Mack Er Tich

GeoArabia, 2015, v. 20, no. 2, p.
181-220
Gulf PetroLink, Bahrain
History of hydrocarbon exploration in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq
David S. Mackertich and Adnan I. Samarrai
ABSTRACT
The Kurdistan Region of Iraq has witnessed extraordinary levels of exploration

activity since the first exploration well to be drilled in over two decades was
spudded in 2005. Since then almost 200 wells have been drilled encountering
recoverable reserves estimated to be in excess of 15 billion barrels of oil equivalent.
Whilst the region is in close proximity to many of the giant and supergiant fields
of Iran and Iraq, the reservoirs in which discoveries have been made are largely
different. In Iraq a large percentage of discovered reserves reside in Cenozoic and
Cretaceous sediments capped by Cenozoic evaporite sequences. Over much of
Kurdistan, particularly the north and northeastern parts of the region, Cenozoic
strata are absent.
A decade ago many were doubtful that significant quantities of hydrocarbons could
be trapped in the absence of the Cenozoic evaporite sequences. Furthermore, whilst
the presence of large surface structures and significant oil seeps were encouraging
to some, to others it fueled concerns about trap leakage. Today the majority of the
surface anticlinal features in Kurdistan have been drilled, but remain to be fully
evaluated. Almost all of the exploration activity in Kurdistan has taken place on
2-D seismic with vertical exploration wells. In the last few years, a number of 3-D
seismic surveys have been acquired and these will undoubtedly lead to production
and reserve enhancements in parallel with increased subsurface complexity.
Following a decade of exploration, three fields have been fully appraised and
have a reasonable early production history: Tawke, Taq Taq and Khurmala.
Reserve additions in the Tawke Field have been significant as a result of increased
production performance due to better than originally anticipated reservoir
properties, better pressure communication and additional reserves found in
older reservoirs. It is probable that similar trends will occur in other fields and
discoveries.
Whilst a small number of horizontal wells have been drilled, advanced techniques
used for producing from tight fractured carbonates such as multilateral wells,
hydraulic fracturing, selective completions, proping and water injection have not
as yet been used in the region. Almost all wells in Kurdistan have been drilled on
surface or near subsurface structures within the foreland or the fold belt. Some
wells have drilled through thrusts, more often by accident as opposed to on
purpose. There have been virtually no dedicated wells for pure sub-thrust plays
or stratigraphic traps although hydrocarbons have been found below significant
thrusts and also beyond apparent structural closure in some structures.
Challenges remain in what is a structurally complex and recently deformed

region. High levels of exploration and appraisal activity persist and new pipeline
infrastructure is under construction. It is likely that the Kurdistan Region of Iraq
will develop to become an important contributor to world oil and gas production.
This paper aims to summarise the first decade of exploration and appraisal activity
in Kurdistan Region of northern Iraq. Due to the paucity of technical papers on
this subject, this document draws upon the authors’ own knowledge and material
published by companies operating in the region.
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Mackertich and Samarrai
INTRODUCTION
This paper is considered to be the first to provide a comprehensive review of exploration, appraisal
and production activities in Kurdistan Region of Iraq (Kurdistan) since the region ‘opened’ in 2003.
Kurdistan has become one of the most active onshore hydrocarbon provinces in the world with
production rising to over 400,000 bopd (barrels of oil per day) and newly discovered reserves in
excess of 15 billion barrels.
The paper reviews the licensing and exploration activity since 2003. It details some of the challenges
of drilling in this emerging fold-and-thrust belt. A suite of maps document all the key discoveries
and producing fields and also detail wells that have been unsuccessful with possible reasons for their
failure. The paper concludes with a summary of current activity and future trends, which are likely
to shape Kurdistan over the next decade.
There are few technical publications specific to Kurdistan and much of the material in this paper is
drawn from published competent persons reports and corporate presentations, some of which are no
longer available. It is hoped that this paper will provide a useful summary of the first full decade of
exploration activities in the Kurdish region.
LICENSING AND EXPLORATION ACTIVITY IN KURDISTAN
Activity Prior to 2003
The first exploration well in the Middle East was drilled in 1901 on the Chia Surkh structure close
to the present-day border with Iran in the southeastern part of Kurdistan (Figure 1). The well was
located on a hill close to an active oil seep and it was abandoned with oil shows after drilling to 710 m
in depth. Between 1905 and 1922 four more wells were drilled on the structure, some finding oil shows
with none of them drilling below 800 m (Aqrawi et al., 2010). During the next 83 years (1922–2005)
less than 30 wells were drilled in Kurdistan and these only targeted seven structures; Chia Surkh,
Pulkhana, Kor Mor, Khurmala Dome, Chemchemal, Taq Taq, Demir Dagh and Jabal Kand (Figure 2).
During this same period a number of significant discoveries were made both in the central part of
Iraq and in the Zagros of Iran. The first significant discovery in the Middle East was made in 1908 at
Masjid-i-Suleiman in the Zagros of Iran (Sorkhabi, 2008; Figure 1). The Kirkuk Field was discovered
in 1927 by the Turkish Petroleum Company (later to become the Iraq Petroleum Company, IPC). The
discovery well (Baba Gurgur-1) encountered oil in the Cenozoic and blew out, taking a number of
days to control. The discovery well was located on a surface anticline and close to a natural gas seep:
“The Eternal Fire of Baba Gurgur” (father of fire), which is believed to have been active for more than
4,000 years. Some of the other discoveries in Iraq include: Qaiyarah (1928), Rumaila (1953), West Qurna
(1973), Majnoon (1975), East Baghdad (1976) (Figure 1). The Khurmala Dome, at the northwestern
end of Kirkuk, was first drilled pre-second World War but it was plugged and abandoned, along
with other wells, as European troops approached Egypt in the early 1940s. During the Iran-Iraq war
(1980–1988) exploration and appraisal drilling continued in Iraq, albeit at a much reduced pace. A
comprehensive summary of the history of oil exploration in Iraq is given in Aqrawi et al. (2010).
The Taq Taq structure in the central part of the Kurdistan Region of Iraq (Figure 2) was first drilled
in 1960 and drilling was suspended in April 1961 after setting 95/8 inch casing in the top of the Upper
Cretaceous Shiranish Formation. This followed the issuance of Public Law 80, which took away 99.5%
of the IPC’s ownership (Falola and Genova, 2005). In 1964, the government established the state-
owned Iraq National Oil Company (INOC) to develop the concession areas taken over from IPC.
Sixteen years later in 1978, INOC decided to re-enter the Taq Taq-1 Well and it was deepened to the
Lower Jurassic, testing oil from a number of formations within the Cretaceous. In 1979–1980, INOC
contracted a rig to drill more wells on the discovery (Taq Taq-2 discovered oil in the Eocene Pila Spi
Formation), but tensions between the Kurds and the Baath regime, coupled with the outbreak of
the Iran-Iraq war, led to a cessation of drilling. In 1994, the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG)
tested and completed Taq Taq-1 and Taq Taq-2 signalling the first production from Kurdistan. Prior
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Exploration history, Kurdistan, Iraq
Mushorah
40°E 45°
TURKEY Mosul Dam
Lake
Ain Zalah Butmah
Greater Zab
Gusair Alan River
Sasan Atshan Kurdistan
Adaiyah Mosul Demir Dagh
Qasab Erbil Taq Taq
Qalian Jawan
Najmah
Ismail
IRAN
Hibbarah Qaiyarah Kirkuk Chemchemal
SYRIA Khanuqah
Qara Chauq Sulaymaniyah
Khabbaz
Makhul Kirkuk
Hamrin Jambur Anfal
35°N Judaida 35°
T ig
Pulkhana
ris
Gilabat Qamar
Tikrit Saddam
Riv
Chia Surkh
Tharthar Injana
er
Lake Tikrit Khashm Al AhmarNau Doman
Jaria Pika
Akkas Mansuriyah
Naft Khaneh
Euphrates Balad l a
ya Tel
River
Hit Di Ghazal
West
Baghdad East Baghdad
Nafatah
Baghdad
Abu Jir Nahrawan
Badrah
Tig
N ris
Riv
er
0 100 Dhafriyah
IRAQ Marjan
Chashmeh
Risha Ahdab Abu Ghirab Khush
km Al Kifl Paydar West
Payda East
Buzurgan Ramin
Rafidain Kumait (Mulla Sani)
Noor
Dujaila Jabal Fauqi Masjid-i-
Gharraf Amara Suleiman
34°E 38° 42° 46° 50°
Caspian
54° 58°
Rifai Halfayah Huwaiza
38°N TURKEY 38°
Sea
Nasiryah Muhainya Jufeyr Ab-E-
Majnoon Teimur
CYPRUS SYRIA Study Area Samawa
34° LEBANON 34° Kushk
Med IRAQ
IRAN
N300 West Qurna
Sea 0 Diwan
Rumaila N&S Nahr Umr
JORDAN km Ratawi
30° 30°
Gulf KUWAIT Subba Basra Sindbad
of
Suez Luhais West Tuba Siba
BAHRAIN Luhais
26°
SAUDI ARABIA QATAR 26° Boliyah Rachi Zubair
EGYPT Gulf of
Arabian Oman Jabal Sanam Safwan
30° Shield
UAE
Jerishan Ratqa 30°
22° 22°
OMAN
SUDAN Red
18°
Sea
18°
SAUDI ARABIA KUWAIT
Arabian
Sea
ERITREA YEMEN
14° 14°
Gulf of Aden SOCOTRA
34°
ETHIOPIA
38° 42°
40°
46° 50° 54° 58°
45°
Figure 1: Map of Iraq showing the location of major oil and gas fields.
to the Iraq War of 2003, the Turkish company Genel Enerji AS signed the first production sharing
agreement in Kurdistan (KRG, 2002). This contract was for the Taq Taq Field. Soon after another
Turkish company, Petoil Petroleum, together with US-based Prime Natural Resources were allocated
areas to explore (KRG, 2003). These contracts signalled the start of a new phase of exploration activity
in Kurdistan.
Following the Iraq War in 2003, more international oil companies started to approach the KRG and
undertake technical work in the Kurdish autonomous region. At this time, neither the Constitution
of Iraq nor the Oil Law had been passed and there were ongoing disputes regarding revenue sharing
between the KRG and the Iraqi Central Government (ICG). The Kurdish Ministry of Natural Resources
(MNR), which at this stage comprised only a handful of people, drew up a ‘block map’ of the region
nominally assigning one surface structure per block. The 48 blocks were ranked into low, mid and
high risk and fiscal terms varied to reflect perceived technical risk. In addition, 8 lettered blocks were
delineated along the border with Turkey and Iran (Figure 2).
In addition to the political risk, there was a paucity of subsurface technical data specific to Kurdistan
and no service sector. Prior to the Iraq War in 2003, very few exploration wells had been drilled in
Kurdistan (Figure 2). There was virtually no seismic data, and what wells and seismic data were
available, avoided the more mountainous areas and were generally close to the existing Iraqi oil
fields. Moreover, even if one knew of the possible existence of subsurface data, getting access to it was
often extremely difficult.
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43°E 44° 45° 46°

TURKEY Structures drilled prior to 2003
Zakho
K1 Chia Surkh (1901)
Pulkhana (1927)
37°N Kor Mor (1928) 37°
K2 K3 Chemchemal (1929)
Dohuk A Khurmala (1938)
K4 K9 Taq Taq (1958)
K5 Demir Dagh (1960)
Jabal Kand (1981)
K7 K6 K10
K11 Date of first well on the structure
Jabal Kand K8 City
K12 K18 B
Well
K13 C
K1 K1
Mosul 4 9 K2 IRAN
K1
K16 K20 K2 K2 2
5
Erbil 4 1
36° Demir Dagh K25 36°
K21
K17 K27 D
K28
Khurmala K26 Taq Taq
K2
K3
N
9
E
0
0 50 K31
K3
IRAQ
3
K3
km K32 K34
F
5
Sulaymaniyah
Chemchemal
G
34°E 38° 42° 46° 50° 54° 58°
38°N TURKEY Caspian
Sea
38° Kirkuk
K39 K36
35°
CYPRUS SYRIA Study Area K38 35°
34° LEBANON IRAN 34°
Med IRAQ
0
N300 K41 H
Sea
JORDAN km
Kor Mor K37
30° KUWAIT 30°
Gulf
of
Suez
BAHRAIN
K42 K40
26° QATAR 26°
SAUDI ARABIA Gulf of
EGYPT
Arabian
Shield
UAE
Oman K43 K44
22°
OMAN
22° Pulkhana K46
SUDAN Red K47
Sea
18° 18° K45 Chia Surkh
Arabian
Sea
ERITREA YEMEN
K48
14° 14°
ETHIOPIA Gulf of Aden SOCOTRA
34° 38°
43°
42° 46° 50° 54° 58°
44° 45° 46°
Figure 2: Kurdistan Region of Iraq showing the wells drilled prior to 2003 (red dots). Block map
based on map published by the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) in 2007.
The Iraq Lexicon (van Bellen et al., 1959-2005) has proven to be an invaluable source of data on
the lithostratigraphy of Iraq, incorporating four decades of field surveys and investigations.
Local geologists and students have produced theses on the surface structure, stratigraphy and
hydrogeology. Whilst providing a rich source of information, in the absence of an oil industry, there
had been little focus on petroleum systems and what little data was available needed extrapolation
into the subsurface.
Early Award Process and Work Programs (2002–2006)
There were no data packages and there was no formal bidding process in the early development
of the oil industry (2002–2006). The negotiation between the Ministry of Natural Resources and oil
companies largely revolved around the location of the block(s) in question and the cash bonus payable
on entry. Work programmes generally consisted of geological fieldwork, 2-D seismic acquisition and
one exploration well to be completed within the first 3 years, plus a second exploration well within
the second two-year term of the Production Sharing Agreement (PSA, sometimes referred to as a
Production Sharing Contract, PSC). This was a tight time frame given the paucity of infrastructure
and service sector support in the early years. By 2007 the Ministry of Natural Resources had
produced a ‘formal’ block map (Figure 2) and indicative fiscal terms. Competition for blocks was
great, particularly in the period from mid-2007 to mid-2008 when almost half of the available
blocks were signed. Block awards favoured those companies that were willing to invest resources
in early fieldwork, data collection and its analysis, and make early commitments to the KRG, not to
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mention taking some political and technical risk. Despite the discontinuity of almost three decades
of exploration inactivity and the proximity of Kurdistan to the world-class oil fields discovered in
Iraq, Iran and northeast Syria; there were still technical concerns. Kurdistan was classed by many as
frontier, wildcat territory.
Significant oil seeps are known in Iraq (e.g. above Kirkuk) and are present across Kurdistan. In
some cases flows of oil can be seen on the surface. Significant oil seeps are evident above the Tawke
Field (Carstens, 2006); at Gelli Keer above the Shaikan Field (Figure 3a); at Gelli Zonta (Figure 3b)
and in the Bekhme Gorge (Csontos et al., 2011). Oil seeps have also been recorded above, or in close
proximity to, many of the prominent surface structures such as Bina Bawi, Sangaw, Chia Surkh,
Kurdamir and Qara Dagh (Figure 4).
a b
Figure 3: (a) Oil seeping from Pila Spi Limestone: Gelli Keer, northern Kurdistan. Photograph
taken at Gelli Keer in the middle of the Shaikan structure. Oil can be seen seeping out of fractures,
bedding planes, vugs and pores. (b) Photograph of major oil seep in northern Kurdistan. Ciaran
Nolan, David Mackertich and Joe English (Petroceltic) sitting on a spectacular ‘flow of oil’ at Gelli
Zonta, close to the Dinarta Block in northern Kurdistan. The active 'flow' is considered to have
originated from a nearby fault. The seep is also known as the Gelli Zonta Seep.
In some areas, particularly during the summer months, oil can be seen seeping from outcrop-scale
fissures, vugs, bedding planes and pores. Some of these natural seeps are thought to be a result of
leakage via faults (e.g. above the Tawke Field and at Gelli Zonta), whilst some of the oil-saturated
carbonates seen at the surface are almost certainly exhumed oil accumulations (e.g. the Eocene Pila
Spi Limestone above the Shaikan Field).
Whilst a number of workers were encouraged that the seeps demonstrated the presence of an
underlying mature source rock, others were concerned about traps having been breached and
hydrocarbons having leaked away. Significant leakage has undoubtedly occurred and is still occurring
today. However, large hydrocarbon accumulations have since been discovered below many of these
seeps suggesting that the rate and volume of seepage, in some structures, is largely insignificant
compared to the volumes that have been generated, trapped, and are probably still being generated
today.
Exposure of pre-Cenozoic sediments and in particular the absence of the Miocene Fars Group
evaporites was for a number of workers, a ‘play killer’. It was thought that a Fars Group ‘super seal’ was
required to preserve subsurface accumulations and as such, some companies were discouraged by the
presence of Cretaceous and Jurassic sediments at surface with the belief that no older accumulations
were possible. This was a concern in fact, first raised in the early 1950s (Baker and Henson, 1952).
Consequently, many companies avoided the fold belt in Kurdistan altogether and focused on the
Cenozoic-covered plains (Figure 4). With the benefit of almost a decade of exploration activity it
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43°E 44° 45° 46°

TURKEY
Zakho
37°N 37°
N
Dohuk Igneous and 0 50
Metamorphic km
IRAN
Mosul
Erbil
36° 36°
Ophiolite
TURKEY IRAQ
Zakho
Karatchok
Sufaiyah Dohuk
Ain Zalah Sulaymaniyah
Gusair
Butmah IRAN
Alan Kirkuk
Sarjoon Mosul
Atshan Demir Dagh
35° Qalian Erbil 35°
Adaiyah
Taq Taq
Qasab
Najmah Khurmala Dome
Jawan
Qaiyarah
Bai Hassan Avanah
Dome Chemchemal
IRAQ Qara Chauq
Baba Dome Sulaymaniyah
Khabbaz
Khanuqah Kirkuk
Makhul
Jambur Kor Mor
Hamrin
0
N 50 Saddam Pulkhana
Chia Surkh
km Gilabat Qumar
43° Injana
44° 45° 46°
Neogene/Pleistocene/ Cretaceous Triassic Main Zagros Thrust Significant hydrocarbon

Holocene seeps
Permian/Devonian Mountain Front
Palaeogene Jurassic City
Ordovician
Figure 4: Simplified surface geological map of Kurdistan also showing the approximate outline of
the Main Zagros Thrust and the Mountain Front (based on Geological Map of Iraq, modified after
Sissakian, 1997).
is clear that a number of very competent seals (shales and anhydrites) exist in the pre-Cenozoic
stratigraphy and these have facilitated the presence of significant hydrocarbon accumulations in the
Cretaceous, Jurassic and Triassic. Although probably beneficial, there is no essential requirement for
a Cenozoic ‘super seal’ (Figure 5).
Early entrants came armed with commercially available (and sometimes free) satellite imagery such
as Landsat and Google Earth. Published geological maps gave an excellent overview of the surface
geology of Iraq and Kurdistan. However, they were at times inaccurate, particularly in the more
remote and structurally complex areas. A typical workflow for this data is given in Figure 6. Important
aspects of this early work were to calibrate satellite image data, to identify the main structural
elements and their possible impact on the structure and stratigraphy, and to establish the age of the
oldest exposed sediments in the core of the anticline in question. Given the intensity of weathering,
recrystallisation and lithologic variation, biostratigraphic age dating was often indeterminate. Even
where good fossil recovery was obtained there were often differences of opinion as to precise age
dates and lithostratigraphic assignation.
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ERA/PERIOD EPOCH/AGE FORMATION LITHOLOGY PETROLEUM SYSTEM
Holocene Flood Plain Deposits

Quaternary
Pleistocene Alluvial & Fluvial Deposits
Pliocene Bakhtiari
Upper Fars
L Mil Qasim
Middle Fars
Neogene
M Lower Fars Chia Surkh

Miocene
Chia Surkh, Sarqala, Tawke, Taza
Jeribe
CENOZOIC
Kor Mor
E Dhiban
Chia Surkh, Pulkhana, Taza
Serikagni Euphrates
Source Rocks
Kor Mor
Oligocene Kirkuk Group Baram, Kurdamir, Taza

Kor Mor, Topkhana
Pila Spi/
Palaeogene
L Chemchemal, Demir Dagh,

Jaddala Avanah Khurmala, Kurdamir, Pulkhana,
Shakal, Taq Taq
Eocene M Gercus
Kolosh
E Aaliji Khurmala/ Bastora, Khurmala, Shakal
Sinjar
Banan, Bastora, Benenan, Demir
Palaeocene Dagh, Khurmala, Miran West,
Pulkhana, Qara Dagh, Shewashan,
Shiranish Tanjero Taq Taq, Tawke, Zey Gawra
Maastrichtian
Aqra Bekhme Chemchemal, Summail
L Campanian Banan, Demir Dagh,
Cretaceous
Khurmala, Shewashan, Taq

Balambo
Up. Tur.-Con.-San. Kometan Taq, Zey Gawra

Cen.-Lr. Tur. Dokan Chemchemal, Summail
Aptian-Albian Demir Dagh, Khurmala,

Qamchuqa Shewashan, Taq Taq, Tawke,
E Barremian Zey Gawra
Haut.-Valanginian Garagu
Berriasian Sarmord
Tithonian Chia Gara
Atrush, Benenan, Ber Bahr, Bijell,
MESOZOIC
L Kimmeridgian Gotnia Barsarin Demir Dagh, Mirawa, Peshkabir,

Najmah Naokelekan Sarta, Shaikan, Sheikh Adi,
Oxford.-Callovian Summail, Tawke, Jisik
M Bajocian-Bath. Sargelu
Jurassic Ain Al Safra, Atrush, Barda Rash,
Toarcian Alan Benenan, Bijell, Bina Bawi, Demir
Mus Sehkaniyan Dagh, Mirawa, Shaikan, Sheikh Adi,
Pliensbachian Adaiyah Simrit, Summail, Jisik
E
Sinemurian- Miran West, Sangaw North
Hettangian Butmah Sarki Banan
Rhaetian Miran West
Norian
L Baluti A Bakrman, Barda Rash, Shaikan,
Carnian B Simrit, Swara Tika
Triassic Kurra Chine
Bina Bawi, Mirawa, Shakrok, Jisik
C
Ladinian
M Beduh Geli Khana Bina Bawi
Anisian ?
Oil-bearing reservoir
E Olenekian-Induan Satina Mbr Mirga Mir
Permian Chia Zairi Gas-bearing reservoir
Ga’ara Potential source rock
Carbon- Visean - Serpukhovian Raha
iferous Tournaisian Dominant lithology
Harur
PALAEOZOIC
Ora ? Limestone
Upper Famennian? Kaista Anhydritic Limestone
Devonian Chalki Pirispiki
Marly Limestone
Silurian Akkas Dolomite
Ordovician Khabour Anhydrite

Halite
Cambrian Burj
Sandstone/Quartzite
Conglomerate
Figure 5: Stratigraphic column and hydrocarbon occurrences in the Kurdistan Siltstone
Region of Iraq (modified from English et al., 2015). Claystone/Shale/Marl
Volcanics
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Geochemical evaluation of potential source rocks and Data

surface oil occurrences provided an indication of thermal • Well and seismic data
maturity and source potential. It was considered that the • Satellite image data (SPOT)
Middle Jurassic Sargelu Formation and the Upper Jurassic • Local geologists / Universities (PhD’s /
Naokelekan Formation had yielded the bulk of the oil MSc’s)
• Publications
that had charged reservoirs in the Mesopotamian Basin – Lexique / scientific papers
and Zagros fold belt (Pitman et al., 2004). It was also clear • Offset fields / wells
that compositionally distinct oils, considered to have been – NE Syrian Zagros
sourced from the Triassic, have also been generated in – SE Turkey
– Iranian Zagros
northern Iraq and Kurdistan (Al-Ameri and Zumberge, • Geological maps of Iraq
2012).
Once awarded acreage, operators generally undertook Field Visits

additional field mapping, sampling and structural • Identify areas of interest from
reconstructions (Figure 7). The aim of these studies was geological maps, satellite imagery,
to develop a robust geological and structural model of KRG block maps, local knowledge
the acreage and thus enable an initial assessment of the • Pre-plan field visit / access
• Field transects
hydrocarbon prospectivity. Most of this early work had – Roads / tracks / key lineaments
to be undertaken within the first 12 months so that 2-D – Ground truth satellite image data
seismic acquisition could be undertaken during the and geological maps
summer months of the second year and drilling in the final • Data collection / analysis
– Geochemical samples
year of the first three-year term. 2-D seismic data has now – Rock samples for age dating
been acquired over all blocks except for those in the far – Dip / strike measurements for
east/northeast beyond the main Zagros thrust. All initial structural reconstruction
new field wildcat exploration wells in Kurdistan have been
drilled on 2-D seismic data. These lines show considerable Results
variation in data quality, which is often seen to degrade
where hard carbonates are exposed at the surface and in • Mapping of large-scale geometry
• Regional framework
regions of structural complexity. Beyond the mountain • High-grade areas / blocks of interest
front this has frequently meant that the crests of anticlines • Discuss / negotiate PSA with Oil
are often poorly imaged but the flanks, with Cenozoic Minister (Ministry of Natural Resources,
cover, have good imaging. With nearly all exploration Kurdistan Regional Government)
wells being crestally located this has often meant some Figure 6: Typical early exploration
uncertain and difficult drilling (Figure 8). work flow.
In the absence of seismic data, the ‘Busk

method’ (also known as the concentric arc Work Scope Product
method) was used in an attempt to extrapolate Phase 1
surface dip and strike measurements into the Field mapping
Block / structure wide
subsurface (Busk, 1929). Whilst this proved geological map
to be a useful geometric exercise, it assumed Geochemical evaluation
stratigraphic uniformity and was unable to Sampling (source: oil correlation)
Basin modelling
take into account any significant tectonism
or crestal accommodation in box fold type Transects
Structural model ideally
structures. in 3 dimensions
Phase 2
New Drilling in Kurdistan Prospect volumetrics and Inventory and drillable
risking. Layout, acquire 2-D prospect
seismic grid
Although a limited number of production
sharing agreements (PSA) on existing Phase 3
discoveries were signed in 2002 and 2003, the Exploration well planning
first new exploratory drilling was undertaken Civils (access, water, First exploration well
by Norwegian company DNO (Det Norske drill site, mine avoidance)
Oljeselskap AS) who signed a PSA with the
Figure 7: Typical early exploration work flow
KRG in mid-2004 (DNO, 2004; KRG, 2004).
post-signature of production sharing agreement
Following fieldwork, the company acquired
(PSA).
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Southwest Northeast
QARA DAGH ANTICLINE
5 km
1.0
2.0
Two-way Time (seconds)
3.0
4.0
5.0
Figure 8: Example of 2-D seismic section demonstrating structural complexity and regions of poor
seismic imaging in the crestal parts and cores of the anticlines (source: Vast Exploration, 2011).
450 km of 2-D seismic data and spudded the first well in Kurdistan for over a quarter of a century on
November 28, 2005 (DNO, 2005a). The well was located within an elliptical anticlinal surface feature
in the northwestern part of Kurdistan (Figure 9). By late 2005 it was announced that Tawke-1 had
encountered 24° API oil at a depth of 350 m (DNO, 2005b). By mid-2006 the well had drilled to a total
depth of just over 3,100 m in the Jurassic and flowed at a restricted rate of 5,000 bopd from Cenozoic
limestones (Harstad et al., 2010).
Later that same year, the first new exploration activity took place on the Taq Taq Field under the
operatorship of the newly formed Taq Taq Operating Company (TTOPCO) a joint venture between
Genel Enerji AS and Addax Petroleum Corporation. 2-D seismic data acquisition commenced in
early 2006 and the first new well (Taq Taq-4) spudded in May 2006 reaching total depth in December
2006. The well flowed an aggregate of 29,600 bopd from three different Cretaceous reservoirs (Addax
Petroleum, 2009).
The success of Tawke and Taq Taq accelerated competition in what was already a competitive
environment. By early 2006 seven PSAs had been signed and six companies had commenced
exploration activities (Figure 9). Within a year almost half the blocks south and west of the mountain
front had been signed, each one to a new operator; there were now some 13 operators on 15 blocks.
In an eleven-month period between September 2007 and June 2008 some 18 new PSAs were signed
(Figure 9). Whilst some of the entrants were ‘small’ in terms of their market capitalisation, some larger
oil and gas companies had by this time negotiated contracts (e.g. MOL, Reliance, Hunt and Talisman).
Blocks were signed across the region with little apparent preference, by industry as a whole, for either
the northern or the southern part of Kurdistan. Whilst most companies came in search of oil, some
focused on gas and associated liquids. In early 2007, Dana Gas entered into agreements with the KRG
to develop, process and transport natural gas and condensate from the Kor Mor gas field (Dana Gas,
2014). This was the first gas development in Kurdistan.
By late 2009 around 20 new exploration and appraisal wells had been drilled in Kurdistan. New
discoveries included; Tawke, Bina Bawi, Sarqala, Miran, Barda Rash, Shaikan, Kurdamir, Jabal
Simrit and Bijell. Continued expansion of the service sector (drilling and logging contractors) and
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43°E 44° 45° 46°

TURKEY
Zakho
1 16
37°N 37°
20 N
Dohuk 0 50
4 18
10 km
13
8
12
IRAN
Mosul 7 Open Blocks
14 Erbil 15 3
36° 36°
2
Oil Field
Gas/Condensate Field 21 19 9
Sulaymaniyah
34°E 38° 42° 46° 50° 54° 58°

Sea
38° IRAQ Kirkuk
11
SYRIA
35°
CYPRUS
34° LEBANON 34°
35°
IRAN
Med IRAQ
0
N300 17 22
Sea
JORDAN km
30° KUWAIT 30°
Gulf
of
Suez
BAHRAIN
26° QATAR 26°
EGYPT
Arabian
Shield
UAE
Oman 6
22° 22°
OMAN
SUDAN Red
Sea
18° 18°
Arabian
Sea
5
ERITREA YEMEN
14° 14°
34° 38°
43°
42° 46° 50° 54° 58°
44° 45° 46°
Phase I Early 2006 Phase II Late 2007 Phase III Mid-2008

1. Tawke (DNO) 8. Ain Sifni (Hunt Oil) 16. Sindi Amedi (Perenco)
2. Taq Taq (Genel Enerji / Addax) 9. Miran (Heritage) 17. Kor Mor (Dana Gas / Crescent Pet.)
3. Bina Bawi (Petoil / Prime) 10. Shaikan (Gulf Keystone) 18. Atrush (Aspect Energy)
4. Dohuk (DNO) 11. Sangaw North (Sterling Energy) 19. Bazian (KNOC)
5. Shakal (Petoil / Prime) 12. Rovi and Sarta (Reliance) 20. Sarsang (Hillwood)
6. Barwanoor (Western Zagros) 13. Akri-Bijeel (MOL) 21. Chemchemal (Dana Gas / Crescent Pet.)
7. Erbil (DNO) 14. Hawler (Norbest) 22. Block 39 (Talisman)
15. Mala Omar and Shorish (OMV)
Figure 9: Licensing positions in Kurdistan Region between early 2004 and mid-2008 (modified
after “The Oil and Gas Year, Kurdistan Region of Iraq”, 2009).
improvement in infrastructure (roads, communications, local work force) has helped maintain
significant drilling activity from 2010 onwards with an average of over 20 exploration and appraisal
wells drilled per year (Figure 10). This also coincided with the third year of the first term for many
of the PSAs that had been signed in 2007 by the end of which almost all companies were required to
have drilled at least one exploration well.
The current block map shows that of 64 blocks, 49 are licensed with 25 different operators (Figure 11).
Relinquishment, of whole blocks and part blocks, is now resulting in a steady turnover of acreage.
Companies that signed PSAs in the early years (2003–2006) were largely dominated by smaller players.
Over time and with continued success, larger independents, majors and super majors have entered
the region and have begun exploring. In parallel, some of the smaller players have either exited
without success or have been ‘taken over’. Although there are a few ‘open’ blocks, the region has
seen active deal flow with some new entrants willing to buy into existing discoveries or exploration
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30
Five Year Intervals One Year Intervals 28
25
25
Number of Exploration and Appraisal Wells Drilled
23
20
20
19
15
10
10
7
6 6
5
5
4
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
0
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2005 2010 2015
Year Spudded
Figure 10: Around 25 exploration and appraisal (E&A) wells were drilled in Kurdistan in the 100
years between 1900 and 2000. In the last five years between 19 and 28 E&A wells per year have
been drilled.
blocks. Of the 64 licensed blocks, over half have significant discoveries and technical success rates for
new field wildcats, as defined by the authors as flowing in excess of 500 bopd on test, are estimated
to be around 63%.
EXPLORATION CHALLENGES
In total over 20,000 line-km of new 2-D seismic data have been acquired since 2005. Given that the
majority of surface features are elongate anticlines, the typical 2-D grid for most operators has been to
acquire dip lines spaced 2–5 km apart and a more limited number of strike lines; one along the axis/
crest of the structure and one either side. Where possible these lines have generally followed existing
roads and tracks, with bulldozers used to navigate more difficult terrain. Where the terrain is more
benign and Cenozoic shales crop out at the surface, vibroseis acquisition has been performed with
good effect. In such areas seismic data quality is generally good as a result of better coupling and signal
penetration. In the more mountainous areas, acquisition with a dynamite source is often required. In
some extreme cases, seismic cables have needed to be positioned by mountaineers (Addax Petroleum,
2008; Vast Exploration, 2009). In such areas, where surface sediments comprise hard, fractured and
karstified carbonates, the seismic data are usually much poorer due to near-surface dispersion of the
signal (Figure 8).
To date around 20 3-D seismic surveys have been acquired in Kurdistan totalling over 6,350 sq km of
3-D data (Figure 11). Most of these surveys have been acquired post initial discovery and the majority
in the last 3 years. The Tawke and Taq Taq 3-D surveys have undergone pre-stack depth migration
(PSDM) reprocessing and the Shaikan 3-D has also been reprocessed pre-stack. In each case image
quality in the core of the anticline has been much improved. 3-D seismic data is also helping to image
local variations in reservoir thickness and in some cases there are indications that areas of better
quality reservoir can be mapped on the 3-D seismic (DNO, 2011). In the Kurdamir Field a horizontal
well has been planned and positioned in an area predicted to have best quality porous reservoir and
high fracture density (Western Zagros Resources, 2015b).
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43°E 44° 45° 46°

59 TURKEY City
Zakho
Peshkabir Mateen-1 Open Blocks
1 4 60
Tawke Contracted Blocks
Gara-1
2 5 Mangesh-1 Blocks with 3-D
37°N Linnava-1
Shireen-1 37°
3 Ber
Swara Tika Seismic Surveys
Bahr 61
Summail Dohuk 5
East Swara Tika
Oil Field/Discovery
Extension-1 6 Shk Adi
8 7 10 Atrush Bakrman Bijell-3 Condensate Field
(Aqra-1)
Summail 11 14 13 Gas Field
Khanke-1 9 Shaikan
Al Kush-1
Rovi
Bijell Bekhme-1 Dry Hole
Ain Sifni Gulak-1
57 Oil Show
Jabal Kand-1 12 15 Harir-1
Maqlub-1 16 Jisik 24 Gas Show
Mirawa Masief-1
Barda Rash Sarta Exploration Wells
17 21 25
18 23 in Progress
Benenan
22 Shakrok-1 Mountain Front
Mosul Ain Al Safra
19 Safen-1
20 29 Main Zagros Thrust
Banan Bastora Bina Bawi
Mala Omar-1 26
62 Erbil 27 32
Demir Dagh 30 28
36° Shorish-1 Khalakan-1 IRAN 36°
Zey Gawra
Quwair-1 31 34 Bina
Taq Servan-1
55 Taq
Qush Tappa-1 Shewashan
Khurmala Kewa 33 58
Chirmila-2 63 35
N Dome
53 Zewe-1
0 50 Bazian 36
Kewa Chirmila-1 42
Miran
km
54 37
Chemchemal Sulaymaniyah
64
44 43
34°E 38° 42° 46° 50° 54° 58°
38°N TURKEY Caspian 38°
Kirkuk
Sea 38 46
Sangaw North-1
45 Baranan-1
SYRIA
35°
CYPRUS
34° LEBANON 34°
47
Sangaw South-1
35°
Med IRAQ
IRAN
N300 Kor Mor 52
Sea 0 39 Qara Dagh-1
Massayi-1 56
JORDAN km
30° KUWAIT 30°
Gulf
of
IRAQ Taza Topkhana
Suez 48
BAHRAIN Kurdamir
26°
SAUDI ARABIA QATAR 26° 41 40
EGYPT Gulf of
Arabian Oman Pulkhana
UAE
Shield
22° 22° 49 Sarqala
OMAN 51
SUDAN Red
Sea Shakal Chia Surkh
18°
Arabian
18° 50 Mil
Sea Qasim
ERITREA YEMEN
14° 14°
34° 38°
43°
42° 46° 50° 54° 58°
44° 45° 46°
Block #. Name Operator Block #. Name Operator Block #. Name Operator

1. Tawke DNO 31. Qush Tappa OPEN 61. Sidakan OPEN
2. Central Dohuk OPEN 32. Qala Dze Repsol 62. Gwer/Hamdanya Komet
3. Sulevani OPEN 33. Khalakan Gas Plus 63. Kewa Chirmila OPEN
4. Sindi Amedi East OPEN 34. Taq Taq TTOPCO 64. SE Miran OPEN
5. Sarsang HKN 35. Piramagrun Repsol
6. Ber Bahr Genel 36. Miran Genel 3–D Seismic (Km2)
7. Sheikh Adi Gulf Keystone 37. Bazian KNOC
8. Dohuk DNO 38. Sangaw North OPEN Field Date Area
9. Al Qush ExxonMobil 39. Topkhana Talisman Tawke 2006 200
10. Atrush Taqa 40. Taza Oil Search Taq Taq 2007 292
11. Shaikan Gulf Keystone 41. Pulkhana Turkish Co. Shaikan 2010 599
12. Ain Sifni Hunt Oil 42. Penjwin OPEN Sheikh Adi 2010 / 2011 215
13. Dinarta Hess 43. Arbat East ExxonMobil Miran 2011 730
14. Akri-Bijeel MOL 44. Arbat Turkish Co. Bastora/Erbil 2011? 200*
15. Rovi Chevron 45. Baranan Total Atrush 2011 / 2012 307
16. Sarta Chevron 46. Qara Dagh Chevron Summail 2012 160
17. Barda Rash Afren 47. Sangaw South KNOC Khurmala 2012 350*
18. Baeshiqa ExxonMobil 48. Kurdamir Western Zagros Kurdamir 2013 184
19. Erbil DNO 49. Garmain Western Zagros Topkhana 2012 / 2013 200*
20. Hawler Oryx 50. Shakal Gazprom Peshkabir 2012 200
21. Harir Marathon 51. Chia Surkh Genel Akri-Bijeel 2012 / 2013 490
22. Pirmam ExxonMobil 52. Kor Mor Crescent Sarqala 2012 / 2013 325
23. Betwata ExxonMobil 53. Chemchemal Crescent Ain Sifi/Barda Rash 2012 / 2013 326
24. Choman Turkish Co. 54. Qara Hanjeer ExxonMobil Shakal 2013 / 2014 277
25. Hindreen Turkish Co. 55. Khurmala Dome KAR / KRG North Garmain 2013 / 2014 258
26. Shakrok OPEN 56. Halabja Gazprom Ber Bahr 2014 / 2015 170
27. Safeen Total 57. Jabal Kand Turkish Co. Chia Surkh 2014 300
28. Bina Bawi Genel 58. Mawat OPEN Demir Dagh/Banan 2014 223
29. Malar Omar OPEN 59. Sindi OPEN Taza 2014 500
30. Shorish OPEN 60. Shewran Mazin OPEN *Actual amount unknown Total 6,371
Figure 11: Block map as of early 2015. Relinquishments and delimited field areas have meant that
approximately 64 blocks now exist in Kurdistan. Of these around 49 are presently licensed and 15
are open. Whilst these numbers are considered to be correct at the time of writing, licensing is
actively changing as some companies depart and new entrants arrive. Acreage is also being
‘recycled’ as operators have to relinquish acreage following the 1st and 2nd phases of their PSAs.
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It is very likely that these data will reveal additional complexities that have thus far not been imaged
on sparse 2-D seismic. One of the key factors in obtaining good quality seismic data, in addition to
surface geology, are the acquisition parameters, not least of which the shot array and depth/volume
of dynamite used during acquisition. Careful testing prior to acquisition has proven to be extremely
helpful in the region.
The eastern and northeastern parts of Kurdistan are mountainous and become increasingly so
approaching the main thrust towards the northeast bordering Iran and Turkey (Figure 12). In this
region wells have been drilled at high elevations, which often suffer extremes of weather during the
year. The highest elevation structures drilled to date are all located in the northern part of Kurdistan
and include wells drilled on Sindi Amedi, Sarsang, Shakrok, Harir and Safeen, all of which are
mountainous areas with drilling having taken place in excess of 1,400 m above sea level. The highest
elevation well to be drilled in Kurdistan to date is the Shireen-1 Well in the Dinarta Block (Hess/
Petroceltic), which spudded in June 2014 at an elevation of 2,094 m above sea level.
Not only can access to these remote hilltop locations be challenging but conditions in winter can be
severe with temperatures going well below zero for protracted periods with snow falls and drifts
further complicating operations (Preining and Nazhat, 2013). In some cases winter lightning strikes
a
40°N
Caspian Sea
Erbil
Tehran
Shiraz
N Arabian Gulf
0 100
km
Figure 12: (a) Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the Zagros fold belt. (b) Digital Elevation Model
with Kurdistan block outlines. Low elevations are red/brown with high elevations in green/white
(Images provided courtesy of Airbus Defence and Space).
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on rigs, despite conductors, have temporarily halted operations (Gulf Keystone, 2012). Winter weather
and associated problems, are considered to be one of the biggest contributors to lost time in wells that
have been drilled in the more mountainous parts of the region.
Given recent structuration of brittle carbonates and seasonal extremes of temperature it is no surprise
that where carbonates are exposed, near-surface sediments can be highly fractured, weathered and
karstified. Top-hole sections of wells in these areas, mainly in the more mountainous northern and
eastern parts of Kurdistan, have suffered severe mud losses with significant intervals often drilled
‘blind’ with no returns whatsoever. Losses in excess of 450,000 barrels of mud were recorded in the
Shaikan-1 Well (Gulf Keystone, 2014a) and over 380,000 barrels of mud were lost during the drilling
of the Swara Tika-2 Well (Preining and Nazhat, 2013).
In some extreme cases, near-surface conditions have led to rig tilting and partial collapse/jamming
of the top-hole drill strings necessitating re-spudding of wells. Over the last few years, companies
operating where these conditions are likely to occur are successfully using air and foam drilling to
good effect. This technique, widely used in the Rocky Mountains of the US, reduces the hydrostatic
pressure in the wellbore and reduces lost circulation in low-pressured formations, which are
encountered above the water table. Below the water table, in potential hydrocarbon-bearing zones,
operators in Kurdistan have largely used water-based mud systems, which are at times nitrified to
further reduce mud weight. Managed Pressure Drilling (MPD) technology has also been used to
good effect to optimise and improve the efficiency of the drilling process. The MPD technique aims to
control the annular pressure in the wellbore, and in doing so minimise continuous influx of formation
fluids to the surface, and maintain wellbore integrity (Preining and Nazhat, 2013; Driedger, et al.,
2013).
Clearly, significant losses in potential reservoir zones can compromise subsequent formation evaluation
and testing. Moreover, significant losses also necessitate large volumes of water. This has at times
placed a strain on available water resources with almost all operators needing to drill dedicated water
wells for their drilling activities. Often, water is piped uphill from dedicated water wells through a
number of pumping stations. In some cases operators have needed to truck additional water to the
wellsite, which can delay operations. If in the future, water injection is required in any large measure
then this could place a strain on the region’s water resources. This is not a problem unique to the
Kurdistan Region of Iraq; in the Rumaila, West Qurna and Zubair fields in the southeastern part of
the country, it is planned that 5.2 million barrels a day of sea water will be piped from the Gulf and
used for water injection to sustain production (CH2M Hill, 2013).
The majority of wells in Kurdistan have been drilled to measured depths of between 3,000 and 4,500
m. Fewer than 10 wells have drilled deeper than 5,000 m and very few have yet penetrated the entire
Triassic succession to reach the Permian. Moveable hydrocarbons have been encountered at depths
from as shallow as 350 m in the Tawke Field (DNO, 2005b) to over 4,000 m in the Sarqala Field
(Western Zagros Resources, 2014a, b). It has not been uncommon for exploration wells in Kurdistan
to take in excess of 6 months and in a few cases over a year to drill and test. Difficulties have included:
(1) delays due to winter weather; (2) severe losses in fractured and karstified formations; (3) lack
of available water for drilling activities, (4) H2S concentrations that can be in excess of 25% in the
gas phase (Table 1); (5) slow drilling through hard carbonates; (6) difficulties in drilling through the
Lower Fars (more usually in the southern part of the region) which is often overpressured; and (7)
the logistics of drilling in an emerging fold-and-thrust belt province. Given the number of potential
reservoirs, and frequent ambiguity of petrophysical results, operators often undertake multiple drill-
stem tests (usually at least 3 and in some cases up to 10) adding significantly to the duration of
operations.
In the north of the region where Cenozoic strata are largely absent over many of the drilled structures,
typical casing programs have been designed so as to isolate units of differing pressure with casing points
often separating the Cretaceous and Jurassic. In the southern part of the region, where thick Cenozoic
sediments are present (and are often the target), pressure regimes are often more complex and at times
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Table 1: Published H2S and CO2 Levels in Kurdistan

Field / Block Well Formation Age H2S level CO2 Level
Akri-Bijeel Gulak-1 Adaiyah Jurassic Minor Minor
Akri-Bijeel Gulak-1 Sargelu / Naokelekan Jurassic 5% 20%
Akri-Bijeel Bakrman-1 Kurra Chine B Triassic 40% -
Ber Bahr Ber Bahr-1 Jurassic 4.5%
Bina Bawi Bina Bawi-1 Triassic 18−20% -
Hawler Zey Gawra-1 Shiranish, Kometan, Quamchuga Cretaceous 0.1−0.4% -
Hawler Ain Al Safra-1 Alan / Mus Jurassic 20% -
Kurdamir Kurdamir-1 Pilaspi / Jaddala Tertiary 0.6% -
Miran Miran-1 Butmah Jurassic 7% 4%
Sangaw Sangaw North-1 Kometan Cretaceous 10% 7%
Sangaw North Sangaw North-1 Kurra Chine Triassic 24% 2%
Sangaw North Sangaw North-1 Mus, Butmah and Kurra Chine Jurassic / Triassic 46% 1%
Shaikan Shaikan -1 Sargelu Jurassic 8.9% 10.5%
Shaikan Shaikan-1 Mus Jurassic 14.6% 9.4%
Shaikan Shaikan-1 Upper Kurra Chine Triassic 8% 4.4%
Shaikan Shaikan-1 Upper Kurra Chine B Triassic 13.6% 8.4%
Sheikh Adi Sheikh Adi-2 Sargelu Jurassic 5.2% 10.7%
Sheikh Adi Sheikh Adi-2 Mus Jurassic 5.9% 12.2%
Sheikh Adi Sheikh Adi-2 Adaiyah Jurassic 6.6% 16.2%
Sheikh Adi Sheikh Adi-2 Upper Butmah Jurassic 5.2% 30.3%
Taq Taq Taq Taq Cretaceous 2.5% -
Demir Dagh Demir Dagh-3 Butmah Jurassic 1.8% -
Demir Dagh Demir Dagh-3 Adaiyah Jurassic 9% -
Demir Dagh Demir Dagh-3 Kometan Cretaceous 1.6% -
Demir Dagh Demir Dagh-7 Shiranish, Kometan Cretaceous 0.4% -
have required up to 6 strings of casing to reach total depth (Western Zagros Resources, 2010a). A further
complexity, thus far more prevalent in the southern part of the region, is that of abnormal pressured
formations (both under-pressured and over-pressured). The Sarqala-1 wildcat well encountered
pore pressures over 17.5 pounds per gallon (ppg) (2,100 kg/m3) mud weight equivalent pressures
below the Lower Fars top seal (Western Zagros Resources, 2011). The Qara Dagh-1 Well encountered
pressures of 9,000 psi in the Shiranish Formation at a depth of 3,500 m (Vast Exploration, 2011)
(Figure 11).
Ideally, new exploration wells, in relatively unknown stratigraphy, should be designed to have
contingency for additional casing strings should they be required.
Although all drilling in Kurdistan has been onshore and has been undertaken in the last decade,
well costs have varied dramatically. A few wells have cost in excess of US $120 million (Kurdamir-1,
Western Zagros Resources, 2010b) and some as little as US $7 million (Tawke-16, DNO, 2012a, b).
Rig rates (for 1,500 HP units) have typically remained in the region of $30,000–35,000 per day (Gulf
Keystone, 2014a). Where operators have in-country drilling experience and pressure/stress regimes
are known, well costs have tended to fall over time. Moreover, companies with larger, established
operations have also been able to tender more competitively further reducing costs. Well costs in the
Taq Taq Field have varied from US $18.5 million to as little as US $3.7 million with average well costs
falling from US $12.3 million for the first 7 wells to US $6.9 million for the next 6 wells (Genel Energy,
2012). Wells in the more mountainous areas often take longer and are generally more expensive than
those on the plains.
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The early discoveries in Kurdistan were made in sediments of Cenozoic and Cretaceous age (Tawke,
Taq Taq, Chemchemal, Kor Mor, Pulkhana). Later drilling has tested progressively deeper targets
and resulted in discoveries in the Jurassic and Triassic (Shaikan, Bijell, Swara Tika, Bina Bawi, Barda
Rash). Only a limited number of wells have thus far drilled through the Triassic and reached the
Permian, which is of course a significant reservoir target in the Middle East. The Upper Permian
carbonates of the Chia Zairi Formation were penetrated in the Ber Bahr-1 Well and have the potential
to form a viable exploration target in Kurdistan (Aqrawi et al., 2010). Albeit high risk, it is possible
that if present, lower Silurian hot shales of the Akkas Formation might have sourced gas, as they have
done in the western part of Iraq and eastern Jordan (Figure 5, Al-Hadidy, 2007).
Some of the early wells were drilled, but stopped short of now proven reservoirs; these are seeing
a resurgence of activity. The Demir Dagh-1 Well, drilled in 1960, reached total depth (TD) at a
depth of ca. 2,300 m true vertical depth sub-sea (TVDSS) in the Upper Jurassic having encountered
hydrocarbons in the Cretaceous (Figure 2). In 2013–2014 the Demir Dagh-2 Well was drilled less
than 2 km away to a depth of ca. 3,600 m TVDSS and encountered oil in additional Middle and
Lower Jurassic targets (Oryx Petroleum, 2014a). Eleven wells have now been drilled on the field
which measures approximately 9 km in length by 4 km in width and is estimated to have proven and
probable oil reserves of 258 million barrels (Oryx Petroleum, 2015).
‘Deep’ wells are planned or in progress on the Bina Bawi, Tawke and the Miran discoveries. Drilling
to such targets is likely to be challenging necessitating oversized shallow-hole sections and the
contingency for mechanical sidetracks. In the Shaikan Field overpressure is common in the deeper
Triassic section and mud weights up to 19 ppg were required whilst drilling (Gulf Keystone, 2014a).
A recent well on the Shaikan Field (Shaikan-7) failed to reach its intended Permian target due to a
number of mechanical failures in the course of the drilling operations (Gulf Keystone, 2014b).
DISCOVERIES AND PETROLEUM GEOLOGY
Some 40 new field wildcat hydrocarbon discoveries have been made in Kurdistan with two-thirds of
these being located in the northern half of the Kurdistan Region (Figure 11). Of these discoveries, 12
have approved development plans and four of these (Tawke, Taq Taq, Kor Mor and the Khurmala
Dome) have significant production histories. The bulk of the discovered resources are considered to
reside in Cenozoic, Cretaceous and Jurassic strata with the Triassic strata thus far are considered to
make a small, but important, proportion of overall discovered resources (Figure 13). Almost all of the
hydrocarbons discovered in Cenozoic strata in Kurdistan are in the southern part of the region. Other
than the Kor Mor and Chemchemal fields there have not been as yet any approved development
plans for recently discovered fields in the southern part of Kurdistan.
The bulk of discovered oil reserves have been made in the northern part of the region between the
Taq Taq and Tawke fields. This is thought to be due to the maturity of the Jurassic source rocks,
which are optimally mature in the northern part of Kurdistan but considered to be more deeply
buried and in the light oil to gas window in the southern part of the region due to the significant
thicknesses of Cenozoic strata in this area (English et al., 2015). The northern area is also a palaeohigh
(the Mosul High) so reservoirs are shallower and carbonates are perhaps more likely to be in shelfal
facies (Aqrawi et al., 2010).
A number of companies are continuing to explore and appraise their fields whilst development is
ongoing. DNO recently discovered additional resources in Jurassic strata below the existing Cenozoic
and Cretaceous field (DNO, 2013a). Exploration drilling is ongoing in the Taq Taq Field (a Cenozoic
and Cretaceous accumulation) for deeper prospective zones in the Jurassic and Triassic. It was recently
announced that the Taq Taq deep well had encountered 300 m of gas condensate shows in the Jurassic
(Genel Energy, 2014b). Given the recent entry of some players a number of exploration campaigns
have only just commenced (e.g. ExxonMobil). It is probable therefore that similar levels of exploration
and appraisal activity will continue for the foreseeable future with additional resources potentially
discovered in deeper stratigraphy.
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43°E 44° 45° 46°

TURKEY
Zakho Discovery by Horizon:
Peshkabir
Peshkabir
Tawke
Tawke
Triassic
Swara Jurassic Cenozoic
37°N BerBer
Bahr Swara Tika
Shk Tika
37°
Bahr Adi
Adi Cretaceous
Dohuk
Swara Tika
East Swara Tika City
Atrush
Atrush Mountain Front
Summail Shaikan
Summail Bakrman
Bejil
Oil Field/Discovery
Shaikan Rovi
Jabal Bijell Gas Field
Ain Sifni
Simrit
Barda Rash Jisik
Mirawa
Mirawa IRAN
Bardarash Sarta
Sarta
Benenan
Mosul Ain
AinAl
AlSafra
Safra
Bastora BinaBawi
Bina Bawi
Banan
Demir Dagh
Demir
36° Erbil 36°
Zey Gawra
Gawra
Taq Taq
TaqTaq
Shewashan
Shewashan
Khurmala
N Dome
Bazian
0 50
Miran
Miran
Chemchemal
km
Sulaymaniyah
34°E 38° 42° 46° 50° 54° 58°

Sea
38° Kirkuk Sangaw North
Qara
SYRIA IRAQ Dagh
35°
CYPRUS
34° LEBANON 34°
35°
IRAN Topkhana
Topkhana
Med IRAQ
0
N300 Kor
KorMor
Mor
Sea
JORDAN
Kurdamir
Kurdamir
30° KUWAIT km 30°
Gulf Taza
of
Suez
BAHRAIN
26° QATAR 26°
EGYPT
Arabian
UAE
Oman Pulkhana
Pulkhana
Shield
22° 22° Sarqala
OMAN
SUDAN Red
Sea Shakal Chia
18° 18° Mil Chia Surkh
Surkh
Arabian
Mil
Sea Qasim
Qasim
ERITREA YEMEN
14° 14°
Gulf of Aden SOCOTRA
34°
ETHIOPIA
38°
43°
42° 46° 50° 54° 58°
44° 45° 46°
Discovery Reservoir Age Discovery Reservoir Age Discovery Reservoir Age Discovery Reservoir Age
Ain Al Safra Jurassic Bina Bawi Jurassic/Triassic Miran Cret./Jurassic Shakal Cenozoic
Atrush Jurassic Chemchemal Cenozoic/Cret. Mirawa Jurassic/Triassic Sheikh Adi Cret./Jurassic
Bakrman Triassic Chia Surkh Cenozoic Peshkabir Jurassic Shewashan Cretaceous
Banan Cen./Cret./Jur. Demir Dagh Cen./Cret./Jur. Pulkhana Cenozoic/Cret. Summail Cret./Jurassic
Barda Rash Cret./Jur./Tri. Jabal Simrit Jurassic/Triassic Qara Dagh Cretaceous Swara Tika Triassic
Bastora Cenozoic/Cret. Jisik Jurassic/Triassic Rovi Jurassic Taq Taq Cenozoic/Cret.
Bazian Cretaceous Kirkuk/Khurmala Cenozoic/Cret. Sangaw North Jurassic Tawke Cen./Cret./Jur.
Bijell Jurassic Kor Mor Cenozoic Sarqala Cenozoic Taza Cenozoic
Benenan Cretaceous/Jur. Kurdamir Cenozoic/Cret. Sarta Jurassic Topkhana Cenozoic
Ber Bahr Cretaceous/Jur. Mil Qasim Cenozoic Shaikan Cret./Jur./Tri. Zey Gawra Cretaceous
Figure 13: Principal discoveries by stratigraphic horizon.
Structures
The Zagros Fold-and-Thrust Belt forms the northern and northeastern margins of the Arabian Plate
(Alavi, 2004; Lawa et al., 2013). Over 50 years ago the northern part of Iraq was subdivided into
different zones on the basis of structural complexity: the unfolded zone, the folded zone (low and
high) and the nappe zone (Dunnington, 1958-2005). Within Kurdistan it is clear that the structuration
is more complex beyond the mountain front and that approaching the main thrust the degree of
thrusting and overturning of folds becomes more intense (Figure 4). However, the variation of
structural style, even over quite short distances, within the region can be quite marked. The digital
elevation images (Figure 12) display quite clearly the NW-trending anticlinal features in the southern
and central part of Kurdistan. This “Zagros” trend continues for ca. 150 km within Kurdistan before
dying out to the northeast of Erbil. Beyond this area, the structures have a marked WNW-ESE trend
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(“Taurus” trend). Some workers postulated the presence of SW-trending lineaments, which facilitate
the change of principal stress of the Arabian Plate and influence regional subsidence through the
Mesozoic (Jassim and Goff, 2006). As yet these possible deep-seated lineaments have not been seen on
seismic data (Csontos et al., 2012). It is notable that there are also some structures that do not appear
to follow the local structural ‘grain’ such as Tawke in the northwest of the region.
Structures generally range from 15–40 km in length and 2–5 km in width. Most are anticlines, which
plunge both to the NW and SE (or W-E). However, very often structures converge and interfere with
one another complicating the identification of structural closure. It is quite usual for structures to be
asymmetric with one limb dipping more steeply than the other, although it seems equally common
for structures to be faulted box folds with significant crestal faulting accommodating movement.
Parasitic folds are frequently visible at outcrop reflecting possible deformation during fold growth.
How much of the accommodation has been taken up by thrust faults is uncertain. In particular,
where postulated thrusts might decollé and how much strike-slip movement might have taken place
along such lineaments is also uncertain. Beyond the mountain front, Palaeogene and older sediments
outcrop (Figure 4). It is in this region, approaching the main Zagros thrust, that the degree of uplift
and erosion is generally considered to become more severe (Figure 14). Shallow thrusts may well sole-
out on anhydrites and shales, which are developed within the Jurassic and Triassic. Further north,
and close to the main thrust, there is evidence that structures have been overturned and both nappes
and thrusted nappes have been identified. A number of wells have encountered repeat sections as
they have passed through large reverse faults (e.g. Sheikh Adi-1A Well, Law et al., 2014, their figure
6.1, p. 54).
The majority of wells in Kurdistan, particularly in the northern part of the region, have been drilled on
clearly visible surface structures. More often than not these are significant mountains and folds with
marked elevation versus the surrounding terrain. Examples include Ber Bahr, Shaikan, Jabal Simrit,
Harir, Bina Bawi, Miran and Qara Dagh. To the west of the mountain front, Neogene, Pleistocene and
Holocene deposits have largely obscured deeper structures with the only evidence to their existence
sometimes being where thrusts come to surface. This is particularly characteristic of the southern part
of Kurdistan in the vicinity of the Kor Mor, Pulkhana, Shakal and Taza discoveries.
Almost all exploration wells have targeted either four-way dip closures or three-way closures against
a significant fault (Figures 11 and 15). Whilst hydrocarbons have been discovered beyond apparent
structural closure, no pure stratigraphic targets have thus far been drilled. One well, Gulak-1 in the
Akri-Bijeel Block operated by the Hungarian company MOL, has been drilled to target sub-thrust
potential. Small volumes of oil were produced on test from below the thrust (MOL, 2013).
Southwest Northeast
No scale implied Folds Over Main Thrust
Blind Thrusts ‘Buried’ Box Eroded Nappes
Mountain Front Anticlines Folds Anticlines
Shallow Thrusting Simple
within Tertiary Folds
Evaporites
Quaternary Upper Cenozoic Upper Cretaceous Upper Jurassic Upper Triassic Permian
Metamorphics Lower Cenozoic Lower Cretaceous Lower Jurassic Lower Triassic Carboniferous/
and Volcanics Devonian
Figure 14: Diagrammatic cross section through Kurdistan Region of Iraq. Simplified and
generalised cross section based on the Geological Map of Iraq (Sissakian, 1997). There is an overall
tendency for anticlines to increase in amplitude and tightness as the main Zagros thrust is
approached (Dunnington, 1958-2005).
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South North
SHAIKAN FIELD
Shaikan 2 Shaikan 10
Ground level
0.5
Pila Spi
1 km
Two-Way Time (second)
1.0
Sarmord
Barsarin
1.5
Kurra Chine
2.0
2.5
Southwest Northeast
TAQ TAQ FIELD
1 km
0.5
Bakhtiari
Clastics
1.0

Upper Fars
1.5
Pila Spi Lst.

2.0
Shiranish
2.5
Garagu
Chia Gara
KURDAMIR FIELD
A K-1 Well A’
1 km
Lower Fars
Red Beds
Top
Oligocene
Oligocene
0.5 Porosity
Top Eocene
Kurdamir
1.0 Thrust
Shiranish
(Cretaceous)
1.5
Figure 15: Seismic sections of selected hydrocarbon accumulations in Kurdistan showing he

variety of structural style displayed in three of the significant discoveries in the region: Shaikan
Field (courtesy of Gulf Keystone); Taq Taq Field (courtesy of Genel Energy); and Kurdamir Field
(courtesy of Western Zagros, see Figure 18). For location see Figure 11.
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It is clear that complexities exist both in terms of in-field reservoir facies variations and fluid
distributions across structures. In the absence of 3-D seismic data and sustained production history
such complexities might take time to be revealed. In the Taq Taq Field, different oil-water contacts
have been observed, with the western flank of the structure having an oil-water contact some 60 m
deeper than that seen in the east. This is corroborated by wireline pressure data, log and flow test
data (Addax Petroleum, 2009). It is postulated that there has been strike-slip movement along faults
at reservoir level (Garland et al., 2010). Tilted oil-water contacts are interpreted to be present in fields
in Iran (A. Horbury, personal communication) and these are thought to be present as a result of
the pressure gradient in the aquifer as a result of meteoric water influx from the higher parts of the
Zagros. Although different fluid contacts are postulated to exist in matrix and fractures, no tilted
contacts have been interpreted in Kurdistan to date.
Reservoirs
Almost all hydrocarbon discoveries in Kurdistan have been made in carbonate reservoirs ranging
from the Upper Triassic to the Upper Miocene (Figure 5). Comprehensive descriptions of reservoirs
units in Iraq and Kurdistan are presented in Aqrawi et al. (2010) and van Bellen et al. (1995-2005).
To date there have been no hydrocarbon discoveries in Palaeozoic strata within Kurdistan. The
Jabal Kand-1 Well was spudded in late 1981 (completed in mid-1983), the last well to be drilled in
Kurdistan prior to the Tawke-1 Well in 2005 (Figure 2). The well reached total depth in the Lower
Carboniferous Harur Formation (Figure 5). Although some Lower Permian reservoirs (Ga’ara
Formation) were penetrated they were deemed to have flowed water (Gulf Keystone, 2009, their
figure 3). The only Palaeozoic discovery in Iraq to date is in the Akkas Field, which has gas-bearing
Ordovician sandstones (Khabour Formation), a play that extends into Jordan (Figure 1).
Late Triassic strata are represented by the Kurra Chine Formation, which consists of interbedded
anhydrites with limestones, dolomites and shales. The section crops out in the northwestern part of
Kurdistan (in the Gara Anticline) but recrystallisation and dissolution of evaporites has resulted in
generally poor quality outcrops (Figure 16c). In the subsurface, the major anhydrite sequences are
clearly visible on logging-whilst-drilling (LWD) and wireline logs.
The Upper Triassic, Kurra Chine is a reservoir in the Shaikan Field where flow rates of 11.2–20.4
million standard cubic feet gas per day (mmscfg/d) and 5,474 barrels oil per day (bopd) were
achieved. The principal reservoirs are dolomites with porosities estimated to range from 7–15%
whilst permeabilities are clearly enhanced by fracturing (Ryder Scott, 2011). Triassic strata are also
hydrocarbon-bearing in the Swara Tika, Jabal Simrit, and Bakrman discoveries. In the Bina Bawi
Field the Triassic is gas-bearing with an estimated hydrocarbon column in excess of 1,000 m (Genel
Energy, 2013). Hydrocarbons that have been discovered in Triassic reservoirs are compositionally
distinct, and believed to have been sourced from organic-rich layers within the Upper Triassic Kurra
Chine Formation (Al-Ameri and Zumberge, 2012). It should be noted that there are difficulties
with lithostratigraphic assignation between the Lower Jurassic Butmah Formation and the Upper
Triassic Kurra Chine Formation. This complicates correlations, palaeogeographic understanding and
petroleum systems analysis.
The principal source rock intervals that are presently considered to have sourced much of the oil in
Kurdistan are the Middle to Upper Jurassic Naokelekan and underlying Sargelu formations (Pitman
et al., 2004; English et al., 2015). These crop out in the northeastern part of Kurdistan where they are
represented by a condensed sequence of argillaceous and bituminous limestones (Figure 16b). In the
subsurface they provide readily identifiable marker horizons and they are also proven reservoirs in
the Atrush Field in northern Kurdistan (Figure 11). In the Atrush Field, it is estimated that there is
an 800 m hydrocarbon column in stacked Jurassic reservoirs including the Barsarin, Sargelu, Alan,
Mus, Adaiyah and Butmah formations. These reservoirs have a mix of matrix and fracture porosity.
On test, some of these reservoirs have produced at rates up to 15,000 bopd (Shamaran Petroleum
Corporation, 2013). In the Shaikan Field, over 65% of the best-estimate total oil-in-place is interpreted
to reside in Jurassic strata (Sargelu, Mus and Butmah formations; Law et al., 2014).
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a b
Figure 16: Photographs of key reservoirs and source rocks in Kurdistan. (a) Cretaceous, Bekhme
Gorge; (b) Jurassic, Naokelekan near Naokelekan Village; (c) Triassic Kurra Chine close to
Shiranish Islam Village (courtesy of Geospatial Research Ltd).
Cretaceous reservoirs have proven to be highly productive and significant volumes have been
produced from the Cretaceous in both the Tawke and Taq Taq fields where they provide the primary
reservoirs. In all cases these reservoirs comprise low-porosity limestones and dolomites, which are
heavily fractured. In Taq Taq, the Shiranish and Kometan formations have matrix porosities in the
region of 3% but the units are fractured with permeabilities in the range of 200–10,000 milliDarcies
(mD). These reservoirs form single-porosity, single-permeability systems. Aggregate well test rates
from these intervals range from 16,570–19,180 bopd in the Taq Taq-8 Well. The underlying Qamchuqa
Formation has higher matrix porosity (in the region of 8%) and similarly high fracture permeabilities.
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This reservoir unit forms a dual-porosity, single-permeability system. In the Taq Taq-4 Well aggregate
flow rates of 12,920 bopd were achieved on test (Addax Petroleum, 2009). In the Shaikan Field the
Lower Cretaceous Sarmord Formation comprises dolomites and limestones, which have porosities
in the range 10–15% (Ryder Scott, 2011). The Shaikan-4 Well also flowed oil from the Chia Gara
Formation at rates of 130 bopd (Law et al., 2014, their page 22).
The Eocene Pila Spi Formation (and its lateral equivalents the Avanah and Jaddala formations) are
important reservoirs in the Taq Taq, Kurdamir and Kirkuk fields. In the northern part of Kurdistan it
is largely absent or frequently exposed forming prominent ridges around structures; a useful surface
feature for satellite mapping. In Gelli Keer (Oil Gully in Kurdish) above the Shaikan Field, the Pila
Spi Formation limestones are oil-saturated and actively seeping hydrocarbons. It is possible that this
represents an exhumed oil accumulation at this location (Figure 3a). In outcrop, the Pila Spi Formation
is a white, chalky, crystalline limestone, which is at times dolomitised. It is considered to represent
deposition in a lagoonal setting. In the Taq Taq Field the Pila Spi Formation is a minor reservoir, some
110–130 m in thickness, and it flowed 2,150 bopd on test (Garland et al., 2010).
Two of the most significant discoveries in the southern part of Kurdistan are the Kurdamir and the
nearby Topkhana accumulation (Figure 11). The Kurdamir-1 Well tested hydrocarbons from the
Oligocene, Eocene and Cretaceous, the former considered to be the most significant volumetrically
(Western Zagros Resources, 2015a). The Oligocene Kirkuk Group forms the main productive interval
in the Baba and Avanah domes of the Kirkuk Field. Oligocene reservoirs in the Kirkuk Field are
interpreted to have been deposited in basinal, back-reef and fore-reef environments with the latter
having porosities above 20% and permeabilities up to 1,000 mD. A comprehensive description of
these reservoirs is given in Chapter 8 of Aqrawi et al. (2010).
Whilst it is difficult to determine the split of hydrocarbon resources by stratigraphic interval due to
paucity of published information, we estimate that the Cenozoic, Cretaceous and Jurassic reservoirs
each hold around 30% of discovered resources with the Triassic perhaps 10% (Figure 13).
As more companies start to appraise and develop their discoveries, better estimates will undoubtedly
be made. Moreover, with continued deeper drilling it is probable that the volumes of discovered
Triassic hydrocarbons will increase over time. Thus far most of the produced oil in Kurdistan has
come from the Cretaceous reservoirs in the Taq Taq and Tawke fields.
Reservoir Evaluation
Recognising and adequately assessing potential hydrocarbon reservoirs in Kurdistan has proven to
be challenging. In the northern part of the region, most of the Cretaceous and Jurassic reservoirs are
normally or near normally pressured. The combination of low pressure and intense fracturing of the
brittle carbonates frequently leads to severe losses whilst drilling. This is particularly true for sections
drilled above and close to the water table, the location of which can be difficult to ascertain whilst
drilling.
Given the complexity of the subsurface stratigraphy in Kurdistan, logging programs are often
extensive by world standards. Logging-whilst-drilling (LWD, mainly gamma-ray and resistivity
logs) are very helpful for correlation, especially in the absence of cuttings. In addition to the ‘basic’
wireline log suite, which might include gamma-ray, caliper, resistivity, density, neutron and sonic,
specialist logs aimed at better understanding the varying carbonate mineralogy are frequently used.
These often include a spectral gamma-ray, neutron-based spectroscopy tools for better determining
lithology and clay content and magnetic resonance tools, which can be used to help better evaluate
fluid fill and porosity type. Despite extensive log suites it can still be difficult to estimate net pay and
moveable hydrocarbons in what are generally low matrix permeability and low-porosity reservoirs.
Conventional coring has proven to be quite variable in terms of recovery and highly dependent on
degree of fracturing. Wireline sidewall core tools (mechanical as opposed to explosive) are often used
to collect rock samples and are especially useful where cuttings returns to surface have been lacking.
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Fracture presence, orientation, whether they are open or closed together with the nature of fluid fill,
are critical aspects of most logging programs. Specialist imaging logs are frequently run to aid in the
location and characterisation of fracture networks. Hydrocarbon shows, together with losses, will
frequently determine the location of zones to be drill-stem tested.
More often than not it is the fractured intervals which give the highest deliverability during drill-
stem testing and production. Clearly significant losses (and often no or limited cuttings/gas returns)
and lost circulation material (LCM) pumped in these zones displacing formation fluids does not aid
subsequent formation evaluation. With the majority of logging tools designed to measure matrix rock
properties it can be difficult to properly assess the fluid fill in fractures, especially if the near wellbore
environment has been flushed. Wireline tools for obtaining pressures and fluid samples have been
used across Kurdistan but with mixed results. In many cases it is not possible to obtain good pressure
or sample data due to the difficulty of obtaining a good seal with the probe in hard and fractured
carbonates (Garland et al., 2010). Some success has been achieved with the use of advanced probes, in
particular large surface area probes in (8½ inch) hole without extensive hole washouts.
Whilst the majority of sandstone reservoirs are water-wet, carbonate rocks over time become mixed-
wet or oil-wet. This means that oil can adhere to the surface of carbonate rock and it is therefore
harder to produce. Most carbonate reservoirs are believed to have mixed wettability or to be oil-wet
(Morrow, 1990). It is probable that the water-wet carbonates are generally those with higher porosity
with hard, tight, fractured carbonates being more oil-wet (A. Horbury, personal communication).
Knowledge of rock texture and wettability are vital for the static and dynamic description of carbonate
reservoirs and might influence the success of short-term well tests. Very often such parameters require
special core analysis (SCAL), the results of which could only be forthcoming after a number of months
by which time exploration and appraisal wells might have been tested and abandoned.
Given the petrophysical uncertainty that often remains, even after an exploration well has been drilled
and logged, almost all exploration wells in Kurdistan have had quite extensive drill-stem test (DST)
programmes. Typically operators have undertaken anything between 4 and 10 DSTs across different
reservoir intervals. There have been a mixture of open-hole and cased-hole tests; the latter often
using external casing packers (ECPs) to locate the test intervals. In the Shaikan Field the operator has
undertaken almost 50 DSTs at different intervals. Some of the tests showed extremely high potential
flow rates, which is attributed to the well having penetrated natural fracture networks. Other tests
were unsuccessful, with low or no flow, due to the bituminous nature of the oil in places, and possibly
the failure to connect with a fracture network. In the Sheikh Adi discovery, two wells have been
drilled and a total of 17 DSTs undertaken. Of these 5 are deemed to have suffered mechanical failure
(Law et al., 2014).
In heavily fractured reservoirs obtaining seals around ECPs can be problematic. Moreover, a
combination of the unfavourable mobility ratio between oil and formation water, and the possibility
that there might be different fluid contacts between the matrix and the fractures, can lead to some
uncertain test results and complex interpretations.
Hydrocarbon Quality and Type
There is a wide variation in hydrocarbon type and quality across Kurdistan. Published oil gravities
range from 12° API to over 57° API (English et al., 2015; Table 2) and significant volumes of gas have
also been discovered.
A number of significant discoveries contain heavy oil (i.e. that which has a gravity below 22.3° API as
defined by the American Petroleum Institute). In the Shaikan Field it is estimated by the operator that
around 80% of the fields estimated hydrocarbon resources reside in Jurassic reservoirs which contain
heavy oil with the gravity ranging from 12° to 22° API (Gulf Keystone, 2013). The Barda Rash Field
is estimated to have total stock tank oil initially in place (STOIIP) (mid case) in excess of 10 billion
barrels of which just over 50% is deemed to reside in Cretaceous reservoirs, which are considered
to contain heavy oil (Afren, 2011). The primary reason for oils in the recent Kurdish discoveries
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Table 2: Published Reservoir Age and Oil Gravity for Principal Hydrocarbon Discoveries
in Kurdistan (modified from English et al., 2015)
Discovery (bold
= approved field Year Reservoir Age Formation Oil Gravity (ºAPI)
development plan)
Ain Al Safra 2013 Jurassic Alan - Mus 20−29
Atrush 2011 Jurassic Barsarin-Naokelekan-Sargelu-Alan-Mus 22−27
Bakrman 2013 Triassic Kurra Chine 31−38
Cenozoic Pila Spi Heavy oil
Banan 2014 Cretaceous Shiranish-Kometan 21
Jurassic Butmah 29
Baram 2014 Cenozoic Kirkuk 42
Cretaceous Shiranish-Qamchuqa Heavy oil
Barda Rash 2009 Jurassic Mus-Adaiyah 28−30
Triassic Kurra Chine 38−40
Cenozoic Sinjar 10
Bastora 2011
Cretaceous Bekhme 17
Barsarin-Naokelekan-Sargelu-
Bijell 2010 Jurassic 14−23
Sehkaniyan
Cretaceous Bekhme 10
Benenan 2008
Jurassic Najmah / Mus 8−12 / 30
Ber Bahr 2013 Jurassic Sargelu 12−15
Jurassic Mus-Adaiyah 44−47
Bina Bawi 2007
Triassic Kurra Chine-Geli Khana Gas (10−14 bbl/MMcf)
Cenozoic Pila Spi 43 & Gas
Chemchemal 1929
Cretaceous Shiranish-Kometan Gas
Chia Surkh 1901 Cenozoic Lower Fars / Jeribe-Dhiban-Euphrates 38 & Gas / 38−50
Cenozoic Pila Spi 15
Demir Dagh 1960 Cretaceous Shiranish-Kometan-Qamchuqa 23
Jurassic Najmah / Sargelu / Mus-Adaiyah 10 / 29−32 / 37−42
Jurassic Sargelu-Mus-Adaiyah ? 39−45 ?
Jisik 2014
Triassic Kurra Chine Gas
Cenozoic Avanah-Khurmala 34
Khurmala Dome 1935
Cretaceous Shiranish-Kometan-Qamchuqa 28−41
Kor Mor 1928 Cenozoic Jeribe-Euphrates-Kirkuk 57 & Gas
Kurdamir 2010 Cenozoic Kirkuk-Jaddala 38−47 & Gas (30−40 bbl/MMcf)
Mil Qasim 2011 Cenozoic Upper Fars 43−44
Cretaceous Shiranish 15
Miran West 2009
Jurassic Adaiyah-Butmah Gas (2−20 bbl/MMcf)
Jurassic Sargelu-Mus-Adaiyah 39−45
Mirawa 2013
Triassic Kurra Chine Gas
Peshkabir 2012 Jurassic Sargelu 32
Cenozoic Euphrates-Serikagni-Jaddala 31−34
Pulkhana 1927
Cretaceous Shiranish-Balambo 28−32
Qara Dagh 2011 Cretaceous Tanjero-Shiranish 43−46
Sarqala 2011 Cenozoic Jeribe-Dhiban 40
Sarta 2010 Jurassic Sargelu 20
Sangaw North 2011 Jurassic Mus Dry Gas
Cretaceous Sarmord-Garagu-Chia Gara Heavy / bituminous oil
Shaikan 2009 Jurassic Naokelekan-Sargelu-Mus 14−20
Triassic Kurra Chine 37−43 & Gas (120 bbl/MMcf)
See Table 2 facing page for continuation.
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Table 2: continued.
Shakal 2009 Cenozoic Jaddala-Aaliji 35
Cretaceous Sarmord-Garagu-Chia Gara Heavy oil
Sheikh Adi 2012
Jurassic Naokelekan-Sargelu-Mus 16−19
Shewashan 2014 Cretaceous Shiranish-Kometan-Qamchuqa 45
Jurassic Mus-Adaiyah 14−21
Simrit 2012
Triassic Kurra Chine 36−39
Cretaceous Shiranish-Aqra-Kometan Gas
Summail 2011
Jurassic Sargelu-Mus 14
Swara Tika 2011 Triassic Kurra Chine 36−38
Cenozoic Pila Spi 24
Taq Taq 1958
Cretaceous Shiranish-Kometan-Qamchuqa 48
Cenozoic Jeribe 24
Tawke 2006 Cretaceous Bekhme-Qamchuqa 26−27
Jurassic Sargelu 32
Taza 2013 Cenozoic Jeribe-Dhiban-Euphrates-Kirkuk 36
Topkhana 2011 Cenozoic Kirkuk Gas (30−40 bbl/MMcf)
Zey Gawra 2013 Cretaceous Shiranish-Kometan-Qamchuqa 35
being heavy is interpreted to be due to maturity of the source rock; in particular lower maturity
oils occurring over the Mosul High and higher maturity oils having been encountered away from
this palaeohigh (English et al., 2015). In some cases the heavy oil is considered to be a result of near-
surface meteoric water influx (water washing) and associated biodegradation. It is possible that there
is gravity segregation in some of the accumulations which possess significant hydrocarbon columns
and one might think that this would result in heavier oils with depth within a particular reservoir but
this does not appear to be the case in some fields.
In the Atrush Field (Figure 11), the discovered oil appears to get heavier with depth ranging from
27° API down to 14° API. DST flow rates of up to 16,000 bopd have been achieved but flow rate is
critically dependent on reservoir quality, API gravity and viscosity and the lifting mechanism used
during the test (Shamaran Petroleum Corporation, 2015a).
In the Shaikan Field, the model that has been applied to the Jurassic in the most recent Competent
Person Report (CPR), is that there is moveable oil in the fractures down to a depth of between 1,350
and 1,400 m TVDSS. This is almost 1,000 m below the crest of the Jurassic structure. Below this level is
an interval with semi-mobile oil (termed the ‘high viscosity zone’), which extends a further 50–100 m
beyond which the fractures are interpreted to be water-bearing. However, the matrix is interpreted to
have oil down to 1,950 m TVDSS. There is an interval (1,450 to 1,950 m TVDSS) where water is deemed
to be present in fractures surrounding oil-saturated blocks of matrix. The reason for this situation is
thought to be due to possible updip leakage of the oil from the structure in recent geological time,
causing drainage of the fractures accompanied by influx of water from the aquifer. It is possible that
the influx of fresh water caused degradation of the oil to form an interval in the fractures of high
viscosity, semi-mobile oil or tar (Law et al., 2014).
Often the heavy oils are associated with hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and carbon dioxide (CO2), which
have been known to reach concentrations in excess of 250,000 ppm (25%) and 10%, respectively (Table
1). Whilst drilling the Sangaw North-1 exploration well in 2010–2011, high H2S concentrations were
encountered resulting in severe damage to the drill pipe, the well had to be re-drilled.
Where heavy oils have been encountered there have often been difficulties producing them on test.
High density, high viscosity and low pressure result in unfavourable mobility and limited flow, unless
aided by electronic submersible pumps (ESPs) or nitrogen lift. It is possible that some DSTs have
been compromised by water influx from nearby aquifer even though what appear to be ‘good’ oil
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zones on wireline logs have been perforated. In the Atrush Field, a recent DST in one of the appraisal
wells, Atrush-3, flowed 4,900 bopd of 27° API oil using an electrical submersible pump (Shamaran
Petroleum Corporation, 2015b).
It has been assumed that thermal recovery techniques would be required to produce heavy oils with
recovery from fractures being more significant than from the matrix. Given the volumes of heavy oil
in Kurdistan it is very probable that the region will require specialist techniques to recover significant
volumes of heavy oil in the future. It is also possible that given the wide range of crude properties in
Kurdistan, blending of produced hydrocarbons might facilitate exports.
Leaked and exhumed hydrocarbon accumulations are present at the surface and in near-surface
sediments. Here the hydrocarbons appear as either tar, solid bitumen (gilsonite) or in some cases
particularly in summer where seeps are active, liquid hydrocarbons (Figure 3). Generally, oil gravities
are lower in the near-surface and become higher with depth and stratigraphy, a fact that has been
known for many years in Iraqi fields (Dunnington, 1967). Most of the hydrocarbons discovered in
Triassic strata have gravities in excess of 36° API and often have a large gas component.
Fracture Systems
Given that the majority of reservoirs in Kurdistan have low matrix porosity and permeability, fractures
are critically important in aiding deliverability, both during testing and production.
There are a number of aspects which must be considered, some of the most important of which are
deemed to be fracture porosity, fracture connectivity and fluid contacts (both within the fractures
and the matrix). Interference testing has been undertaken on the Atrush Field, between the Atrush-1
and Atrush-2 wells some 2 km apart, and a pressure response was seen “instantaneously” implying
a high level of connectivity as a result of the fracture system in this location (Shamaran Petroleum
Corporation, 2014). Interference testing between two of the appraisal wells, Chiya Khere-6 and
Atrush-2, which are 6.5 km apart, demonstrated pressure communication across the field (Shamaran
Petroleum Corporation, 2015b).
In the Shaikan Field, a long-term interference test has been undertaken between Shaikan-1B and
Shaikan-3; the wells are around 1 km apart. These data, in combination with conventional well test
data, are interpreted to indicate variable flow capacity with the permeability-thickness product over
different zones ranging from 12 to nearly 10,000 Darcy-ft. The latter value is extremely high and
corresponds to a well productivity index greater than 100 stock tank barrels per day per psi (stb/d/
psi). This suggests significant flow contribution of the fracture network.
Estimating recovery efficiency from fractures is not straightforward and will depend, amongst other
things on hydrocarbon type, pressure, connectivity, interaction with matrix and aquifer, as well as
the recovery mechanism employed during development. In the Taq Taq Field, it has been interpreted
that the Shiranish and Kometan formations could be considered to be type 1 fractured reservoirs, in
which both storage and deliverability are provided only by the fractures. The underlying Qamchuqa
Formation, however, has been treated as a type 2 fractured reservoir, in which storage is provided by
the matrix and deliverability is provided by the fractures (Garland et al., 2010).
An important recovery mechanism in fractured reservoirs in which water moves through the fracture
network involves natural imbibition of water into matrix blocks resulting in the expulsion of oil from
the matrix blocks into the fractures where the oil is transported to the producing wells.
Within giant Taq Taq Field, the failure of the Taq Taq-5 Well to flow hydrocarbons on test has been
interpreted to have been due to the well penetrating an interval with an absence of fracture porosity.
The well was located crestally and close to the middle of the field (Vallares, 2011). The Ain Al Safra-1
Well had DSTs in the Butmah and Adaiyah formations which were inconclusive as the tests were
unable to connect to a permeable fracture network and flow fluids to surface (Oryx Petroleum, 2013).
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EXPLORATION SUCCESS RATES AND FAILURES
Given the quality, distribution and maturity of source rocks in Kurdistan, almost all wells drilled
to date have encountered oil and/or gas in some quantities. The measure of exploration success
adopted for the purpose of this study is to count the total number of new field wildcat wells and
classify them as having been successful or having failed based on them flowing hydrocarbons (500
bopd or over) to surface. Where initial new field wildcat wells have failed to flow, but sidetracks have
proven successful then these are counted as successful exploration wells. Using this approach some
63 new field wildcat (NFW) wells have been drilled and tested in Kurdistan between 1901 and late
2014. Of these 23 are regarded as unsuccessful wells and 40 as successful giving a NFW success rate of
63%. Clearly different workers could well view the same data in a different light. The vast majority of
these data are in the public domain and where data has not been published, scout information (maps,
industry articles and public reports) have been used.
Of the 63 new field wildcat wells, 25 are deemed to have been drilled beyond the mountain front
and 38 to the west and southwest of the mountain front on the ‘plains’. Of the 25 wells drilled in
the more mountainous terrain, 12 of these are deemed to have been successful and 13 have failed
giving a success rate of 48%. There are 38 wells that are considered to have been drilled to the west
of the mountain front and on the plains. Of these 28 are considered to have been successful giving a
success rate of 70% in this region. Success rates appear to be lower in the more mountainous areas,
presumably as a result of trap destruction and seal breaching.
It is difficult to accurately estimate commercial success rates as a large number of the discoveries are
still under appraisal or field development plans and economics are unknown. However, almost a
third of the discoveries have had field development planning approval and in all probability more
commercial discoveries will follow post-appraisal (Figure 11).
Of the 40 successful new field wildcat wells, 12 have matured into commercial fields with
approved field development plans (Figure 11, Table 2). Eight of these are on the plain and 4 in more
mountainous terrain. Of the remaining NFW discoveries it is very likely that the majority of them
will be commercially viable; some are presently producing at low rates to the local market. This is
likely to change as additional export pipeline infrastructure becomes available. Moreover, as such
infrastructure develops, the economic viability of tie-backs and accumulations with smaller reserve
sizes should become more favourable.
In some cases the initial new field wildcat wells have encountered hydrocarbons but have failed to
flow on test. One such example is the Qara Dagh-1 Well, which was drilled by Vast Exploration in 2010
(Figures 8 and 11). The well encountered approximately 1,000 m gross oil column of 41° API oil in the
Tanjero and Shiranish formations but was deemed, post-drilling, to have been drilled sub-optimally
on a steep flank of the structure. A second well was planned but not drilled (Vast Exploration, 2011)
and the company relinquished the acreage back to the KRG in late 2012. Within 6 months Chevron
Corporation had signed the block (Chevron, 2013) and are believed to be planning a second well on
the block along trend from the historic well (Western Zagros Resources, 2014a).
Whilst Kurdistan has seen high success rates, and almost every well has encountered some traces of
hydrocarbons, there have been a number of ‘dry’ holes drilled in the last 10 years; wells where the
operator has deemed that the structure drilled is devoid of commercial hydrocarbons (Figure 11).
The exploration wells, which are considered to have “failed”, are spread across the region and present
both in the fold belt and on the plains to the southwest. There is no apparent structural trend to their
distribution. These “failures”, in our opinion, can broadly be grouped into 5 categories:
(1) well drilled in wrong location on a structure, off the crest or out of closure, through a thrust or in
an isolated compartment;
(2) missed pay, or inadequate testing and/or formation damage, or failure to connect with a permeable
fracture network;
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(3) not drilled deep enough to adequately test all the reservoir units that might be in closure; e.g.
heavy oil encountered in the Cretaceous but deeper targets in the Jurassic and Triassic untested;
(4) lack of hydrocarbon charge into the structure as a result of either: (i) compromised migration
route (e.g. sealing by major thrust or shear fault, or that the structure is in a migration shadow);
or (ii) timing of structuration with respect to hydrocarbon migration (i.e. very young or exhumed
structure too recent to receive hydrocarbon charge);
(5) structure and top seals breached resulting in seal and thus trap failure and leakage.
The first three points are arguably failures in adequately drilling in the optimal location or adequately
evaluating the well, and might not necessarily condemn the particular structure in question. Whilst
such wells have been classed as failures it is possible, and indeed has been proven in some instances,
that additional drilling and testing has resulted in successful wells on structures that others have
drilled and abandoned. It is worth noting that a number of structures in the main part of Iraq, such as
Ain Zalah and Butmah (Figure 1), have only very limited production over much of these structures.
Single well penetrations can be unrepresentative of these big structural anticlines. Almost all new field
wildcat wells have been drilled on relatively sparsely spaced 2-D seismic data and the assumption has
generally been that the structures are large anticlines that can be tested with a single, generally crestal,
exploration well. In a fold-and-thrust belt setting this is almost certainly an over simplification.
In our opinion there are very few exploration well failures due to inadequate or absence of suitable
reservoir facies. However, almost all carbonate reservoirs in Kurdistan have low matrix porosity
and permeability and are usually dependent on fracturing to yield commercial flow rates. In some
cases reservoirs have been encountered, with hydrocarbons, but lack of open fractures have resulted
in “failure” of the well to flow hydrocarbons at adequate flow rates. This is interpreted to have
occurred in Ain Al Safra-1 and also in the recent Demir Dagh-5 appraisal well where two DSTs in the
Cretaceous flowed small quantities of oil to surface but were unable to re-connect with the permeable
fracture network (Oryx Petroleum, 2013; 2014b). Moreover, almost all exploration wells have been
vertical and it is probable that this is not the optimum orientation to intersect fractures within the
reservoir. Two recent appraisal wells on the Bijell Field (Bijell-4 and Bijell-6) failed to encounter
movable hydrocarbons. Assuming these wells were drilled within the field closure then presumably
these results were either due to the low mobility of the reservoir fluids or a lack of fracturing of the
reservoir at these locations, or a combination of the two factors (MOL, 2015).
Excellent source rocks are also present in the subsurface in most of Kurdistan; however adequate
maturation and migration are of greater risk and uncertainty. With almost all exploration wells being
crestal, the extent, thickness, quality and depth of potential source rocks in the synclinal areas is
uncertain. It is probable that most migration is relatively recent (post-structuration) and as such is
probably quite local given the difficulty of migrating hydrocarbons over large distances. Fill-and-spill
between accumulations may exist but is yet to be proven. The extent and depth of source kitchens is a
more regional issue related to basin evolution and petroleum systems. Thus far operators in Kurdistan
have operated on their own acreage with limited working interest in other blocks. With no formal
release period for well and seismic data in Kurdistan, there are no comprehensive regional basin
modelling studies, which utilise the abundance of well and seismic data, which has been acquired
over the last 10 years. This is perhaps one of the most important aspects of petroleum systems
evaluation in Kurdistan that remains to be understood. A regional basin model showing the lateral
variations in source rock quality, thickness, heat flow, and detailed timing of structuration from the
foreland through the fold belt would undoubtedly permit a better understanding of the timing of
maturation and migration from both local and more regional source kitchens. Such a study would
benefit from a comprehensive standardisation of stratigraphic nomenclature, to ensure consistency
across the entire region.
If tectonic uplift were the sole cause of trap destruction then there would not have been significant
hydrocarbon discoveries such as Shaikan, Atrush, Swara Tika, Bina Bawi and Miran beyond the
mountain front. However, of the successful exploration wells drilled in Kurdistan, it is estimated
that around 70% of them reside on the Cenozoic-covered plains with only 30% in the mountainous
areas. In the more mountainous areas where Cenozoic strata are absent, traps are reliant on the
sealing capabilities of shales and anhydrites, in particular within the Jurassic and Triassic sequences.
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It is possible that the sealing capacity of such strata could be compromised by uplift and tectonic
fracturing coupled with cooling and depressuring. Two examples are presented which highlight
some of the complexities encountered to date.
Example 1: Harir Anticline and Mirawa Structure
In the northern part of Kurdistan the prominent Harir Anticline rises about 700 m from the surrounding
plains. In 2013 an exploration well (Harir-1) was drilled close to the crest of this structure penetrating
Cretaceous, Jurassic and Triassic strata (Figures 11 and 17). The well was tested and deemed to be dry
(Marathon Oil Corporation, 2013a, b, c). Soon after another exploration well was drilled less than 12
km to the southwest on a low-relief structure on the plain below. The Mirawa-1 Well also penetrated
Cretaceous to Triassic strata and flowed high-quality oil from the Jurassic, and gas with condensate
from Triassic strata (Marathon Oil Corporation, 2013a, b, c). Both structures are likely to contain very
similar reservoir facies and both appear to be prominent anticlines, albeit that the Mirawa structure
is more deeply buried compared to the Harir Anticline. Assuming that both wells were valid tests of
the structures, the possible reasons for failure of the Harir-1 Well are considered (by the authors) to
be as follows:
(1) it is cut off from the source kitchen to the south by the reverse fault interpreted along its
southwestern limb;
(2) the structure has been breached, seals are ineffective and migrated hydrocarbons have leaked away;
Southwest Northeast
Mirawa Harir Mountain
M-1 H-1
A B msl
km
a 1
Cenozoic 0
-1
Cretaceous -2
Jurassic
-3
2 km Triassic Basement
b c
B
Harir
Jisik
N Mirawa
0 10
km
Figure 17 : (a) Schematic cross section from Mirawa to Harir, northern Kurdistan. In 2013, Harir-1
was tested and deemed to be dry. In the same year, Mirawa-1 flowed 39−45° API oil from multiple
Jurassic zones (totaling in excess of 11,000 bopd), and 72 million cubic feet of gas and 1,700 barrels
of condensate per day from one Triassic zone. In Jisik-1 (2014), an equipment-constrained,
drill-stem testing program of Jurassic and Triassic zones yielded 6,100 bopd, and 10−15 million
cubic feet of gas and condensate (source: Marathon, operator of Harir PSA, 2012, 2013 a, b, c).
(b) Digital elevation model (DEM) image of Mirawa and Harir anticlines (courtesy of Airbus
Defence and Space); and (c) Harir Mountain, looking NE (height on anticline ca. 700 m;
photograph courtesy of Petroceltic International).
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(3) the structure is too young to receive hydrocarbons;

(4) the well was drilled in a faulted compartment within the large structure which is somehow isolated
from charge;
(5) the well might have been drilled outside of structural closure at the depth where reservoir targets
were encountered.
There are no known seeps on the Harir Mountain, which might preclude significant leakage from the
Harir structure. If however, the escaped hydrocarbons were light oil and/or gas then it is possible that
all traces have disappeared. In many areas hydrocarbon maturation and migration appear to be very
recent and occurring present-day. Although the structure is undoubtedly young, is it too young to
receive hydrocarbons that may well be migrating present-day? Seismic over the Taq Taq Field clearly
shows folding of the Bakhtiari and Upper Fars Pliocene sediments implying very recent hydrocarbon
migration into this structure. The authors favour either the first or second hypotheses as to why the
large Harir structure is dry, although it is theoretically possible on such a large structure (25 km in
length and up to 5 km in width) that the well might have been drilled into an isolated compartment
or in a region lacking significant faults.
Example 2: Sangaw Anticline
The second example is from the southern part of Kurdistan where the Sangaw North-1 exploration
well was drilled on the northern part of the large Sangaw Anticline (Figures 11 and 18). The well
penetrated Cenozoic to Triassic sediments but flowed non-commercial gas and water at rates of 4.6
million standard cubic feet of gas and 7,280 barrels of water per day (Sterling Energy, 2011b, 2012).
The Sangaw North block has since been relinquished by the operator. Less than 15 km to the south
are the Topkhana and Kurdamir discoveries with oil, gas and condensate having been tested from
Cenozoic and Cretaceous reservoirs.
Southwest Northeast
Topkhana Kurdamir Sangaw North
T-1 K-1 K-2 SN-1
A B
a
Pliocene
Pliocene Middle
Lowe Miocene
Gas Middle Miocene r Eoc Oligocene
? ene
Oil ?
Upper/Middle
Lower ? Eocene
Miocene
Palaeocene
ne e
oce ce
n
Olig o Cretaceous Cretaceous
lae
Pa Jurassic
Pre-Jurassic
5 Km Jurassic
Pre-Jurassic
b Gas Oil/Water Contact

Oil Gas/Oil Contact
B N Well Thrust Faults

0 10
Sangaw
North km Figure 18: (a) Schematic cross section and (b) map of
Topkhana, Kurdamir and Sangaw structures, northern
SN-1
Kurdistan. In Sangaw North-1 Well (SN-1) five tests
from Mesozoic and Triassic intervals flowed water and
gas in non-commercial volumes. Topkhana T-1 Well
T-1
Topkhana
K-2 discovered oil and gas/condensate in the Oligocene.
A The Kurdamir K-1 and K-2 wells discovered oil and
K-1 gas/condensate in Oligocene, Eocene and Cretaceous
reservoirs (sources: Sterling Energy, 2011; Talisman
Kurdamir
Energy, 2014; Western Zagros, 2013).
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Unlike the northern part of Kurdistan, thick Cenozoic strata occur in this region and the presence
of evaporite and shale facies are considered to have facilitated shallow, low-angle thrusting. Whilst
the cross section interprets lateral facies pinchout of Cenozoic reservoirs, there are a number of
significant thrusts and thrust sheets, which potentially separate the downdip discoveries from
the updip ‘dry hole’. It would appear that the Sangaw North-1 Well drilled a valid structure with
adequate fractured reservoirs; however, hydrocarbons have either been unable to migrate into the
structure in any significant quantities, or they have migrated and leaked away due to seal failure as a
result of more recent tectonism. Some hydrocarbons seeps have been seen over the Sangaw Anticline
and it is thought most likely that this large structure was dry as a result of seal failure and breaching
of the trap.
PRODUCTION AND RESOURCES
Whilst presently there are 12 discoveries with approved field development plans (Figure 11), four
fields have dominated production history in Kurdistan to date: Taq Taq, Tawke, Khurmala and
Kor Mor. Since 2008, these fields have together produced over 400 million barrels of oil equivalent
(MMBOE, Table 3). In 2012, the Taq Taq Field produced 27.5 million barrels of oil (MMBO) averaging
75,500 barrels of oil per day (bopd; Genel Energy, 2013). In 2013 production averaged 77,000 bopd
(28.1 MMBO) and in 2014 production had increased to an average of 103,000 bopd (37.5 MMBO)
(Genel Energy, 2015). In total the Taq Taq Field is estimated to have produced in excess of 138 MMBO.
The Tawke Field produced a gross average of 45,477 bopd in 2012 (16.5 MMBO) whilst in 2014 average
production was 91,000 bopd (33 MMBO) (Genel Energy, 2015). The field has produced over of 100
MMBO to date (DNO, 2015). The Kor Mor Field has produced almost 90 MMBOE, comprising 415
billion cubic feet (bcf) of gas and 18 MMBO of condensate since 2008 (Dana Gas, 2013). The Shaikan,
Barada Rash and Sarqala fields have together produced around 9 MMBO, but these fields are not yet
connected to pipeline infrastructure, limiting production to export via truck at the present time.
Some of this production has been consumed by the local market, whilst some has been exported. As
of early 2015 additional pipeline capacity has now been constructed, production from the region has
been increasing over the last 24 months and is likely to increase in the future.
Table 3: Cumulative Production from Kurdish Fields

Barda Rash
Gross
Khurmala
Kor Mor*
Cumulative
Shaikan
Taq Taq
Sarqala
Field Date of Published Figures

Tawke
Production
(mmboe)
Commulative Production (MMBO)
140
Taq Taq 138 End 2014
120
Khurmala 120 End 2013 estimated to end 2014
100
Tawke 100 February 2015
80
Kor Mor* 89 End 2013 (Oil) + 402 bcf gas (67 mmboe)
60
Shaikan 7 August 2014 estimated to end 2014
40
Sarqala 1 End 2013
20
Barda Rash 0.44 End 2013
0
Oil-in-Place, Reserves and Recovery Efficiency
Published numbers for oil-in-place, reserves and recovery factors for fields and discoveries in
Kurdistan are difficult to come by. Whilst the publically listed operators of the producing Tawke and
Taq Taq fields regularly publish reserve estimates, accurate numbers for many of the other discoveries
are somewhat harder to come by and often restricted to infrequently updated CPRs. In part this is due
to the difficulty in estimating recovery factors and thus moving from in-place figures to recoverable
hydrocarbons for discoveries, which have not been fully appraised.
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Estimating oil-in-place relies on an understanding of matrix parameters such as gross rock volume,
porosity, net-to-gross and hydrocarbon saturation. In carbonate reservoirs in Kurdistan these
parameters can be difficult to measure and extrapolate across large structural features. Measuring
similar parameters for fractures can be even more difficult.
Within carbonate reservoirs in Kurdistan a number of fracture types have been recognised. These
range from seismically visible tectonic fractures to microfractures associated with stylolites. In the
more mountainous areas a large number of the fractures are associated with strongly folded and
at times thrusted anticlines. Published data on fractured carbonate reservoirs in strongly folded
anticlines in Iran suggested a range of fracture porosity from 0.1–0.3%. These estimates were derived
from material balance calculations (Weber and Bakker, 1981). Within Kurdistan published estimates
of fracture porosity for various fields and discoveries are presented in Table 4.
In theory, if the matrix porosity, fluid compressibility and the tidal attenuation ratio (reservoir tidal
and surface tidal amplitudes) are known, there is a chance that fracture porosity can be estimated.
This is only possible if the matrix porosity is low, fluid compressibility is low and the fracture system
is not parallel to the overburden stress (L. Kaye, personal communication).
Table 4: Fracture Porosities Kurdish Fields and Discoveries

Fracture Porosity
Field / discovery System Low Middle High Data Source
Ber Bahr Cretaceous 0.1% 0.25% 0.5%
Ber Bahr Jurassic 0.1% 0.35% 0.6%
Ber Bahr Triassic 0.1% 0.25% 0.5%
Bijell Jurassic 0.05% 0.25% 0.6%
Shaikan Cretaceous 0.05% 0.3% 0.7% Law et al., 2014
Shaikan Jurassic 0.1% 0.4% 0.7%
Shaikan Triassic 0.1% 0.3% 0.7%
Sheikh Adi Cretaceous 0.05% 0.3% 0.7%
Sheikh Adi Jurassic 0.1% 0.4% 0.7%
P99 P50 P1
Tawke Jurassic 0.1% 0.5% 0.9%
Miran Cretaceous 0.1% 0.49% 0.9% Vallares, 2011
Taq Taq Cretaceous 0.3% 0.5% 0.7%
In the Cretaceous of the Taq Taq Field, the operator estimates fracture porosity to be 0.3% and the
permeability of the fracture network to be several Darcies to infinite. These estimates are made on
the basis of wireline log, core, well test inflow, pressure data and mud losses. Productivities show a
considerable range from a 4 bbl/day/psi up to 500 bbl/day/psi. In the Shaikan Field, interpretation
of DST data indicates highly variable productivities from 4 to 148 bbl/day/psi with test permeabilities
ranging from 180 to 14,700 mD (Law et al., 2014, their table 5.8).
Clearly, if a pervasive connected fracture network is present (and proven with inflow/production
test data), then recovery efficiency from this fracture network could be significant; perhaps 60–80%.
Recovery efficiency from matrix systems with more limited fracture networks are much lower. It is
difficult to generalise as there are many factors which influence recovery factor such as formation
pressure, fluid type, viscosity, wettability of the matrix system, capillary pressure, wellbore contact
(horizontal versus vertical production wells), skin damage, aquifer support, development well spacing
and number, and depletion strategy. In the Taq Taq Field the operator has suggested a recovery factor
of between 30% and 50% for the Cretaceous reservoirs (Addax Petroleum, 2009).
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Given the wide variations in hydrocarbon type and reservoir properties most operators have taken
the approach of calculating separate recovery factors for the matrix and the fractures in each reservoir
unit. In the Shaikan Field this has resulted in there being a wide variation in recovery efficiency
between the low viscosity oil in the matrix in the Cretaceous (0% recovery assigned) and the higher
pressure, light oil in fractures within the Triassic (up to 80% recovery efficiency) (Table 5; Law et al.,
2014). This range is perhaps typical for other accumulations in the region.
Table 5: Recovery Factors for Shaikan Field (Law et al., 2014)

System Formation Porosity Low Best High Notes
Sarmord Matrix 0% 0% 0% 1
Garagu Matrix 0% 0% 0%
Chia Gara Matrix 0% 0% 0%
Cretaceous
Sarmord Fractures 20% 30% 40% 2
Garagu Fractures 20% 30% 40%
Chia Gara Fractures 20% 30% 40%
Sargelu Matrix 0% / 3% 2% / 7% 5% / 11% 3
Alan Matrix 0% / 3% 2% / 7% 5% / 11%
Mus Matrix 0% / 3% 2% / 7% 5% / 11%
Adaiyah Matrix 0% / 3% 2% / 7% 5% / 11%
Butmah Matrix 0% / 3% 2% / 7% 5% / 11%
Jurassic
Sargelu Fractures 5% / 50% 10% / 65% 15% / 80% 4
Alan Fractures 5% / 50% 10% / 65% 15% / 80%
Mus Fractures 5% / 50% 10% / 65% 15% / 80%
Adaiyah Fractures 5% / 50% 10% / 65% 15% / 80%
Butmah Fractures 5% / 50% 10% / 65% 15% / 80%
Kurre Chine A Matrix 5% 10% 20% 5
Kurre Chine B Oil Matrix 4% 12% 20%
Kurre Chine B Gas Matrix 5% 20% 40%
Kurre Chine C Matrix 5% 10% 20%
Triassic
Kurre Chine A Fractures 60% 70% 80%
Kurre Chine B Oil Fractures 60% 70% 80%
Kurre Chine B Gas Fractures 60% 70% 80%
Kurre Chine C Fractures 60% 70% 80%
Notes: All figures have been taken from Competent Persons Report, writen by ERCE Ltd for Gulf Keystone Shaikan
Field (Law et al., 2014)
1) 0% Recovery Factor (RF) assigned to highly viscous oil in the matrix or fractures under conventional recovery techniques.
2) 20%-30%-40% RF for lower viscosity oil in the fractures at greater depth. These recovery factors are based on the
assumption of an effective water drive through the fractures either in the form of influx from a natural aquifer or from
water injection. Achieving these recovery factors also relies on an adequate number of wells and appropriate well design.
3) 0%-2%-5% RF from the top of the high viscosity zone in the fractures down to the OWC in the matrix. 3%-7%-11% RF
for oil in the matrix in the shallower interval of lower viscosity oil above the high viscosity zone in the fractures.
4) 5%-10%-15% RF for high viscosity oil in fractures, 50%-65%-80% RF for medium viscosity oil in fractures.
5) In the Triassic, the pressure is higher, the fluid is light oil with high GOR and rich gas condensate. The light nature of the
oil, low viscosity and high pressure favour higher recovery factors than the Jurassic.
The development of the Triassic has not been finalised. The fracture network in the Jurassic is the primary source of oil that
the current field development plan aims to recover. These recovery factors are based on the assumption that the field will
be extensively developed, with an adequate number of wells and appropriate well design and with the implementation of
water injection if necessary.
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Reserve Estimates
Published reserve estimates suggest that there have been 8 discoveries in Kurdistan with 2P (proven
and probable reserves) and 2C (best estimate of contingent resources) in excess of 500 million barrels
(Figure 19a). The total 2P reserves and 2C resources discovered to date are estimated to be in excess
of 15 billion barrels of oil (based on published numbers).
With limited fields in Kurdistan having been fully appraised or in production for any length of time,
it is only possible to draw upon publically released data from the Tawke and Taq Taq fields as a guide
to field performance and how reserve estimates have changed over time. Between them, these fields
have had 43 wells drilled, of which 40 are presently in production and these two fields have produced
in excess of 230 MMBO to date.
When the Tawke-1 Well was drilled and successfully tested in 2006 the operator (DNO) estimated
that the field had 100 MMBO recoverable reserves in Cenozoic carbonates. Hydrocarbons were
encountered in deeper Cretaceous reservoirs but as these were untested no reserves were ascribed
to them at that time. Between 2006 and 2014, a total of 28 wells have been drilled on the Tawke Field
(DNO, 2014). These wells not only appraised different parts of the field, but also explored deeper
targets adding new reserves. Moreover, extended well testing permitted the use of down-hole gauges
which were used for evaluating pressure communication across the field and between production
and injection wells.
Figure 19b shows the published reserve figures for the Tawke Field from its initial discovery in 2006 to
present-day. In 2013, following the drilling of a second horizontal well and the discovery of additional
reserves in the Jurassic Sargelu Formation, DNO suggested that the recoverable reserves could be
“bumped up to the 1 billion barrel mark, compared with the present level of 771 million barrels”
(DNO, 2013b). Moreover, field enhancements are being considered to increase the daily output from
100,000 bopd to over 200,000 bopd (Figure 19b), from an initial facility that was scoped for just 50,000
bopd. Over the last 7 years these reserve additions have largely come through recognising reserves
in additional reservoir units and by greater recovery from the field’s existing reservoirs based on
production data and significant encouragement from recent horizontal wells. In October 2013, the
Tawke-23 Well flowed at a rate of 32,000 bopd from a 900 m horizontal section in the Cretaceous
and was drilled at a cost of just US $12 million. The most recent horizontal well, Tawke-27, was
drilled in record time and at a cost of under USD 10 million (DNO, 2014). Clearly the commercial
viability of such wells are helped by what appear to be very efficient and cost-effective appraisal and
development drilling. In 2014, the operator drilled 5 horizontal production wells bringing the total
number of horizontal producers to 9 out of a total of 26 production wells (DNO, 2014; Genel Energy,
2015).
In 2007, 2P gross reserves in the Taq Taq Field were estimated to be ca. 210 MMBO. By 2008 this
estimate had increased to 304 MMBO and current field remaining reserves (2P) are estimated to be
579 MMBO (Genel Energy, 2015). The first horizontal well was planned for late 2014 (Genel Energy,
2014c).
Not all discoveries in Kurdistan have grown over time. In 2012 a CPR was published on the Barda
Rash Field, which estimated that the accumulation had 2P reserves of 190 MMBO and 2C resources
of 1,243 MMBO making it one of the largest new finds in Kurdistan (Afren, 2012a). In January 2015,
the operator announced that the results of an updated CPR had reduced the 2P reserves to zero
and the 2C resources to around 250 MMBO (Afren, 2015). The significant reduction in 2P and 2C
reserves and resources has been due to the 2014 reprocessing of 3-D seismic acquired in 2012 and
initially processed in 2013, alongside the companies drilling campaign. Overall the reservoirs have
not performed according to previous expectations and what was assumed in the approved Field
Development Plan (FDP). The wells have produced higher water cuts than expected and the operator
encountered operational challenges associated with the drilling of difficult complex fractured
reservoirs. Whilst recent results at the field have indicated the presence of light oil accumulations
in the Triassic Kurra Chine reservoirs, these have high levels of associated H2S, which might require
significant capital to develop (Afren, 2015).
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(a)
Khurmala Dome*
Chemchemal*
Demir Dagh
Swara Tika*
Barda Rash
Ain Al Safra
Chia Surkh
Zey Gawra
Sheikh Adi
Akri-Bijeel
Peshkabir
Bina Bawi
Topkhana
Kurdamir
Benenan
Bakrman
Kor Mor*
Ber Bahr
Summail
Garmain
Ain Sifni
Shaikan
Taq Taq
Bastora
Atrush
Banan
Tawke
Miran
Taza
4,000
Estimate of Recoverable Reserves (MMBOE)
3,500
3,000
2,500
2P reserves
2,000
1,500
1,000
Contingent 2C
500
0
Data from operator Competent Persons Reports and published reserve / resource estimates and Wood Mackenzie (*) July 2013
Figure 19: (a) Fields, discoveries and estimated reserves. Figures are taken from operator Competent
Person Reports (CPR) or published statements of reserves. If no figures are available then they are
from Wood Mackenzie (July 2013 report, as indicated on the chart). The figures represent either 2P
(proven and probable) and where available 2C recoverable reserves. The graph indicates that 9
discoveries are deemed to have recoverable reserves in excess of 0.5 billion barrels of oil, whilst there
are 17 discoveries with in excess of 100 MMBOE.
(b) 1,200 200,000

1 = DNO 2006 Annual Report
Production / Production Capacity (bopd)

1,050
2P Recoverable Reserves (MMBO)
3 = DNO 2008 Annual Report 8

900 5 = DNO 2011 Annual Report 150,000
750 7 = DNO Statement of Reserves 2013 6
8 = DNO PR 11 June 2013
5 7
600 100,000
Reserves Production
450
300 50,000
4
150 2 3
1
0 0
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Figure 19: (b) Published reserves and production profile for the Tawke Field since discovery. Tawke
was the first new discovery to be made in Kurdistan. Reserves have increased from an initial estimate
of 100 MMBO in 2006 to a current estimate of 713 MMBO in 2013 (gross remaining reserves). The
cumulative production at end 2013 was 63.4 MMBO. All numbers are taken from the operator’s annual
reports or official press releases (www.dno.no).
Horizontal Wells and 3-D Seismic
Many carbonate reservoirs in Kurdistan have low matrix porosity and low matrix permeability.
At times these reservoirs are highly fractured resulting in improved productivity. In such settings,
horizontal wells are often effective at intersecting high-angle fracture systems and in maximising
flow rates whilst minimising pressure draw-down. Horizontal wells have been used extensively in
carbonate reservoirs around the world, especially so since the advent of reliable 3-D seismic data in
the 1990s.
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To date there have been just 10 horizontal wells in Kurdistan, nine in the Tawke Field and one in
the Bastora Field. These wells have all been planned and drilled on 3-D seismic data. Two of the
horizontal wells completed in the Tawke Field, Tawke-20 and Tawke-23, were brought on-stream
during 2013 at rates of 25,000 bopd and 32,500 bopd respectively, some of the highest flow rates in
Kurdistan to-date (Genel Energy, 2014c). Two additional wells, Tawke-21 and Tawke-22 were brought
on stream in 2014 and production was initiated at a combined rate of 37,000 bopd. In one of the new
wells, Tawke-21, eight productive fracture corridors penetrated by a 980-metre horizontal section
in the main Cretaceous reservoir interval flowed an average rate of 9,700 bopd each. In the other
well, Tawke-22, located six km away, seven productive fracture corridors penetrated by an 800-metre
horizontal section flowed an average rate of 8,800 bopd each. Both wells are subject to wellbore and
surface facilities limitations (Genel Energy, 2015). A further five horizontal wells were drilled in 2014
(DNO, 2014).
The Bastora-1 Well is significant due to the flow rates achieved from the horizontal well. Although
less than 2,000 bopd, the rates were four times higher than those achieved from the vertical well in the
same reservoir interval (DNO, 2012b). The first horizontal well was planned for the Taq Taq Field in
2014 (Genel Energy, 2014c) and high-angle wells have been drilled on the Miran and Benenan fields.
Horizontal drilling is relatively new to Kurdistan, largely due to the fact that there are few appraised
fields with 3-D seismic data over them. However, the results of these early wells are very encouraging.
As more 3-D seismic surveys are acquired, and more advanced processing (such as pre-stack depth
migration and seismic inversion) are undertaken, it is likely that many more horizontal and high-
angle wells will be drilled potentially commercialising low-porosity/permeability reservoirs that
might otherwise remain unexploited.
FUTURE TRENDS IN KURDISTAN
The transformation of Kurdistan into a new and significant oil region over the last decade has been
remarkable. The time line of events shows some of the key milestones that have been achieved in the
last decade (Table 6). It is highly probable that technical and commercial success rates will remain
high whilst four-way dip closures are still available for new field wildcat drilling. More 3-D seismic
surveys will be acquired and these will no doubt reveal additional complexities which 2-D seismic
is unable to illuminate. It is possible that 3-D seismic, in certain conditions, could identify areas of
possible better reservoir development and perhaps even hydrocarbons.
Horizontal and multilateral wells are likely to be essential in the development of many fields and
multilateral drilling and fracture proping may prove cost effective in some instances. As fields are
developed, water injection may well be required to sustain and enhance production levels and recovery
efficiency as has happened in other carbonate provinces. This may place a strain on water resources.
A number of accumulations have discovered large volumes of heavy oil (API < 20°) and these are
likely to require the use of enhanced oil recovery methods such as thermal or solvent techniques to
facilitate commercial recovery. High levels of hydrogen sulphide gas will necessitate the use of specialist
processing facilities, such as amine gas treatment, to remove or significantly reduce H2S and in some
cases CO2 concentrations.
As more fields come into full production, the understanding of the dynamic behaviour of the
reservoirs will improve dramatically. Given the number and variety of carbonate reservoirs in the
region it is very probable that stratigraphically trapped hydrocarbons will continue to be discovered.
Pure stratigraphic traps are unlikely to be significant targets until dip and fault closed structures are
all drilled out.
The industry has been surprised by the discovery of the hydrocarbon reservoirs in ever yet deeper
stratigraphy. The Triassic is proving to be an important contributor to the reserve base in Kurdistan,
not least because the hydrocarbons that have been discovered are generally lighter (higher API, higher
GOR and more mobile) and of higher pressure than shallower discoveries. It is very probable that
hydrocarbons will continue to be discovered in older Triassic strata and probably within the Permian
and perhaps even within Carboniferous strata although very few wells have thus far targeted levels
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Table 6: Time Line of Significant Events from 2002 to 2014

Year Milestone New Operator
2002 First PSA awarded to Genel. Taq Taq Genel Enerji
2003 Iraq War Petoil, Prime Natural Resources
2004 DNO, Western Zagros
2005 Iraq Constitution adopted. Tawke 1: first well in Kurdistan Region
for 25 years. First Cenozoic and Cretaceous discoveries.
2006 Taq Taq-4 discovery in Cretaceous reservoirs KNOC, Reliance, Heritage, A&T, Addax
2007 First PSAs signed following passing of the oil and gas law Sterling Energy, Aspect, Hunt, OMV,
Dana Gas, Perenco, MOL, Hillwood,
Gulf Keystone, Norbest (TNK BP)
2008 Discoveries at Miran, Shaikan, Kurdamir. First Jurassic and Triassic Niko Resources, Hawler, Oil Search,
discoveries. Taq Taq-10 appraisal well flows > 44,000 bopd. Komet, Talisman, Vast
2009 Tawke Field connected to export pipeline. First oil exports. Shamaran, Longford
Kurdistan oil exports 100,000 bopd.
2010 Kurdamir and Akri-Bijeel discoveries Murphy, Petroquest, Marathon, GasPlus
2011 Genel Energy listed on UK stock market ExxonMobil, Hess, Repsol, Afren, Genel
Energy, Oryx
2012 Bastora-1 First horizontal well in Kurdistan. Chia Surkh-10 (First Taqa, Gazprom, Chevron, Total
well on the structure since 1954) flows > 11,000 bopd.
2013 1st Tawke horizontal well flows 8,000 bopd. Exxon spud first well in Turkish Entity
Kurdistan. Construction of pipeline infrastructure.
2014 Oil exports reach 300,000 bopd
2015 Oil export reach 450,000 bopd
below the Upper Triassic. Given the wide variety of hydrocarbon qualities discovered in the region,
it is probable that there would be benefit in blending crudes, which might facilitate higher overall
exports from the region.
There is an increasing need for a regional and industry-wide understanding of petroleum systems
and seal efficiency in Kurdistan. Significant unknowns include the timing of generation versus trap
formation, the importance of vertical migration and especially seal efficiency, the role of thrusts and
strike-slip faults in migration efficiency. Kurdistan does not have a public release mechanism for data
although in-country operators are increasingly able to trade data, with the approval and facilitation
of the MNR. This should lead to improvements in exploration efficiency and a better understanding
of drilling practices, stratigraphy, facies variations and petroleum systems in the region.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
For almost a decade, our colleagues Tarik Chalabi, George Yaku and Azad Tahir Saeed have provided
invaluable guidance on Iraqi geology, field locations and thoughts on hydrocarbon prospectivity in
northern Iraq. Our ideas have also been shaped by our many colleagues at Petroceltic International
and the Ministry of Natural Resources. The authors would specifically like to thank Joseph English,
Dermot Corcoran, Ciaran Nolan, Paul Ryan and Sean McDade (Petroceltic), Andrew Horbury
(Cambridge Carbonates) and John Bounds (Blueasterisk cartography) for valuable input to the
manuscript. We also acknowledge valuable input from the team at GeoArabia including Moujahed
Al-Husseini, Nestor “Nino” Buhay IV and Kathy Breining. Cara Burberry’s input is also gratefully
appreciated. Thanks also to Petroceltic International and the Ministry of Natural Resources of
the Kurdistan Regional Government for their continued support and permission to publish this
manuscript.
All reserve figures and well results detailed in this paper are taken from public domain sources and
the authors have made best efforts to ensure that these are correct at the time of going to press. The
opinions expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of
their respective organisations.
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
David Mackertich is an Exploration Geologist who has been working with

Petroceltic International since their entry into Kurdistan in 2009. Prior to
this he was employed by Gulf Keystone where he led the technical team that
helped acquire the company’s interests in the Shaikan and Akri-Bijeel blocks
in late 2007. Between 1991 and 2003 he worked for Hess Corporation in the
UK, Denmark and Malaysia. David holds an MBA from London Business
School, and MSc in Petroleum Geology from University College Dublin,
Ireland and is a Fellow of the Geological Society of London.
dmackertich@btinternet.com
Adnan Samarrai is a geologist, explorer and a key technical advisor in

the Ministry of Natural Resources (MNR) of the Kurdistan Regional
Government (KRG), Iraq. Adnan received his BSc degree in Geology in
1962 from the University of Baghdad, Iraq. He commenced work in 1962
with Binnie & Partners later moving to the Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC)
and then to the North Oil Company (NOC). Prior to joining the Ministry
of Natural Resources, Adnan was Country Manager for Gulf Keystone in
Kurdistan where he played a significant role in the capture of the company’s
acreage in the country and the discovery of the Shaikan Field. Adnan is an
Emeritus Member of the AAPG and Fellow of the Geological Society of
London.
adnan.samarrai@mnr.krg.org
Manuscript submitted December 20, 2014
Revised January 20, 2015
Accepted February 9, 2015
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GeoArabia, 2015, v. 20, no. 2, p.

History of hydrocarbon exploration in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq

David S. Mackertich and Adnan I. Samarrai

The Kurdistan Region of Iraq has witnessed extraordinary levels of exploration

Challenges remain in what is a structurally complex and recently deformed

LICENSING AND EXPLORATION ACTIVITY IN KURDISTAN

Activity Prior to 2003

43°E 44° 45° 46°

Early Award Process and Work Programs (2002–2006)

43°E 44° 45° 46°

Neogene/Pleistocene/ Cretaceous Triassic Main Zagros Thrust Significant hydrocarbon

ERA/PERIOD EPOCH/AGE FORMATION LITHOLOGY PETROLEUM SYSTEM

Holocene Flood Plain Deposits

M Lower Fars Chia Surkh

Oligocene Kirkuk Group Baram, Kurdamir, Taza

L Chemchemal, Demir Dagh,

Khurmala, Shewashan, Taq

Up. Tur.-Con.-San. Kometan Taq, Zey Gawra

Aptian-Albian Demir Dagh, Khurmala,

L Kimmeridgian Gotnia Barsarin Demir Dagh, Mirawa, Peshkabir,

Ordovician Khabour Anhydrite

Geochemical evaluation of potential source rocks and Data

Once awarded acreage, operators generally undertook Field Visits

In the absence of seismic data, the ‘Busk

43°E 44° 45° 46°

Mosul 7 Open Blocks

34°E 38° 42° 46° 50° 54° 58°

Phase I Early 2006 Phase II Late 2007 Phase III Mid-2008

43°E 44° 45° 46°

Block #. Name Operator Block #. Name Operator Block #. Name Operator

Table 1: Published H2S and CO2 Levels in Kurdistan

DISCOVERIES AND PETROLEUM GEOLOGY

43°E 44° 45° 46°

34°E 38° 42° 46° 50° 54° 58°

Figure 13: Principal discoveries by stratigraphic horizon.

Two-Way Time (second)

Pila Spi Lst.

Figure 15: Seismic sections of selected hydrocarbon accumulations in Kurdistan showing he

Hydrocarbon Quality and Type

EXPLORATION SUCCESS RATES AND FAILURES

Example 1: Harir Anticline and Mirawa Structure

(3) the structure is too young to receive hydrocarbons;

Example 2: Sangaw Anticline

b Gas Oil/Water Contact

B N Well Thrust Faults

PRODUCTION AND RESOURCES

Table 3: Cumulative Production from Kurdish Fields

Field Date of Published Figures

Oil-in-Place, Reserves and Recovery Efficiency

Table 4: Fracture Porosities Kurdish Fields and Discoveries

Table 5: Recovery Factors for Shaikan Field (Law et al., 2014)

(b) 1,200 200,000

Production / Production Capacity (bopd)

3 = DNO 2008 Annual Report 8

Horizontal Wells and 3-D Seismic

FUTURE TRENDS IN KURDISTAN

Table 6: Time Line of Significant Events from 2002 to 2014

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

David Mackertich is an Exploration Geologist who has been working with

Adnan Samarrai is a geologist, explorer and a key technical advisor in

Manuscript submitted December 20, 2014

Revised January 20, 2015

Accepted February 9, 2015

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