ADDRESSING GHG EMISSIONS IN THE MARITIME SECTOR

Student Name:

Student ID:

Course No:
 Table of Contents
Introduction......................................................................................................................................3

Discussion........................................................................................................................................5

UNFCCC and IMO Proposed/Implemented Measures and Market-Based Measures in

addressing GHG Emissions.........................................................................................................5

Market-Based Measures-.............................................................................................................7

Analysis...........................................................................................................................................8

Impact of UNFCCC and IMO Measures on the Caribbean Region (Benefits and Challenges). .8

Outlook for 2050 Target............................................................................................................11

Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................12

Reference List................................................................................................................................13

2
Introduction
International treaty obligations and national policies do not have the ability to restrict carbon
dioxide (CO2) release from maritime trade. In order to improve mitigation, it is required that a
novel multilateral mechanism might be established to assign these emissions to carbon tax
budgets, with different alternatives available depending on where the emissions originate
involving business players and ships. In this regard, it has to be emphasized that the
"International Maritime Organization (IMO)" has formulated and instituted an impressive body
of evidence of international legislation during the past 52 years, which consists of a 51 treaty
instrument that monitors and control international shipping on a variety of topics, including
safety, navigation efficiency, security and environmental protection. The environmental
conservation perspectives are inclusive of the overwhelming majority of them is already in effect
and is also being incorporated by the vast majority of countries. The major bulk of the 169
member Government comprises the Parties within the UNFCCC. The overarching rationale in
the case of the international shipping industry necessitates the establishment of a global
regulatory regime (within areas of security, safety, traffic enablement, and environmental
protection) in order to facilitate this enormously diverse and multicultural mixture to operate
efficiently and effectively (Balcombe et al., 2019). International regulations are important for
global shipping to continue to function as the primary mode of transportation enabling the
circumnavigation of global trade, as it has been the case for centuries, in contrast to ground-
based industries, which is primarily governed by national legislation. As a result, shipping is by
far the most operational worldwide amongst all other world's major industries, as evidenced by
the wide range of national preferences that may be related to the design, implementation and
construction of a pretty standard ocean-going container ship, as well as its ownership,
crewing, operation, and insurance and finance aspects, notwithstanding the ownership of the
entire cargo. In the year 2008, the "International Maritime Organization (IMO)"Marine
Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) unequivocally approved amendments within the
MARPOL Annex VI regulations which entailed dealing with sulphur oxide (SOx) and nitrogen
oxide (NOx) emissions. Despite the fact that NOx and SOx are not greenhouse gas emissions
(GHGs), they are pollutants that contribute to acid rain as well as other harmful effects. On the
greenhouse gas (GHG) front, it has to be stressed that carbon dioxide (CO2) is amongst the most

3
abundant of the GHGs that are contributing to climate change (Bayley-Craig, 2020). In
addressing the concerns pertaining to climate change it becomes imperative to mention that the
“United Nations Framework Conference on Climate Change (UNFCCC) does not consider
shipping as one of the major occupations that contribute towards the GHG emissions on the
global scale. The emergence of non-regulation measures in the case of shipping and associated
greenhouse gas emissions finally ended in July 2011, during the time the MEPC endorsed the
"Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI)" in the case of new ships, following an extensive
debate and vehement opposition from a large number of developing countries. Despite this,
additional measures that are geared towards limiting future GHG growth in shipping have
been considered with a high sense of urgency (Bullock et al., 2021). In this regard, the following
principal categories need to be considered which involve the following - In the first place,
technological considerations include more efficient and powerful engines (which save energy),
better-designed pressure vessels and propellers, renewable and cleaner fuels (LNG and low
carbon content), alternative energy sources such as (biofuels, fuel cells, etc.), along with devices
that are capable of trapping exhaust emissions (scrubbers, etc.), and energy recovery devices,
including "cold ironing" in ports, as well as other similar initiatives.

Secondly, logistical issues (or operational) metrics include factors like speed optimization,
climate forecast and routing optimization, optimal management of fleet as well as deployment,
effective management of supply chain operations, and various other aspects that have
implications upon logistical operation itself (Chen, 2021). Thirdly, market-based measures, or
MBMs for short needs to be emphasized which include "Emissions Trading Schemes (ETS)",
which comprises international funding based on a contribution imposed on fuel, and other
initiatives are examples of these.

Since the very inception of the IMO, it has developed and fostered skills that are geared towards
uniquely placating its services to the world community across each of its perspectives. This is
inclusive of the objectives included within the Copenhagen conference. In this regard, it has to
be emphasized that 23 out of the proposed 51 IMO treaties are directed towards addressing the
concerns related to controlling and mitigating pollution from maritime carbon emissions. The
factors pertaining to changing climate comes without any exception, and to this end, an IMO-
commissioned study on greenhouse gas emissions from ship vessels, which was originally

4
published in 2000 but has been extensively revised in 2009, and was thereafter published
(Dalaklis, 2021). The report came to the conclusion that maritime transport is largely responsible
for the emission of 870 million tons constituting up to 87% of total global emissions. In 2007,
CO2 emissions accounted for only about 2.7 per cent of total global emissions. Both the
International Maritime Organization's (IMO) and the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC) have principles for making decisions that differ chiefly in regards
to their treatment of national responsibilities. A fundamental principle of the International
Monetary Organization is that all members should be treated equally. In comparison to this, it
has to be emphasized that, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) “common but differentiated responsibilities principle enables variations in national
contributions thereby supporting climate change mitigation, and also providing a more flexible
framework for negotiating a collaborative approach in situations where obligations are not
necessarily uniform across all countries, such as in developing countries (Doelle, and Chircop,
2021). A global approach based on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change for tallying and addressing emission of carbon dioxide from international shipping
involves establishing the broadest possible foundation for a national allocation system.
Performers inside the shipping industry frequently repudiate new mandates, but they generally
prefer global regulations over the navigation of different regional patchwork equipped with local
specifications and controls.

Discussion

UNFCCC and IMO Proposed/Implemented Measures and Market-Based Measures

in addressing GHG Emissions
The proposed measures include the "International Maritime Organization's (IMO)" Assembly
resolution A.963 (23) based on IMO Processes and Regulations pertaining to the abatement of
greenhouse gas emissions from Ship vessels stresses upon the activities of "Organization's
Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC)" to develop and execute the
relevant mechanisms necessary to accomplish limitation or decrease of Greenhouse Gas (GHG)
emissions due to international shipping. In addition, the Assembly resolution directed MEPC
with the aim of developing a GHG work plan, including a timetable, for identifying and

5
developing the necessary mechanisms. Following this, the Committee committed itself to an
ambitious and yet realistic work plan during October 2006, which led to the completion of a
substantial amount of work in compliance with the work plan which, in turn, led to the
development of a group of comprehensive operational and technical measures that, when
properly implemented, will lead to a substantial reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from ship
vessels. Moreover, the technique of computation and consensual verification of "Energy
Efficiency Design Index (EEDI)" in the case of new ships, which is designed to foster innovation
and technical progress of all elements impacting the energy efficiency associated with the new
ships (Garcia et al., 2020). The energy efficiency associated with the shipping vessel is measured
from the design phase onward. The index under consideration will cover 87 per cent of the
population. Emission arising from new ship vessels the level of reduction has not yet been
concurred upon and has been deferred till a later date.

MEPC 60 will examine the issue in greater depth, but a preliminary relative reduction of 10 per
cent to 30 per cent is proposed which, in turn, is reliant upon the type and size of the shipping
vessel. Furthermore, guidance measures implemented in the case of MEPC entails the following
facets of consideration based upon the studies of Second International Maritime Organization
GHG Study 2009, a 20 per cent decrease on a ton-mile basis by primarily operational measures
is feasible and would render it to be cost-effective when compared with that of current fuel prices
(Gössling et al., 2021). It is the goal of the SEEMP to facilitate the shipping industry operation in
realizing its full potential.

During the meeting held between 23 November and 4 December 2009, the Assembly of the
International Maritime Organization (IMO) endorsed the measures undertaken by MEPC 59 as
well as the outcome of the meeting. Mechanized Environmental Pollution Control (MEPC) is the
technical constituent body of the Organization having relevant authority and executive order to
establish the highest practicable standards for pollution prevention and control from maritime
ship vessels. MEPC has been mandated by Resolution A.963 to work within the framework of a
regulatory regime to achieve reduction or limitation of greenhouse gas emissions from
international shipping (23). The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has endorsed a
willful audit scheme to assist flag states in determining the effectiveness in their undertaking of
the fulfilment of their obligations under the numerous IMO regulations and standards to which

6
their parties adhere (Lagouvardou et al., 2020). The first audits were conducted in 2006, and the
results of the process have been overwhelmingly positive. Up to the given date, 37 Member
States have offered to participate in the audit, and 77 individuals have been nominated by their
respective governments to serve as auditors. The scheme is currently being institutionalized with
the goal of making it mandatory in the near future, but it is not yet mandatory. It is estimated that
the 51 International Maritime Organization (IMO) treaty measures and hundreds of other metrics
such as codes, guidelines, and recommended practices have an impact upon every non-
commercial aspect of maritime transportation and ship activities. This includes ship design and
construction as well as equipment, operation, maintenance, and crew (Nikolaidis, 2020). In
recent years, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) has been instrumental in providing
and implementing innovative conventions to protect the environment. Moreover, the primary
objective of the International Maritime Organization's (IMO) Integrated Technical Cooperation
Program is really to aid developing countries in improving their degree of compliance with
international regulations and principles pertaining to maritime security, as well as the control and
prevention of marine pollution arising from ship vessels. In this context, priority has been given
to technical cooperation initiatives that stress human resource management and development and
support of the institutional infrastructure (Psaraftis, 2019). In recognition of the fact that not
every member present within has the same ability to fulfil their obligations as stakeholders to
various conventions, often due to a lack of resources and expertise, the International Maritime
Organization (IMO) has developed a capacity assessment tool. The technical co-operation
program seeks to address this resource imbalance by the needs of countries and matching them
with the expertise, funding, and training made available by the International Maritime
Organization's regular budget, the International Maritime Organization Printing Fund, donor
countries, and international organizations.

Market-Based Measures-
The Committee acknowledged that the functional and technical measures may prove insufficient
to achieve a satisfactory reduction in the amount of released   GHG emissions arising from
international ship vessels, given the projected increase in human population and the global trade,
as well as the urgent need for further reductions (Roelfsema et al., 2018). Furthermore,
reductions have been identified by science (IPCC). As a result, market-based mechanisms were
taken into consideration.

7
This is in concomitance with the pursuits undertaken by the United Nations General Assembly
Resolution A.963 (23) as well as the GHG work plan A which emphasizes the factors rendering
effectiveness within the market-based mechanism. This is primarily intended to serve two
purposes: to compensate for increasing ship emissions while also supplying a fiscal incentive
with the aim of facilitating maritime industry investment in and operating more fuel-efficient
ships and technological advances. In this regard, it has been suggested that price setting on CO2
emissions will encourage ships to operate in a more energy-efficient manner (Selin et al., 2021).
The vast majority of those present consented to the fact that a market-based measurement was
required which constitutes a comprehensive package underlying the relevant metric to regulate
greenhouse gas emissions from international maritime transportation. A further consensus was
reached by the Committee which stressed the fact that GHG regulatory regime applicable to
international shipping needs to be developed and implemented by the International Maritime
Organization (IMO), which serves as the exclusive competent international organization having
the global mandate to govern every non-commercial aspects associated with international
shipping and maritime transportation (ZERO, 2021). Moreover, it has to be emphasized that
Market-based measures were the focus of MEPC 59, which concluded with a consensus on a
work plan that would culminate in 2011 and be implemented in 2012. It concurred that the
consultations and proposals received till the existing date, accompanied with the fact that
relevant outcomes outlined within the United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP 15 and
CMP 5) in December 2009, would be taken into consideration in full.

The general preference expressed on behalf of the committee for the greater part-fund allocation
generated by market-based instrument operating under the auspices of the International Maritime
Organization (IMO) has emphasized the factors associated with climate change in developing
countries via new or existing funding mechanisms operating under the auspices of the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) or other international
organizations. According to estimates, a market-based instrument for international shipping
could generate billions of dollars in funds each year if it were to be applied to all ships in
accordance with several other IMO instruments.

8
Analysis

Impact of UNFCCC and IMO Measures on the Caribbean Region (Benefits and
Challenges)
The "International Maritime Organization (IMO)" is a specialized body Of the United Nations
that is responsible for regulating maritime transportation. In the context pertaining to climate
change, several strategic measures have been undertaken to combat global climate change. A
potential reduction in greenhouse gas emissions is classified into three categories according to
the strategy: short-term initiatives, medium-term initiatives, and long-term initiatives. These
measures are expected to be settled and put in place between 2018 and 2023, between 2023 and
2030, and between 2030 and 2050, in the order listed above. Although the attempts to minimize
carbon emissions has been beneficial in reducing the environmental frailty across small island
developing states (SIDS), it has had an unintended negative influence on economic
competitiveness. Economic, environmental and social vulnerabilities are characteristics shared
by Caribbean regions as well as other Small Island Developing States, whereupon it has to be
emphasized that Caribbean Island states are especially vulnerable to the climatic changes arising
due to greenhouse gas emissions when compared to other SIDS. Extreme climate events
jeopardize their long-term viability and sovereignty, as well as their ability to chart a course for
future development. Caribbean Small Island Developing States (SIDS), which is inherently
vulnerable, is facing emerging risks to their economic and environmental sustainability as a
result of climate change. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) implemented
legislative changes to MARPOL Annex VI in July 2011 to fortify efforts to combat pollution.
The proposed changes to the "regulations for the prevention of air pollution from ships" and the
addition of a new chapter on "regulations on energy efficiency for ships" will take effect in 2013
and will apply to naval vessels of all nationalities. In addition to the "Ship Energy Efficiency
Management Plan (SEEMP)", the Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) will be compulsory
by law for all new ship vessels. Estimates indicate that by 2020, these initiatives will have
accomplished a reduction in emissions of greenhouse gas (GHG) across the globe between 10
and 17 per cent, and it has been projected further that by 2030, emissions will have decreased by
anywhere in between 19 and 26 per cent. Furthermore, the EEDI as well as the SEEMP have the
capability to minimize CO2 emissions by as much as 180 million tons per year by 2020 and 390

9
million tons per year by 2030, according to the World Resources Institute. Jamaica voiced
support for a homogeneous emissions charge across all vessels predicated on fuel burned and
consumed per voyage, regardless of design operations or power source, at the 60th Session of the
Marine Environment Protection Committee in March 2010. The country argued that this measure
would be simple to handle and would avert the leakages associated with quality control
mechanisms. Jamaica, furthermore recommended that funds brought up can be utilized for
adaptation and mitigation measures as well as for the benefit of small island developing states
(SIDS). Tourist arrivals in the Caribbean will be reduced as a result of the EU ETS, which makes
long-haul tourism inside the region less competitive and encourages tourists to choose locations
relatively close to home. Collaborations with tourism and shipping agencies in the Caribbean
have revealed that the economic consequences associated with these equations on trade in the
region have not yet been the issue of market research. Initial data, on the other hand, indicates
that price-sensitive travel destinations may see a decrease in tourism of between 2.4 and 7 per
cent. As a result of a decline in tourist arrivals, Barbados, in particular, could see a loss of up to
1–2 per cent of its gross domestic product. Efficient shipbuilding practices and market-based
measures (such as emissions trading or fuel levies) inside this sector will affect productivity by
curbing the competitiveness of small island developing states (SIDS) that are located in remote
areas. These countries would then experience higher transportation costs for both import and
export as a result of these initiatives. When it comes to the maritime industry, price elasticity
pertaining to demand is minimal. It is also likely that the effects associated with increased
transportation costs will be greater in markets with smaller market shares and where price
elasticity is greater. Furthermore, Caribbean SIDS has a tendency to import lower-value bulk
goods, and as a result, they may bear a greater share of the costs associated with a fuel levy than
other countries. It needs to be further emphasized that some import and export sources will
become economically sparse wherein importers of services, goods commodities or goods render
themselves to be increasingly prone and sensitive to transportation costs, which in some cases
may result in a shift in consumption away from imported goods and toward domestically or
produced on a regional basis as substitutes. Neither the export of primary Caribbean products nor
the development of the tourism industry is likely to benefit from this development.

Climate change has two effects on the competitiveness and desirability of tourism in Small
Island Developing States (SIDS) in the Caribbean region. As a result of its negative impact on

10
the environment, the region is less appealing to visitors. Apart from that, the introduction of new
carbon regimes will make long-distance travel less economically attractive to visitors and will
raise the cost of their imports.

Outlook for 2050 Target

After adopting a draught strategy in November 2016, the "International Maritime Organization
(IMO)" endorsed the "Initial IMO Strategy with the view of reducing GHG Emissions from
Ships" in April 2018, thereby marking the first tangible step forward in the framework it
established for itself. It examines the International Maritime Organization's introductory Strategy
in view of the long-term goals of the Paris Agreement on climate change, as well as its ambition,
appropriateness, and efficiency in ensuring that the global decarbonization efforts are made
equitable by all countries involved. Despite the fact that targets set forth in the preliminary IMO
Strategy are clearly inadequate in terms of contributing to the long-term objectives of the Paris
Agreement, they remain significant, especially when one considers the complex nature
associated with this transnational and global industry in general. This is especially impressive
because it emphasizes the importance of achieving decarbonization as quick as practicable, and it
gives much-needed insight into the eventual aim. It has to be stressed that the rate of
decarbonization from now until 2050 is insufficient, as well as the overarching timeline
suggested by the 2050 goals for complete decarbonization, particularly in light of reports
indicating that complete decarbonization is technologically viable before 2050 and indeed the
dire predictions of the updated "Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)" report on
1.5°C global warmings can be met. In this context, it has to be mentioned that leading up to the
April 2018 meeting of the MEPC, the EU and several Pacific island countries had espoused a
decline of 70–100 per cent by the year 2050. However, despite the fact that 50 per cent by 2050
is a significantly lower target, it is the strategy's most ambitious goal in terms of scope.
Furthermore, the IPCC 1.5°C study, in conjunction with the results of the "2018 Talanoa
Dialogue" under the UN climate regime43, should provide a basis for a reassessment of the
overall goals, as well as a more in-depth examination of the metrics, stressing on the revised
strategy to be released in 2023. An aspiring comprehensive decarbonization goal combined with
legally binding shorter-term steps would probably provide the optimal combination of short-term
assurance in the context of modern practice and a clear indication about the long-term aspirations
required from the sector.

11
Conclusion
If the shipping industry is to function its fair share in satisfying the Paris Agreement goals as
well as eliminate the requirement for other industries to step up their efforts, it is essential and
imperative that the International Maritime Organization (IMO) reinforce its existing targets. In
this context, it becomes imperative to mention that a redrafted set of goals, including a 34 per
cent reduction in emissions from 2008 levels by 2030 as well as the corresponding zero
emissions target by 2050, should be presented to the United Nations Climate Change Conference
(COP26) and the Middle East Petroleum Conference (MEPC77), with the revised targets being
formalized in the International Maritime Organization's 2023 strategy revision. The United
Nations Conference on Climate Change (COP26) opened in Paris with a solemn promise from all
governments that they would come with more ambitious 2030 commitments to close the massive
2030 emissions gap that was already evident in 2015. It was three years later that the IPCC's
Special Report on 1.5°C reaffirmed the scientific imperative and earlier this year that it declared
a "code red" for the climate. After a year and a half, it is clear that the global climate negotiations
in Glasgow have reached a point of diminishing credibility, action, and commitment. This has
cast a long and dark shadow of doubt over the net-zero goals proposed by more than 140
countries, which account for 90 per cent of global emissions. Moreover, it has to be emphasized
that according to the current 2030 targets1 (which do not include long-term commitments), it has
to be stressed that the global climate is on track to experience a 2.4°C increase in global average
temperature by the end of this century.  After the March 2020 Biden Leader's Summit, our
standard "pledges and targets" scenario temperature estimate of all NDCs and submitted or
binding long-term targets has dropped by 0.3°C to 2.0°C. However, this improvement is
primarily due to the inclusion of both the United States and China's net-zero targets, now that
both countries have submitted their long-term strategies to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change.

12
Reference List
Journals

Balcombe, P., Brierley, J., Lewis, C., Skatvedt, L., Speirs, J., Hawkes, A. and Staffell, I., 2019.
How to decarbonise international shipping: Options for fuels, technologies and policies. Energy
conversion and management, 182, pp.72-88.

Bayley-Craig, L., 2020. To What Extent Has Progress Been Made by the International Maritime
Organization (IMO) In Reducing CO2 Emissions from Global Shipping? (Doctoral dissertation,
Université d'Ottawa/University of Ottawa).

Bullock, S., Mason, J. and Larkin, A., 2021. The urgent case for stronger climate targets for
international shipping. Climate Policy, pp.1-9.

Chen, Y., 2021. Reconciling common but differentiated responsibilities principle and no more
favourable treatment principle in regulating greenhouse gas emissions from international
shipping. Marine Policy, 123, p.104317.

Dalaklis, D., 2021 Can Market-based Measures Stimulate Investments in Green Technologies
for the Abatement of GHG Emissions from Sh...

Doelle, M. and Chircop, A., 2019. Decarbonizing international shipping: An appraisal of the
IMO's Initial Strategy. Review of European, Comparative & International Environmental
Law, 28(3), pp.268-277.

Doelle, M. and Chircop, A., 2019. Decarbonizing international shipping: An appraisal of the
IMO's Initial Strategy. Review of European, Comparative & International Environmental
Law, 28(3), pp.268-277.

Garcia, B., Foerster, A. and Lin, J., 2020. The Shipping Sector And GHG Emissions: The Initial
Strategy For A Zero-Carbon Pathway.

Gössling, S., Meyer-Habighorst, C. and Humpe, A., 2021. A global review of marine air
pollution policies, their scope and effectiveness. Ocean & Coastal Management, 212, p.105824.

13
Lagouvardou, S., Psaraftis, H.N. and Zis, T., 2020. A literature survey on market-based measures
for the decarbonization of shipping. Sustainability, 12(10), p.3953.

Marcu, A. and Vangenechten, D., 2018. Managing a sustainable transition to a low-carbon

society: The socio-economic impacts of mitigation policies. International Centre for Trade and
Sustainable Development, Geneva.

Nikolaidis, D., 2020. SHIPPING INDUSTRY UNDER THE INTERNATIONAL CLIMATE

CHANGE & ENVIROMENTAL REGIME (Master's thesis).

Nikolaidis, D., 2020. SHIPPING INDUSTRY UNDER THE INTERNATIONAL CLIMATE

CHANGE & ENVIROMENTAL REGIME (Master's thesis).

Psaraftis, H.N. and Zis, T., 2021. Impact assessment of a mandatory operational goal-based
short-term measure to reduce GHG emissions from ships: the LDC/SIDS case
study. International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics, pp.1-23.

Psaraftis, H.N., 2019. Decarbonization of maritime transport: to be or not to be?. Maritime

Economics & Logistics, 21(3), pp.353-371.

Psaraftis, H.N., Zis, T. and Lagouvardou, S., 2021. A comparative evaluation of market based
measures for shipping decarbonization. Maritime Transport Research, 2, p.100019.

Roelfsema, M., Harmsen, M., Olivier, J.J., Hof, A.F. and van Vuuren, D.P., 2018. Integrated
assessment of international climate mitigation commitments outside the UNFCCC. Global
Environmental Change, 48, pp.67-75.

Roelfsema, M., Harmsen, M., Olivier, J.J., Hof, A.F. and van Vuuren, D.P., 2018. Integrated
assessment of international climate mitigation commitments outside the UNFCCC. Global
Environmental Change, 48, pp.67-75.

Selin, H., Zhang, Y., Dunn, R., Selin, N.E. and Lau, A.K., 2021. Mitigation of CO2 emissions
from international shipping through national allocation. Environmental Research Letters, 16(4),
p.045009.

14
Selin, H., Zhang, Y., Dunn, R., Selin, N.E. and Lau, A.K., 2021. Mitigation of CO2 emissions
from international shipping through national allocation. Environmental Research Letters, 16(4),
p.045009.

Singh, S. and Sengupta, B., 2021. Sustainable Maritime Transport and Maritime Informatics.
In Maritime Informatics (pp. 81-95). Springer, Cham.

ZERO, N., 2021. COP26 Special Edition.

15