OPTICAL FIBER GLOSSARY.

SHOKRI ELGEBALI
12/21/2010

fiber optics glossary

- The following terms were defined with the assistance of Panduit Corporation, a leading manufacturer of wiring and network cabling products (www.panduit.com) and Jeff Hecht, noted optical networking consultant and author.

Adapter
- A mechanical device designed to align fiber-optic connectors. It contains the split sleeve (interconnect sleeve) that holds the two ferrules together.

Adapter Sleeve
- A mechanical fixture within the adapter body that aligns and holds two terminated fiber connectors. Adapter sleeve material is typically phosphor bronze, ceramic or polymer.

Absorption
- The absorbing of light energy within an optical fiber due to natural impurities in the glass. Absorption and scattering are the main cause of attenuation (signal loss) in an optical fiber.

- Acceptance Angle - The angle at which the core of the fiber will take in light. -

Numerical Aperture.

- The light-gathering ability of an optical fiber, as determined by the square root of the difference of the squares of the refractive indexes of the core (n 1 ) and the cladding (n 2 ), and as expressed in the equation: NA = (n 1 2 - n 2 2 ) 1 / 2 Fiber optic transmission systems (FOTS) are based on the principle of total internal reflection, meaning that all light injected into the fiber is retained in the fiber.The objective is to retain all

components of the optical signal in the core. However, a light source naturally injects some light rays into the core at angles less than the critical angle, which is perpendicular to the plane of the core/cladding interface. At such severe angles, the incident light rays penetrate the interface and enter the cladding, where they may be lost. The numerical aperture essentially is an indication of how well an optical fiber accepts and propagates light. As illustrated in Figure N-2, optical fiber with a small NA (top) requires more directional, i.e., collimated, light, whereas fiber with a large NA (bottom) does not.The higher NA allows

the fiber to accept more light and propagate more modes.The NA is mathematically equal to the sine of the angle of acceptance. Note: The NA is important in multimode fiber (MMF). It is not, however, a critical measurement in singlemode fiber (SMF), as the small core supports only a single mode of propagation and, therefore, the light is neither reflected nor refracted.The light-accepting ability can also be defined in terms of the cone of acceptance, which is the maximum angle at which the fiber will accept incident light, represented in three dimensional view. angle of acceptance.

Collimation.
- The process by which a beam of radiant electromagnetic energy is lined up to minimize divergence or convergence. Ideally, a collimated beam is a bundle of parallel rays perfectly lined up along an optical lineof-sight (LOS) between a transmitter and receiver, perhaps through, and in perfect parallel with, a waveguide. In a fiber optic transmission system (FOTS), a perfectly collimated optical beam would be perfectly lined up with the fiber core.

Cone of Acceptance.
- The maximum angle, represented in threedimensional view as a cone, at which an optical fiber will accept incident light. Within that cone, as defined by those angles, a light source can inject an optical signal into the fiber core and the signal will remain in the core, reflecting off of the interface between the core and cladding, as illustrated in Figure C-5. At a more severe angle, i.e., outside the cone, the signal will penetrate the interface and enter, and perhaps be lost in, the cladding. The angle of acceptance and, therefore, the cone of acceptance are

determined by the difference in index of refraction (IOR) between the core and cladding.

Critical Angle.
- Light striking the interface between two substances can either reflect off of the substance it encounters or enter it, with the difference depending on the nature of the substances and the angle at which the incident light ray strikes the interface. A glass optical fiber (GOF) comprises an inner core of glass of a given refractive index, or index of refraction (IOR), surrounded by one or more layers of cladding of lower refractive index.The critical angle is

measured from the normal, which is at 90 degrees from (i.e., perpendicular to) the surface of the core/cladding interface, or boundary. If, as illustrated in Figure C-6, the incident light rays strike the interface at an angle greater than the critical angle, they reflect off the interface, with the angle of reflection being the same as the angle of incidence.The light rays glance off of the interface, so to speak. If, on the other hand, the incident light rays strike the boundary at an angle less than the critical angle, they enter the cladding, where they either are lost or refracted back into the core, depending on the type

of fiber and the angle of incidence.

Total Internal Reflection (TIR).

- The complete reflection of a light ray as it strikes the interface between the medium in which it is traveling and a medium with a lower refractive index, or index of refraction (IOR) at an angle greater than the critical angle, which is measured from the perpendicular at the point of reflection. Depending on the specific nature of the glass optical fiber (GOF) and its

manner of construction, oblique light rays striking the interface between the core and cladding variously are reflected or refracted back into the core, which is the primary lightconducting medium. If the optical fiber is a step-index fiber, and the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, the light rays are reflected back into the core. If the angle is less than the critical angle, the light rays penetrate the core/cladding interface, where they are lost. If the fiber is a graded-index fiber, the light rays also reflect off the core/cladding interface if the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle. As the angle decreases below

the critical angle, the light rays enter the cladding, where they gradually gain velocity and bend, or refract, back into the core. The lesser the angle, the greater the penetration and the greater the associated increases in velocity and refraction. If the angle of the incident light ray is too severe, the light ray will penetrate the core/cladding interface and be lost in the cladding of either type of cable.Total internal reflection essentially confines the optical signal to the core conducting material, thereby maintaining signal strength over a distance.Total internal reflection is the fundamental principle that makes fiber optic transmission possible.

Add/Drop Multiplexer
A device that includes or removes one or more optical channels to a signal passing through it. See add/drop multiplexer.

Aramid Yarn
An ingredient in optical fiber cable that provides support, protection and tensile strength. Also referred to as KEVLAR, which is a brand of aramid yarn.

ATM (asynchronous transfer mode)

- A network technology that switches optical and electronic signals that are broken into 53byte cells.

ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode).

- A fast-packet, connectionoriented, cell-switching technology for broadband signals.ATM was an outgrowth of the ITU-T development efforts towards broadband integrated services digital network (B-ISDN). Although BISDN faltered, ATM became the switching technology of choice

in the broadband backbone of the public telephone network, at least for a time. ATM is designed to accommodate any form of data, including voice, facsimile, computer data, video, image, and multimedia, whether compressed or uncompressed, whether realtime or non-real-time in nature, and with guaranteed quality of service (QoS).ATM generally operates at minimum access speeds of DS-1 (e.g., T1 at 1.544 Mbps and E-1 at 2.048 Mbps) and DS-3 (e.g., E-3 at 34.368 Mbps and T1 at 44.736 Mbps). Designed to operate at very high speeds, ATM benefits from fiber optic transmission systems (FOTS) and commonly is provisioned over SDH/SONET

networks.Access circuits operating at OC-3 (155 Mbps) are not unusual and backbone transmission rates generally are OC-3, at a minimum. ATM traffic consists of three basic types.

Attenuation
The loss of signal strength (optical power) during transmission between two points. It expresses the total loss of an optical system, measured in decibels per kilometer (dB/km) at specific wavelengths. See "intrinsic loss" and "extrinsic loss" in this glossary.

Axis
The center of an optical fiber.

Backbone Cabling
The interbuilding and intrabuilding cable connections between entrance facilities, equipment rooms and the telecommunications closets. It consists of the transmission media, main and intermediate cross-connects and terminations at these locations.

Bandwidth
The information-carrying capacity of an optical fiber. It is measured in MHz-km and GHz-km, as distance plays an important role.

Birefringent
A property of a material that causes the polarizations of light to travel at different speeds.

Bragg Scattering
A distribution of light that is caused by a change in the refractive index of a material.

Fiber Bragg Grating

- A short length of optical fiber that filters out a particular wavelength. Periodically spaced zones in the fiber core are altered to have different refractive indexes slightly higher than the core. This

structure selectively reflects a very narrow range of wavelengths while transmitting others. Fiber Bragg gratings are used to stabilize the output of a laser and to filter out wavelengths in a WDM system. - The name comes from Bragg's Law, which is used to create the spacing of the changes. Sir William Lawrence Bragg, noted British physicist (1890-1971) discovered this in his study of x-rays and crystal structures.

A Fiber Bragg Grating

- Fiber Bragg gratings such as this one from JDS Uniphase can be customized for a variety of applications covering a range of wavelength bands from 850 to 1650 nm. (Image courtesy of JDS Uniphase.)

The Gratings Reflect

- In this example, the red wavelength matches the grating period and is reflected. The blue wavelength is transmitted because it does not match the grating spacings. (Illustration assistance courtesy of Jeff Hecht.)

Optical Circulators
- Since the desired wavelength is reflected back by the grating, another device known as an "optical circulator" detects and switches it. (Illustration courtesy of Jeff Hecht.)

Buffer
The protective layer that surrounds the fiber cladding. Fabrication techniques include tight or loose tube buffering.

Cable Assembly
An optical fiber cable that has connectors installed on one or both ends. See "pigtail" and "patch cord" in this glossary.

C Band
- A range of wavelengths from 1530 to 1565 nm. In this region, erbium-doped amplifiers (EDFAs) have highest gain. See EDFA and optical bands.

Chirped Pulse
- A pulse in which the wavelength changes during the duration of the pulse.

Chirped Pulse
- A pulse in which the wavelength changes during the duration of the pulse. In a diode laser, chirp arises from direct modulation of the laser, because the refractive

index changes with the electron density. The output of a laser may be chirped intentionally to create a high-powered, extremely short pulse. In this case, the initial pulse from an oscillator is stretched out using optics, amplified and then compressed back to its original duration.

Channel Spacing
The amount of bandwidth allotted to each channel.

Channel Spacing
- The amount of bandwidth allotted to each channel in a communications system that transmits multiple frequencies such as fiber optics. It is measured as the spacing between center frequencies (or wavelengths) of adjacent channels.

Channel Spacing in Optical Fibers

- The first 10 Gbps example with 50 GHz spacing has a slight signal overlap, but with 100 GHz, there is none. The first example provides more bandwidth, but the overlap could be enough to cause significant crosstalk. (Illustration courtesy of Jeff Hecht.)

Chromatic Dispersion
- The spreading of light pulses caused by the difference in refractive indices at different wavelengths.

Cladding
- The material surrounding the core of an optical fiber. The cladding has a lower refractive index (faster speed) in order to keep the light in the core. The cladding and core make up an optical waveguide.

Cleave
- The process of scoring and breaking the optical fiber end in order to terminate a connector.

Coarse WDM (CWDM)

- A WDM technology that spaces wavelengths widely apart.

CWDM
- An optical multiplexing technique specified by the ITUT as 18 wavelengths in the 1270 - (Course WDM) An optical transmission method that is used for shorter distances than dense WDM (DWDM). Also

known as "wide WDM," CWDM transmits fewer channels and uses wider spacing between the channels for distances up to 60 km. Wider spacing up to 25 nm, compared to 1.6nm and smaller for DWDM, tolerates more temperature fluctuation. - Standardized by the IEEE in 2004 for 10 Gigabit Ethernet, CWDM components are much less costly than DWDM because the laser does not have to be stabilized, and an external modulator is not required. The laser can be modulated directly by changing the drive current. CWDM operates between 1265 and 1625 nm compared to DWDM's tighter 1530-1620 range.

Coating
- A protective layer applied over the fiber cladding during the drawing process to protect it from the environment.

Connector
- A mechanical device used on a fiber to provide a means for aligning, attaching and decoupling the fiber to a transmitter, receiver or other fiber. Commonly used connections include 568SC (Duplex SC), ST, FDDI, FC, D4 and Biconic.

Core
- The central region of an optical fiber through which light is transmitted. It has a higher refractive index (slower speed) than the surrounding cladding.

Coupler
A device that combines two or more fiber inputs into one fiber output or divides one fiber input into two or more fiber outputs. See "directional coupler" in this glossary.

Coupling
- The transferring of light going into and coming out of a fiber. This term does not imply that a coupler is used.

Critical Angle
The maximum angle from the axis at which light can be confined within the core.

Cutoff wavelength
- The shortest wavelength at which a singlemode fiber transmits only one mode. At shorter wavelengths, it transmits two or more modes.

Dark Fiber
- Fiber lines that are supplied without any electronic or optical signaling equipment in its path.

dBm (decibels milliwatt)

- A measurement of decibels (dB) at one milliwatt.

dB (decibels microwatt)
- A measurement of decibels (dB) at one microwatt.

Decibel
- A unit of measure used to express the relative strength of a signal.

Dielectric
- A material such as a glass fiber, which is not metallic and is not conductive.

Diffraction
- The bending of light rays as they pass around corners or through holes smaller than their own wavelengths.

Diffraction Grating
- A series of scored lines that separates light into its various colors.

Directional Coupler
- A coupler in which light is transmitted differently depending on the direction of transmission. See "coupler" in this glossary.

Dispersion
- The spreading or broadening of light pulses as they travel through a fiber. The fiber property that causes this effect is also called dispersion. The three principal types are modal dispersion, chromatic dispersion and polarization mode dispersion.

Dispersion Compensation
- Reducing dispersion in a fiber in order to reduce total dispersion. Different methods are used for chromatic dispersion and polarization mode dispersion.

Dispersion-Shifted Fiber
- An optical fiber that has lower chromatic dispersion in the 1550 nm range.

Dispersion-Shifted Fiber ( DSF).

- A singlemode optical fiber that has been designed to reduce chromatic dispersion. The fiber core is fabricated in several layers with different refractive indices running in parallel throughout its length. Zerodispersion-shifted fiber has zero chromatic dispersion at 1550 nm. It is no longer manufactured, because it causes interference in WDM transmission. Nonzerodispersion-shifted fiber is designed for WDM. It has zero dispersion near 1500 nm and beyond 1600 nm, which

provides lower dispersion in the 1550 nm range.

Duplex Cord
- A two-fiber cable used for bidirectional transmission.

DWDM (dense WDM)

- Another term for closely spaced WDM. DWDM and WDM are used synonymously.

EDFA (Erbium-Doped Fiber amplifier)

An optical amplifier that boosts all channels in the optical signal at the same tim.

EDFA (Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifier).

- EDFAs boost the input regardless of the number of wavelengths. In several meters of doped fiber, the pump laser excites the doped atoms to higher orbits, and the input signal stimulates them to release excess energy as photons in phase and at the same wavelength. (Illustration courtesy of Jeff Hecht.) - A type of amplifier used in fiber optic transmission systems (FOTS) and comprising a short length of fiber that has been doped with erbium and spliced into the operating single-mode

fiber (SMF) in a configuration known as discrete amplification, or lumped amplification. A three-port wavelength division multiplexer (WDM) is used, with one incoming port connected to the operating fiber carrying the primary signal in the 1550 nm window, one incoming port attached to a pump laser operating at 980 nm or 1480 nm, and the one outgoing port connected to the operating fiber (see Figure E2).The pump laser excites the erbium atoms.Weak incoming light from the operating system causes the erbium atoms to drop from their excited state. As they do so, they release the extra energy, which transfers

to the primary signal and amplifies it. An EDFA can simultaneously amplify a number of wavelengths in an operating range around 1550 nm, which is in the optical CBand.A single-pump EDFA involves a pump laser on the upstream side of the erbiumdoped fiber section and provides a gain varying from +10 dB (1,000%, or 10:1), to as much as approximately +17 dB (approximately 8,000 percent, or 80:1). A doublepump EDFA involves one pump laser on the upstream side and another on the downstream side of the erbium-doped fiber section, and provides a gain of close to 30 dB (100,000 percent, or 1,000:1). Note: The

pump lasers can operate in either direction. Optical isolators, placed on both sides of the EDFA, act like diodes, serving to prevent optical signals from traveling in more that one direction. EDFAs are highly effective and less costly than optical repeaters, but generally are limited to no more than 10 spans over a total distance of 800 km or so. At that point a repeater must be applied to retime and reshape the signal, thereby filtering out the accumulated noise caused by various forms of dispersion. EDFAs are further limited by their inability to amplify wavelengths shorter than 1525 nm. An EDFA performs a type of amplification known as lumped

amplification, as it is concentrated in a single point.

EDWA (Erbium-Doped Waveguide Amplifier)

An optical amplifier similar to an EDFA, but derives a higher gain through a small waveguide rather than several meters of fiber.

Electro-Absorption Modulator
A semiconductor diode that modulates light from a separate laser, but that may be fabricated on the same wafer. Turning current on causes light absorption.

EMI (Electromagnetic Interference)

The interference in signal transmission or reception resulting from radiation of electrical or magnetic fields. Optical fibers are not susceptible to EMI.

Enclosure
- A cabinet used to organize and enclose cable terminations and splices for use within main equipment rooms, entrance facilities, main or intermediate cross-connects and telecommunications closets.

Epoxy
- A thermosetting resin used to secure the fiber with the connector ferrule.

Etalon
- A passive filter that uses a Fabry-Perot cavity.

Evanescent Waves
-The light that passes into the cladding from the core.

Extrinsic Loss
- The loss that is induced in an optical transmission system by an external source. In a fiber-optic link, this can be caused by improper alignment of connectors or splices.

Fabry-Perot
- A cavity with mirrors at opposite ends. It is a foundation component of certain lasers and passive filters.

Fabry-Perot
- An optical structure containing a pair of mirrors at opposite ends of a cavity. Light reflects back and forth between the mirrors, and one or both transmit a fraction of the resonant frequency. The resonance is created by making the distance of one round trip between mirrors equal to an integral number of wavelengths of the cavity material. Optically speaking, this is an interferometer, because it

relies on the interference of light for its operation. A FabryPerot device becomes a light generator when a laser medium is used in the cavity, otherwise it is a passive filter.

Ferrule
- The rigid prong in a fiber-optic plug that aligns the fiber with the socket. Ferrule materials are ceramic, plastic and stainless steel.

Fiber
- A thin filament of glass or plastic consisting of a core (inner region) and a cladding (outer region) and a protective coating.

Fiber Bragg Grating

- A series of periodically spaced zones in a short length of fiber with a higher refractive index used to filter out wavelengths.

Fiber Laser
- An alternate way of building a laser. The laser is built into the fiber itself.

Fiber Laser Fiber Optics

- Information transmitted through optical fibers in the form of light.

Fusion Splice
- The joining of two fiber ends by applying enough heat to fuse or melt the ends together to form a continuous single fiber.

Graded-Index Fiber
- A multimode fiber designed to compensate for modal dispersion by allowing light to travel increasingly faster from the center of the core to its outer edge.

Infrared
- A range of light from approximately 700 to 1000 nm. Fiber-optic systems transmit between 700 and 1700 nm.

Injection Loss, Insertion Loss

- The amount of light that leaks out or is otherwise lost after being inserted into a fiber either from a light source or another fiber.

Interference
- The combination of light waves in which the wave amplitudes add together. Constructive interference produces bright light when the peaks are in phase with each other. Destructive interference produces dark zones when the peaks of one wave align with the valley of the second.

Intrinsic Loss
- The loss due to inherent traits within the fiber; for example, absorption (light energy is absorbed in the glass) and splice loss (mismatched numerical aperture).

L Band
- A range of wavelengths from 1565 to 1625 nm. In this region, erbium-doped amplifiers (EDFAs) can be used, but have less gain than in C band.

optical bands
The spectrum for transmission in singlemode optical fibers has been broken into the following wavelength ranges, or bands. Typically, the wavelengths transmitted in multimode fibers are around 850 and 1310 nm, known originally as first window and second window.

Wavelength Range.
Band O-band E-band S-band C-band L-band U-band Name Original Extended Short Conventional Long Ultra-long In Nanometers (nm) 1260 1360 1460 1530 1565 1625 1360 1460 1530 1565 1625 1675

Laser.
- A device that generates a coherent beam of light all in phase and of a single (or nearly single) wavelength. A cavity with mirrors at each end causes a chain reaction that stimulates the emission of photon.

laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation).

- A device that produces an intense, coherent, collimated, focused, and nearly monochromatic beam of radiated optical energy by stimulating electronic, ionic, or molecular transitions to lower energy levels. A laser comprises an active medium, or gain medium, and a resonant cavity. An external power source, or pump, in the form of electricity or another laser, energizes the gain medium,

which absorbs the energy. Some of the particles in the gain medium are excited into quantum high-energy states. When a critical level of energy is achieved, a light signal passing through the medium produces more optical energy than is absorbed, and the signal is greatly amplified.The resulting radiated optical signal is highly coherent, i.e., consistent in phase and polarization, and virtually monochromatic.Through a resonating cavity and either mirrors or a diffraction grating, the signal is narrowly channeled and collimated, i.e., the rays are lined up so that they are virtually parallel. Fiber optic transmission systems

(FOTS) in long haul applications employ semiconductor diode lasers, generally Fabry-Perot lasers or distributed feedback (DFB) lasers. Short haul transmission systems such as those associated with local area networks (LANs) more commonly employ lightemitting diodes (LEDs) or vertical cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) as light sources. (Note: The laser was patented by AT&T Bell Telephones in 1960 as the optical maser.)

Laser Action
- The combination of spontaneous emission first, and then stimulated emission, causes the laser to "lase," which means it generates a coherent beam of light at a single frequency.

Laser Diode
- A laser made of semiconductor materials widely used to transmit light into optical fibers. It is always used for singlemode fiber and certain high-bandwidth multimode fiber such as used with Gigabit Ethernet.

laser diode
- A semiconductor-based laser used to generate analog signals or digital pulses for transmission through optical fibers. Both laser diodes and LEDs (light-emitting diodes) are used for this purpose, but the laser diode generates a smaller beam that is easier to couple with the smaller core of singlemode fibers. Laser diodes are designed to emit light either from their edge or their surface, the latter providing a circular beam that couples better with the round core of the fiber. - Laser diodes work on the same principle as the bigger gas lasers. They function as an

optical oscillator by stimulating a chain reaction of photon emission inside a tiny chamber. In edge-emitting lasers, the semiconductor waver is cleaved, and the inherent properties of the semiconductor create reflective ends that may or may not be enhanced with additional reflective films. With vertical cavity surface emitting lasers (VCSELs), the reflectivity has to be added. - The most common semiconductors used in laser diodes are compounds based on gallium arsenide (750 to 900 nm in the infrared), indium gallium arsenide phosphide (1200 to 1700 nm in the infrared) and gallium nitride

(near 400 nm in the blue).

Laser Diodes
- Laser diodes such as these are all fabricated using semiconductor processes just like CPU and memory chips. Note that the VCSELs (vixels) produce a circular beam that couples well with a fiber.

A Tunable Laser Diode

- Laser diodes also make great sensors. This laser diode from Jet Propulsion Labs is tunable to different frequencies in order to detect various gases

both on this and other planets. (Image courtesy of JPL's Microdevices Laboratory; Robert M. Brown, photographer)

LED (Light Emitting Diode)

- A device that produces light with a wide range of wavelengths. LEDs are typically used with lower-bandwidth multimode fiber.

Loose Tube
- The protective tube surrounding one or more fibers. This is usually found in cables used for outdoor installations.

MacroBending
- The loss due to large scale bending (extrinsic loss). Bending causes imperfect guiding of light which will exceed the critical angle of reflection. Macrobending loss can be reversed once the bend is corrected.

Mechanical Splice
Joining two fiber ends together by a temporary or permanent mechanical method in order to maintain continuous signal transmission.

MEMS (Micro Electro Mechanical Systems)

- Tiny components etched from a semiconductor material that can move under the control of electronic signals. MEMS devices include movable mirrors that can switch or redirect the path of light.

MicroBending
- The loss of light due to small distortions in the fiber, not usually visible to the naked eye.

Micron (m)
- One micrometer or one millionth of a meter. Used to express the geometric dimension of fibers.

Modal Dispersion
- The spreading of light pulses along the length of the fiber caused by differential optical paths taken in multimode fiber.

Mode
- A reflective path that the light takes in a fiber. Each mode has its own pattern of electromagnetic fields as it propagates through the fiber. There is only one mode in singlemode fiber. In multimode fiber, multiple modes are generated, causing pulse dispersion at the receiving end.

Mode Field Diameter ( MFD )

- In singlemode fiber, the diameter of the zone where the single mode propagates down the center of the fiber. It is slightly larger than the core diameter.

Multimode
- An optical fiber in which light travels in multiple modes. Multimode fiber is used in shorterdistance applications than singlemode fiber.

Multiplex
- Combining two or more signals into a single bit stream that can be individually recovered.

NanoMeter
- One billionth of a meter.

- An Optical Carrier Rate in the SONET Hierarchy. OC-1, OC-3, OC-12, OC-48, OC-192, OC786
OC (Optical Carrier).
- The optical signal as defined in Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) for North America and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) standards for international applications. All SONET levels are expressed in multiples of OC-1 (51.84

Mbps), which is a T3 signal (44.736 Mbps), or the equivalent, plus SONET signaling and control overhead, converted from electrical to optical format. The SONET digital hierarchy begins at OC-1 (51.84 Mbps) and the SDH hierarchy at OC-3 (155.52 Mbps). From OC-3, the progression of SONET and SDH levels are the same, culminating in OC-768 (39.813 Gbps). OC-1536 (79.626 Gbps) and OC-3072 (159.252 Gbps) have yet to be fully defined. See SONET for a table of OC-N levels.

OC
- (Optical Carrier) The transmission speeds in SONET/SDH networks

SONET CIRCUITS
Optical Channel Electrical Channel VT-1.5 STS-1 STS-3 STS-3c STS-12 STS-12c
STS-48 STS-192 STS-768

Speed (Mbps) 1.7 51.84 155.52 155.52 622.08 622.08

OC-1 OC-3 OC-3c OC-12 OC-12c

OC-48 OC-192 OC-768

(28 DS1s or 1 DS3) (3 STS-1s) (concatenated) (12 STS-1, 4 STS-3) (12 STS-1, 4 STS-3c)

2488.32 (48 STS-1, 16 STS-3) 9953.28 (192 STS-1, 64 STS-3) 39813,12 (768 STS-1, 256 STS-3)

OC = Optical Carrier STS = Synchronous Transport Signal

OEO (Optical Electrical Optical)

- Refers to devices that convert light back to electricity for manipulation and then back out to light. Contrast with OOO.

OFNR (Optical Fiber Non-conductive Riser)

- A type of fiber-optic cable.

OFNP (Optical Fiber Non-conductive Plenum)

- A type of fiber-optic cable.

OOO (Optical Optical Optical)

- Refers to devices that maintain the transmission signal as light throughout. Contrast with OEO.

Optical Amplifier
- A device that boosts signals in an optical fiber. The EDFA was the first successful optical amplifier. See EDFA.

Optical Channel
- A signal transmitted at one wavelength in a fiber-optic system.

Optical Network
- A network that processes and switches signals in optical form.

Optical Switch
- A device that routes optical signals to their appropriate destination. All-optical switches (OOO) do not have to convert light back to electricity for processing.

optical switch.
- An all-optical fiber-optic switching device that maintains the signal as light from input to output. Traditional switches that connect optical fiber lines are electro-optic. - They convert photons from the input side to electrons internally in order to do the switching and then convert back to photons on the output side. - Although some vendors call electro-optical switches "optical switches," true optical switches support all transmission speeds. Unlike electronic switches, which are tied to specific data rates and protocols, optical switches

direct the incoming bitstream to the output port no matter what the line speed or protocol (IP, ATM, SONET) and do not have to be upgraded for any such changes. - Optical switches may separate signals at different wavelengths and direct them to different ports. - Using tiny mirrors that reflect the input signal to the output port, MEMS technology is expected to be the prevailing method for building optical switches, also known as "photonic switches." There are various fabrication methods for building MEMS mirrors.

MEMS (MicroElectroMechanical Systems).

- Tiny electromechanical systems on a silicon chip. MEMS comprise integrated mechanical elements, sensors, actuators, and electronics on a common silicon substrate through microfabrication technologies, including the micromachining of the mechanical elements. MEMS are employed in optical projectors as well as in purely optical switches used in fiber optics transmission systems (FOTS), and actually are more along the lines of optical crossconnects. As purely optical

devices, they do not require that the incoming optical signal be converted to an electrical signal for processing and then be reconverted to an optical signal. In other words, MEMS are optical-optical-optical (OOO), rather than opticalelectrical-optical (OEO). See also cross-connect, FOTS, and switch. - (MicroElectroMechanical Systems) Tiny mechanical devices that are built onto semiconductor chips and are measured in micrometers. In the research labs since the 1980s, MEMS devices began to materialize as commercial products in the mid-1990s. They are used to make

pressure, temperature, chemical and vibration sensors, light reflectors and switches as well as accelerometers for airbags, vehicle control, pacemakers and games. The technology is also used to make inkjet print heads, microactuators for read/write heads and all-optical switches that reflect light beams to the appropriate output port. See accelerometer.

MEMS and MOEMS

- When optical components are included in a MEMS device, it is called a micro-optoelectromechanical system (MOEMS). For example, adding a photonic sensor to a silicon

chip constitutes a MOEMS device. See micromachine, MEMS mirror, DLP and optical switch. MEMS Vs. Nanotechnology Sometimes MEMS and nanotechnology are terms that are used interchangeably, because they both deal with microminiaturized objects. However, they are vastly different. MEMS deals with creating devices that are measured in micrometers, whereas nantotechnology deals with manipulating atoms at the nanometer level.

MEMS-based Optical Switch

In an all-optical switch, MEMS mirrors reflect the input signal to an output port without regard to line speed or protocol. This technology is expected to be the dominant method for building photonic switches.

Sample Micromachines
- Microfabrica's EFAB system was the first MEMS foundry process to accept CAD files as input, turning customer designs into micromachines much faster than traditional methods. EFAB builds the devices one metal layer at a time. In this image, the square at the top is a microfluidics device with internal passageways used for a "lab on a chip." The multiarm device (center) is a fuel injection nozzle. Bottom left is an accelerometer, and bottom right is an inductor used in RF circuits. (Image courtesy of Microfabrica Inc., www.microfabrica.com)

MEMS-Based Accelerometer
- MEMSIC's dual-axis thermal accelerator is a MEMS-based semiconductor device that works conceptually like the air bubble in a construction level. The square in the middle of the chip is a resistor that heats up a gas bubble. The next larger squares contain thermal couples that sense the location of the heated bubble as the device is tilted or accelerated. (Image courtesy of MEMSIC, Inc.)

MEMS-based Optical Switch

- MEMS mirrors reflect the input signal to an output port without regard to line speed or protocol. This technology is expected to be the dominant method for building photonic switches.

MEMS Mirrors
An individual mirror in a MEMSbased switch can really fit through the proverbial "eye of a needle."

Optical Waveguide
- An optical fiber, planar waveguide or other structure that guides light along its length.

OTDR (Optical Time Domain Reflectometer)

- An instrument that measures optical transmission characteristics by sending a short pulse of light down a fiber and observing backscattered light. Used to measure fiber attenuation and evaluate optical transmission at splices and connectors.

Passive Optical Network

- A fiber-optic system with no active components between its distribution point and remote receiver nodes.

Photo Diode
- A device that receives optical power and changes it to electrical power.

PC (Physical Contacting)
- Refers to the type of fiber-optic connector that makes actual contact of two terminated fiber ends, keeping signal losses to a minimum.

Patch Cord
- A specific length of optical fiber cable with terminated connectors on each end. Used for connecting patch panels or optoelectronic devices.

Photon
- A particle of light.

Photonic
- Having to do with light or photons.

Pigtail
- A short length of fiber in which one end is attached to a component and the other is free to be spliced to another fiber.

Planar Waveguide
- A flat waveguide on the surface of a substrate with a lower refractive index. It confines light similar to an optical fiber. Used in waveguide arrays.

Polarization
- The alignment of the perpendicular electrical and magnetic fields that make up a light wave.

Polarization Mode Dispersion

- The dispersion that arises from slight asymmetries in optical fibers. The speed of light varies with polarization.

Polishing Paper
- Also known as lapping film, it is a paper with a fine grit used to remove any imperfections in the fiber end surface that may exist after cleaving. Fiber ends terminated within a connector are polished flush with the end of the ferrule.

Polishing Puck
- A device used to hold the connector during the polishing of the fiber.

Population Inversion
- The state of atoms that have been excited.

Raman Amplifier
- A device that boosts the signal in an optical fiber by transferring energy from a powerful pump beam to a weaker signal beam.

Raman amplifier
- A type of amplifier used in long haul, single-mode (SMF) fiber optic transmission systems (FOTS). Raman amplification usually occurs throughout the length of the transmission fiber itself in a process known as distributed amplification, rather than in a discrete amplification, or lumped amplification configuration such as that employed by an erbium-doped fiber amplifier

(EDFA). Raman amplification occurs as a high-energy pump wavelength is sent in the reverse direction from the output end of the fiber span, where the incoming signal is weakest. The pump wavelength, which generally is in the 1450 nm range (E-Band), interacts with and excites atoms in the crystalline lattice of the fiber core.The atoms absorb the photons, and quickly release photons with energy equal to the original photon, plus or minus atomic vibration. In other words, a frequency/wavelength shift occurs as the pump wavelength propagates along the fiber in the reverse direction.The energy lost in the pump

wavelength shifts to longerwavelength (within about 100 nm) signals, generally in the 1550 nm window (C-Band), in the forward direction, thereby serving to amplify them. Raman amplifiers offer the advantage of amplifying signals in the broad range extending from 1300 nm to 1700 nm. Further, they perform better than EDFAs in terms of signalto-noise ratio (SNR). Raman amplifiers often are used as preamplifiers to enhance the performance of EDFAs in dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) systems. - Pronounced "ruh-mahn," it is a device that boosts the signal in an optical fiber by transferring

energy from a powerful pump beam to a weaker signal beam. It relies on the interaction between light and atoms in the fiber. Unlike erbium-doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs), which boost wavelengths in the 15301610 nm range, a Raman amplifier can increase the signal strength of any wavelength by pumping at 13THz more than the desired frequency. - Normally, Raman amplification is distributed along lengths of signal-transmitting fiber. A Raman pump laser is typically stationed at the end of a fiber run and pumps backward several kilometers to amplify signals through that region.

Receiver (RX)
- An optoelectronic device that converts optical signals into electrical signals.

Reflection
- The process that occurs when a light ray traveling in one material hits a different material and reflects back into the original material without loss of light.

Refractive Index
- A property of a material that changes the speed of light, computed as the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light through the material. When light travels at an angle between two different materials, their refractive indices determine the angle of transmission (refraction) of the light beam. In general, the refractive index varies based on the frequency of the light as well, thus different colors of light travel at different speeds. High intensities also can change the refractive index. - The refractive index of a vacuum is 1.0, and air is a tiny fraction greater than 1.0. The

higher the index, the slower the speed of light through the medium, because the speed through the material is the speed of light (c) over the refractive index (n), - thus speed = c/n. Following are common refractive indices.
Material Vacuum Air Water Glass Lithium niobate Gallium arsenide Silicon Germanium Refractive Index (n) 1.0 1.0 (tiny fraction more than 1) 1.33 1.45-1.48 2.25 3.35 3.5 4.0

Refractive Indices
- When light travels at an angle between two materials, light bends according to their refractive indices. In order to reflect, light must be on the wider side of the critical angle.

Refraction
- The bending of light rays as they pass through a transmission medium of one refractive index into a medium with a different refractive index.

Refractive Index
- The ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to the velocity of light in a specific material. Using 1.0 as the base reference, the higher the number, the slower light travels.

Repeater
A transceiver that converts optical signals to electronic and back out to optical.

Riser
- A pathway for indoor cables that pass between floors.

S Band
- A range of wavelengths from 1460 to 1530 nm.

Scattering
- A property of glass that causes light to deflect from the fiber and contribute to losses (intrinsic attenuation).

SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy)

A scale of standard data rates for fiber-optic systems defined by the ITU.

SONET (Synchronous Optical NETwork).

- transmission over single-mode fiber (SMF) optic transmission systems (FOTS), SONET grew out of the SYNTRAN (SYNchronous TRANsmission) standard developed at Bellcore. SONET was initially developed in 1984 and finally standardized by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1988. Also in 1988, SONET was internationalized by the ITU-T as Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH), which differs primarily with respect to low-level line rates and some

terminology. SONET/SDH essentially is a broadband optical version of T-carrier, defined in multiples of T3 bandwidth plus overhead for additional signaling and control functions. Primarily intended for carrier backbone implementation, SONET/SDH specifies a network-to-network interface (NNI), also known as network node interface, that supports the interconnection of national and regional networks into a cohesive global network. The user network interface (UNI) provides a standard basis for connection from the user premises to a SONET/SDH

local loop. T3 signal to which additional signaling and control overhead is added to for the Synchronous Transport Signal level-N (STS-N). The term Optical Carrier-N (OC-N) applies once the electrical signal is converted to optical format. The SONET hierarchy begins with is OC-1 at a signaling rate of 51.84 Mbps, which is the equivalent of a T3 (44.736 Mbps) plus overhead, and currently tops out at the OC-768 nominal rate of 40 Gbps, which is the equivalent of 768 T3s plus overhead.Table S2 details the SONET/SDH hierarchy.

Table S-2: SONET/SDH Signal Hierarchy Optical SONET SDH STM Equivalent Carrier (OC) Signaling Rate STS Level Level DS-3 Channels Level

Equivalent DS-0 Channels

OC-1 OC-21 OC-32

STS-1

51.84 Mbps 103.68 Mbps 155.52 Mbps 207.36 Mbps 466.56 Mbps 622.08 Mbps 933.12 Mbps

672

STS-2

1,344

STS-3 STM-1

2,016

OC-4 OC-91

STS-4 STM-3

2,688

STS-9 STM-3 STS12 STS18 STS24 STS36 STS48

6,048

OC-12 OC-181

STM-4

12

8,064

STM-6

18

12,096

OC-24 OC-361

STM-8 STM12 STM16

24

16,128

36

24,192

OC-48

48

32,256

OC-961

STS96 STS192 STS768

STM32 STM64 STM256

96

64,512

OC-192

192

129,024

OC-768 OC15363 OC30723

1

768

516,096

STS- STM1536 512

1536

1,032,192

STS- STM- 159.252 3072 3072 1024 Gbps

2,064,384

OC-2, OC-9, OC-18, OC-36, and OC-96 are considered to be orphaned rates. 2 OC-3 was defined by the CCITT as the basic transport rate for B-ISDN. 3 This level is not fully defined. ment for voice encoded using the standard pulse code modulation (PCM) technique employed in the public switched telephone network (PSTN). The STS-1 frame, as

illustrated in Figure S-5, comprises a Synchronous Payload Envelope (SPE) of 783 octets, plus 27 octets of overhead comprising Section Overhead (SOH), Line Overhead (LOH), and Path Overhead (POH).The payload in each frame comprises one or more Virtual Tributaries (VTs) organized into Virtual Tributary Groups (VTGs).A process known as concatenation allows multiple STS-1 frames to be multiplexed, switched, and transported over the network as a single entity. SDH and SONET standards specify two physical configuration options.A path-switched ring

employs a dual counter-rotating ring, with both fibers active. One ring transmits in the clockwise direction and the other in the counter-clockwise direction.This approach offers zero downtime in the event of the failure of a fiber. A line-switched ring features one active and one inactive fiber. In the event of the catastrophic failure of a node or fiber, a line-switched ring offers sub-50 millisecond restoral times for rings up to 1,200 kilometers in route distance. Figure S-6 illustrates a hierarchy of local, metropolitan, and backbone rings operating at example OC-N rates. loop, LOH, overhead, path-

switched ring, PCM, POH, PSTN, signaling and control, signaling rate, SMF, SOH, SPE, T3, T-carrier, VT, and VTG.

SONET
- (Synchronous Optical NETwork) A fiber-optic transmission system for high-speed digital traffic. Employed by telephone companies and common carriers, speeds range from 51 Mbps to 40 Gbps. - SONET is an intelligent system that provides advanced network management and a standard optical interface. Specified in the Broadband ISDN (B-ISDN) standard,

SONET backbones are widely used to aggregate T1 and T3 lines. The European counterpart to SONET is the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy, and the term "SONET/SDH" is widely used when referring to SONET.

Self Healing
- SONET can be built in a selfhealing ring architecture that uses two or more transmission paths between nodes. In the event one path fails, traffic can be rerouted.

- SONET Ring. - The architecture used in SONET technology. SONET rings, known as "self-healing rings," use two or more transmission paths between network nodes, which are typically digital cross-connects (DCSs) or add/drop multiplexers (ADMs). If there is a break in one line, the other may still be available, providing the second is not in close proximity to the first and also damaged. For the best security against failure, when possible, different physical routes are used for the two lines. The most fault-tolerant architecture is the four-fiber bidirectional ring.

Two Fiber Unidirectional

- Two Fiber Unidirectional

- This is the simplest SONET ring topology. All data are transmitted on the working or active path, while the standby path (protection path) lies in waiting. When a failure in the active path occurs, the two network nodes affected immediately switch to the standby line. Four fibers may used in a unidirectional system, but it is not usually done.

Two Fiber Bidirectional

- Two Fiber Bidirectional.

- In this architecture, traffic flows in both directions, but half the capacity of the line is used as a data channel and the other half for protection. In the event of failure, the alternate line takes up the slack. -

Four Fiber Bidirectional

- Four Fiber Bidirectional.

- This is the most robust architecture which can withstand multiple failures providing the lines are routed in different locations. Both active and standby paths are duplicated in this topology, which is common in large carrier networks that cannot afford a breakdown.
-

- TDM Multiplexing - SONET uses time division multiplexing (TDM) to send multiple data streams simultaneously. Its smallest increment of provisioning is VT1.5, which provides 1.7 Mbps of bandwidth. The next increment, STS-1, jumps to 51.84 Mbps. Any data stream that does not fill that channel goes wasted.

ATM Over SONET

Telcordia's GR-2837 standard maps ATM cells onto SONET, turning a SONET pipe into a cell-switched (packetswitched) transmission carrier

that utilizes the full bandwidth of the medium without waste.

SONET CIRCUITS Optical Channel Electrical Channel VT-1.5 STS-1 STS-3 STS-3c STS-12 STS-12c STS-48 STS-192 STS-768

Speed (Mbps)

OC-1 OC-3 OC-3c OC-12 OC-12c OC-48 OC-192 OC-768

1.7 51.84 155.52 155.52 622.08 622.08 2488.32 9953.28 39813,12

(28 DS1s or 1 DS3) (3 STS-1s) (concatenated) (12 STS-1, 4 STS-3) (12 STS-1, 4 STS-3c) (48 STS-1, 16 STS-3) (192 STS-1, 64 STS-3) (768 STS-1, 256 STS-3)

OC = Optical Carrier STS = Synchronous Transport Signal

Transporting IP
- In a WAN or over the Internet, IP traffic is widely carried over SONET lines, either using ATM as a management layer or over SONET directly. In the future, IP is expected to travel directly over DWDM fiber (rightmost diagram).

100Base-T (100 Mbps; Baseband; Twisted pair).

- An IEEE standard (802.3u, 1995) similar to 10Base-T, 100Base-T translates to 100 Mbps (theoretical transmission rate), Baseband (one transmission at a time over a single, shared channel), over Twisted pair media.The maximum segment length between the 100Base-T hub and the attached device (e.g., workstation or printer) originally was specified at 100 meters or less over four pairs of Cat 3 unshielded twisted pair (UTP). The predominant version is 100Base-TX, which

extends the distance to 350 meters over two pairs of Cat 5e.The 100Base-T hub is a wire hub that serves as a multiport repeater, as well as a central point of interconnection. 100Base-T uses the 4B5B line coding technique.

Ethernet.
Ethernet Telecom Definition
- Robert M. Metcalfe and his associates at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (Xerox PARC) first developed both the concept of a local area network (LAN) and the enabling technology.That first network

originally was known as the Altos Aloha Network, because it connected Altos computers through a network based on the University of Hawaii's AlohaNet packet radio system technology. Subsequently (1973), it was renamed Ethernet, from luminiferous ether, the omnipresent passive medium once theorized to pervade all space and to support the propagation of electromagnetic energy.The original Ethernet supported a transmission rate of 2.94 Mbps over coaxial cable. Xerox commercialized the technology, renaming it the Xerox Wire. Gordon Bell, vice president of engineering at Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC,

subsequently acquired by Compaq, which later merged with Hewlett-Packard), hired Metcalfe as a consultant in 1979 specifically to develop a LAN network technology that would not conflict with the Xerox patent. Metcalfe brought DEC, Intel, and Xerox together to form into a joint venture known as DIX, which improved the technology, increasing the bandwidth to 10 Mbps and reverting to the name Ethernet.The technology quickly became a de facto standard. In February 1980, the IEEE established Project 802 to develop a set of LAN standards. In December 1982, the first standard was published and circulated as

IEEE 802.3, which actually is a variation on the now obsolete Ethernet standard. Although the two do not interoperate, the terms 802.3 and Ethernet are used interchangeably in informal conversation. Ethernet has evolved considerably since 1980. The signaling rate has increased from 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps, 1 Gbps, and 10 Gbps. The original 10Base5 specification for coaxial cable has given way to 10/100/1000Base-T specifications for twisted pair, and various 10GBase-XX specifications for optical fiber. Relatively unchanged have been the frame format and the protocols for medium access control (MAC), which include carrier sense multiple access

with collision detection (CSMA/CD) and carrier sense multiple access/collision avoidance (CSMA/CA).The Ethernet frame, as illustrated in Figure E-3, is formatted as follows: - In 1985, the U.S. Institute of Electrical and ElectronicEngineers (IEEE) developed standards for Local Area Networks (LANs) called theIEEE 802 standards. These standards presently form the basis of most networks. - One of the IEEE 802 standardsthe IEEE 802.3 is known asEthernet, the most prevalently used LANtechnology around the globe. Ethernet was designed

by the Xerox Corporation in1972, and in its simplest form it used a passive bus operated at 10 Mbps. A50-Ohm coaxial cable connected the computers in the network. - Though a single LAN can have as many as 1,024 attachedcomputer systems, in practice most LANs have far fewer than this. Typically,one or several coaxial cable pieces are joined end-to-end to form the bus, alsoknown as an Ethernet cable segment. Each Ethernet cable segment is terminatedat both ends by 50Ohm resistors and is usually grounded at one end for safetyreasons. Thus, computers attach to the cable using

network interface cardsand/or transceivers. - Since its birth, Ethernet has grown to much higher speeds.For example, at the start of 2004, 10 GBit/s (standardized as 802.3ae) networkadapters were introduced. Furthermore, the once error-prone, single-cable busarchitecture has evolved into a notable error-reduced star topology using hubsand switches.

Ethernet
- The standard local area network (LAN) access method. A reference to "LAN," "LAN connection" or "network card" automatically implies Ethernet. Defined by the IEEE as the 802.3 standard, Ethernet is used to connect computers in a company or home network as well as to connect a single computer to a cable modem or DSL modem for Internet access. - Most new computers come network ready with Ethernet built in. For machines without a network connection, Ethernet adapters can be added via USB or PC Card or by plugging an Ethernet card into a free PCI

bus slot inside the case. - Megabits Per Second: 10, 100, 1,000 and 10,000 A 10/100 Ethernet port supports two speeds: 10 Mbps (10Base-T) and 100 Mbps (100Base-T). Computers also come with 10/100/1000 ports, which includes Gigabit Ethernet at 1 Gbps (1,000 megabits). Ethernet devices negotiate with each other and transmit at the highest speed possible. For high-speed backbones in metropolitan and wide area networks, 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10,000 megabits), the fastest Ethernet, is also used.

- 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10GbE).

- Standardized by the IEEE as 802.3ae, 10GbE uses the same frame format and medium access control (MAC) layer as predecessor Ethernets. 10GbE runs only in full-duplex (FDX) mode, which makes collision control unnecessary.The primary line coding technique used in both 10GbE and GbE is 8B/10B, which carries a 25 percent overhead penalty, thereby forcing the system to run at a signaling rate of 125 Gbps. Some 10GbE systems use the more recently developed 64B/66B line coding, which is similar but much more efficient.Although the signaling

rates discourage the use of copper transmission media, 802.3ae currently specifies 10GBase-T for short distances using Cat 6 and Cat 7 twisted pair. Fiber optic systems are preferable, however, and 802.3ae specifies a number of options, including 10GBase-SR, SW; 10GBase-LR, LW; 10GBase-ER, EW; and 10GBaseLX4. 10GbE has application in the backbones of very bandwidth intensive local area networks (LANs) and metropolitan area networks (MANs).

- 10 Gigabit Ethernet
- An Ethernet standard that transmits at 10 Gbps. Introduced in 2002 and abbreviated "10 GbE," "10GE" or "10G Ethernet," it extended the familiar and ubiquitous Ethernet used in local area networks (LANs) to high-speed storage networks (SANs) as well as backbones in large enterprise networks and wide area and metropolitan area networks. - Full Duplex and No Collisions 10G Ethernet works only in fullduplex mode and does not support CSMA/CD, the common Ethernet collision method used to gain access to the physical medium. A "WAN interface

sublayer" (WIS) makes 10G Ethernet compatible with the SONET transport at 10 Gbps (OC-192).

Fiber or Copper
- The 10GBASE-LX4 version (see below) carries four wavelengths of light on one pair of fibers. In 2004, 10G Ethernet over copper wire was introduced. Using four twinaxial cables, the copper version was designed for short distances between switches and storage devices in the datacenter.

- 10G ETHERNET OVER FIBER (IEEE 802.3ae)

-

Version 10GBASE-SR 10GBASE-LRM 10GBASE-LRM 10GBASE-LX4 10GBASE-LR 10GBASE-ER 10GBASE-ZR** 10GBASE-LX4 10GBASE-SW 10GBASE-LW 10GBASE-EW

Dark Fiber or SONET Fiber Fiber Fiber Fiber Fiber Fiber Fiber Fiber SONET SONET SONET

Fiber Type MMF/850 nm MMF/1310 nm MMF/850 nm MMF/1310 nm SMF/1310 SMF/1550 SMF/1550 SMF/1310 nm nm nm nm

Maximum Distance 65 220 260 300 10 40 80 10 meters meters meters meters

kilometers kilometers kilometers kilometers

MMF/850 nm SMF/1310 nm SMF/1550 nm

65 meters 10 kilometers 40 kilometers

MMF = multimode fiber SMF = singlemode fiber ** = non standard

10G ETHERNET OVER COPPER (IEEE 802.3ak) Version Use Cable Twinax Max. Distance 15 meters

10GBASE-CX4 Datacenter

Shared or Switched
- Ethernet is wired in a star configuration with a hub or switch in the middle. Hubs, which predated switches, are shared media devices. All stations attached to the hub share the total bandwidth. Switches provide each sender and receiver pair with the full bandwidth and are significantly faster than hubs (see switched Ethernet). Like the client machines, Ethernet switches and hubs also support 10/100 and 10/100/1000 speeds.

- Most Ethernets Use Twisted Pairs Ethernet uses economical twisted pair cables and standard RJ-45 connectors Sometimes, spare telephone wires in a building may be used, but often only at the lowest speed. To extend distances, fiber-optic cable is also used.

Ethernet Frames.
- Ethernet transmits variable length frames from 72 to 1518 bytes in length, each containing a header with the addresses of the source and destination stations and a trailer that contains error correction data. Higher-level protocols, such as IP and IPX, fragment long

messages into the frame size required by the Ethernet network being employed (see MTU).

Collision Detection
Ethernet uses the CSMA/CD technology to broadcast each frame onto the physical medium (wire, fiber, etc.). All stations attached to the Ethernet are "listening," and the station with the matching destination address accepts the frame and checks for errors. Ethernet is a data link protocol (MAC layer protocol) and functions at layers 1 and 2 of the OSI model.

History
- Invented by Robert Metcalfe and David Boggs at Xerox PARC in 1973, Ethernet first ran at 2.94 Mbps. Metcalfe later joined Digital where he facilitated a joint venture between Digital, Intel and Xerox to collaborate further on Ethernet. Version 1 was finalized in 1980, and products shipped in the following year. In 1983, the IEEE approved the Ethernet 802.3 standard.

Singlemode
An optical fiber in which the signal travels in one mode (path). It typically has an 8-10 m core within a 125 m cladding.

soliton
- A laser pulse that retains its shape in a fiber over long distances. See soliton.

SONET (Synchronous Optical Network)

- A scale of standard data rates for fiber-optic systems used in North American systems. See SONET.

splice
- A method for joining two optical fiber ends. Fusion splicing and mechanical splicing are the two types.

Splice Closure
- A container used to hold and protect splice trays.

Splice Tray
- A container used to hold, organize and protect spliced fibers.

Split Sleeve
- The part of a fiber-optic adapter that aligns the ferrules of two terminated connectors.

Splitter
- A device that takes the light from one fiber and injects it into the cores of several other fibers.

Step-Index Fiber
- A fiber in which the core and cladding each have a uniform, but different, refractive index. See step-index fiber.

Threshold Current
- The mimimum current required to cause a diode laser to generate a beam of light.

Tight Buffer
- A protective coating (typically 900 m) that is extruded directly over the primary coating of fibers. Provides high tensile strength, durability, ease of handling and termination.

Transceiver
- A transmitter and receiver combined in one device.

Transmitter (TX)
- An optoelectronic device that converts an electrical signal to an optical signal. It is usually an LED or laser diode.

Transparent Network
- A fiber-optic network that is entirely light based with optical switches and other optical-only devices.

Tunable Laser
- A laser that can change its frequency over a given range.

VCSEL (Vertical Cavity Surface-Emitting Laser)

- Pronounced "vixel." A semiconductor laser that emits a beam from its surface rather than its edge. See VCSEL.

VOA (Variable Optical Attenuator)

- A device that can be adjusted to block different fractions of light passing through it.

Waveguide
- A structure that guides electromagnetic waves. An optical fiber is an optical waveguide.

Waveguide Array
- A device that separates wavelengths by passing them through an array of curved waveguides running between a pair of mixing regions.

Wavelength
- The length of a wave measured from any point on one wave to the corresponding point on the next. The wavelengths of light used in optical fibers are measured in nanometers.

Common wavelengths are 850, 1300 and 1350 nm.

WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing)

Transmitting several wavelengths of light (colors) in one fiber. See WDM.