

p u o u o u e ' =
,
( , , )cos
r r r r r
I d

u o u e

=

,
( , , ) ( , , )cos
i i i i i i i
I d

p u o u o u e

'

d
A
d
A
I
,r
I
,i
d
A
Hemispherical-directional spectral reflectivity
average incident intensity
d
A
I
,r
I
,i
( , , )
r r
p u o '
,
,
( , , )
( , , )
1
( , , )cos
r r r r
r r
i i i i i i
I d
I d d

u o e
p u o
u o u e e
t

' =

,
cos cos
a i i i i i
I d I d

u e u e

=

, ,
1
cos , cos
a i i i a i i i
I I d I I d

t u e u e
t

= =

Reciprocity:
when is uniform over all
incident directions
,
( , , )
i i i
I

u o
( , , ) ( , , )
r r i i
p u o p u o ' ' =
Hemispherical spectral reflectivity
dA
I
,i
de
i
I
,r
de
r
( )

p
,
,
( , , )cos
( , , )cos
r r r r r
i i i i i
I d
I d

u o u e
p
u o u e

,
( , , ) ( , , )cos
i i i i i i i
I d
G

p u o u o u e

'
=

(
,
( , , )cos
r r r r r
I d

u o u e

)
,
( , , ) ( , , )cos
i i i i i i i
I d

p u o u o u e

' =

01/07/1432
7
Hemispherical total reflectivity
,
0
0
( , , ) ( , , )cos
i i i i i i i
I d d
G d

p u o u o u e
p

'

=

0
G d
G

p

=

,
( , , ) ( , , )cos
i i i i i i i
I d
G

p u o u o u e
p

' | |
=
|
|
\ .

p A transmitting Layer with Thickness L >

Reflectance
( )
( )
2
2
2
2
2 2 2 2
1 1
1 1 1
1 1
p t
p p t p
p t p t

| |
= + = +
|

\ .

Transmittance
( ) ( )
( )
2
2
2 2 4 4
2 2
1
1 1
1
T
t p
t p p t p t
p t

= + + + =

1-p
(1-p)t
(1-p)
2
t
p (1-p)t
p (1-p)t
2
p (1-p)
2
t
2
p
2
(1-p)t
2
p
2
(1-p)t
3
p
2
(1-p)
2
t
3
p
3
(1-p)t
3
p
3
(1-p)t
4
p
3
(1-p)
2
t
4
1 p
(1-p)(1-t)
p (1-p)t(1-t)
p
2
(1-p)t
2
(1-t)
p
3
(1-p)t
3
(1-t)
p
4
(1-p)t
4
( ) ( )
2
2 2 2 4 4
1 1 1 R p p t p t p t

= + + + +

( )( )( )
( )( )
2 2 3 3
1 1
1 1 1
1
A
p t
p t pt p t p t
pt

= + + + + =

spectral transmittance
( )
2
2 2
1
1
T

t p
p t

( )
2
2 2
0
1
1
G d
G

t p

p t

=

,tr
G T G

=
total transmittance
Absorptance
p
1-p
1
(1-p)(1-t)
(1-p)t
(1-p)
2
t
p (1-p)t
p (1-p)t(1-t)
p (1-p)t
2
p (1-p)
2
t
2
p
2
(1-p)t
2
p
2
(1-p)t
2
(1-t)
p
2
(1-p)t
3
p
2
(1-p)
2
t
3
p
3
(1-p)t
3
p
3
(1-p)t
3
(1-t)
p
3
(1-p)t
4
p
3
(1-p)
2
t
4
p
4
(1-p)t
4
,tr
,
G
G

=
0
T G d
G

=

,tr
0
0
G d
T
G d

R + T + A =1
the amount of radiation energy streaming out through a
unit area perpendicular to the direction of propagation ,
per unit solid angle around the direction e, per unit
wavelength around , and per unit time about t.

O
2 2
cos dA u
1 1
cos dA u
the amount of radiation energy intercepted by
dA
2
per unit wavelength, per unit time [W/um]
de
4
1 1
cos
d Q
I
dA d d dt

u e
=
4
2
1 1
cos
d Q
d q I dA d
d dt

u e

= =
2 2
2
cos dA
d
r
u
e =
1
dA
2
dA
1
n
2
n
1
u
2
u
r
2 2 2
1 1 2
cos
cos
dA
d q I dA
r

u
u =