Revision received October 18, 2000. Open for discussion till April 30, 2003.

JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC RESEARCH, VOL. 40, 2002, NO. 6 741

Effect of circulation on critical submergence of an intake pipe
Effet de la circulation sur limmersion critique dune conduite de prise
FI

KRET KOCABAS , Assistant Professor, Erciyes University, Yozgat Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Civil Engineering
Department, Yozgat, Turkey
NEVZAT YILDIRIM, Professor, Gazi University, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Civil Engineering Department, Maltepe,
Ankara, Turkey
ABSTRACT
In this study, the effect of circulation on the critical submergence of an intake pipe is presented. Experiments were conducted on a vertically owing
downward intake pipe in a circulation imposed still-water reservoir. The circulation imposed on the owcauses an outward centrifugal force component
in radial direction which increases the critical submergence considerably. For a given ow and geometry, the vane setting angle has a certain value
which causes the same critical submergence as in the case of no-vanes (unsteady vortex in no-circulation imposed ow). As the vane setting angle gets
larger than its certain value, the critical submergence becomes larger than that in the no-circulation imposed ow (no-vanes). The smaller the vane
setting angle, the smaller is the critical submergence. The critical submergence attains its minimum value when the vane setting angle is zero (vanes
are set radially). Flowvisualization for an intake pipe in a still-water reservoir has indicated that a spherical volume of uid bounded by a streamsurface
of a sphere (SSS) develops. This spherical volume, hence SSS, shrinks radially and rotates about its vertical axis. The air-entraining vortex occurs as
the SSS collapses. The SSS is a useful concept for the physical explanation of occurrence of the air-entraining vortex.
RSUM
Dans cette tude on prsente linuence de la circulation sur limmersion critique dune conduite de prise. Des expriences on t faites sur un
coulement vertical vers le bas dans un tuyau de prise situ dans un rservoir dont leau est mise en circulation. La circulation impose induit une
composante de force centrifuge dirige vers lextrieur dans la direction radiale qui augmente considrablement limmersion critique. Pour un
coulement et une gomtrie donns, le rglage de langle dailette possde une certaine valeur qui induit la mme immersion critique que le cas sans
ailettes (vortex instationnaire dans un coulement sans circulation impose). Si langle de rglage est suprieur cette valeur, limmersion critique
augmente. Plus langle de rglage est petit, plus limmersion critique est faible. Limmersion critique atteint sa valeur minimumquand langle dailette
est nul (les ailettes sont places radialement). La visualisation dun coulement de prise dans un rservoir en eau calme, a montr quun volume
sphrique de uide se dveloppait, dlimit par une surface de courant en forme de sphre (SSS). Ce volume sphrique, SSS donc, se contracte
radialement et tourne autour de son axe vertical. Le vortex dentranement dair se produit quand le SSS seffondre. Le SSS est un concept utile pour
expliquer physiquement loccurrence du vortex dentranement dair.
Introduction
Air-entraining vortex behavior at intakes is an important problem
in many situations inhydraulic engineering. Water for power gen-
eration, irrigation, industry and municipal supply is generally
taken directly from rivers and reservoirs by intakes. When the
submergence of the intake is not sufcient, air enters the intake
by means of an air entraining free vortex. The entrained air causes
ow reductions, vibrations, structural damage and loss of ef-
ciency in turbines or pumps and in water conveying structures.
The value of the submergence for which the tip of the air-core
just reaches the intake is called the critical submergence
[Fig. 1(b)]. The critical submergence is one of the main character-
istics of the air-entraining vortex. There have been several studies
dealing with the air-entraining vortex (Anwar 1965, 1967, 1968,
Jain et al. 1978, Odgaard 1986, Hite and Mih 1994, Gulliver and
Rindels 1987, Yldrm and Kocabas 1995, 1998, 2000, 2002).
Some of these studies have considered the effect of circulation on
vortex formation [i.e. Jain et al. (1978), Gulliver and Rindels
(1987)] and related the critical submergence to Reynolds number,
circulation number, Weber number, Froude number and some
unknown parameters which make these formulas difcult to use
in practice.
In this study, the effect of the circulation on the critical submer-
gence is presented. The circulation is given to owby vanes mak-
ing angle with radial direction. The results have shown that for a
given ow and geometry, the vane setting angle has a certain
value which causes the same critical submergence as in the case
of no-vanes (unsteady vortex in no-circulation imposed ow). As
the vane setting angle gets larger than its certain value, the critical
submergence becomes larger than that in the no-circulation im-
posed ow (no-vanes). The smaller the vane setting angle, the
smaller is the critical submergence. The critical submergence at-
tains its minimum value when the vane setting angle is zero
(vanes are set radially). The air-vortex formation and the critical
submergence are highly sensitive to the circulation imposed on
the ow. Flowvisualization for an intake pipe in a still-water res-
ervoir has indicated that a spherical volume of uid bounded by
a stream surface of a sphere (SSS) develops. The SSS is ex-
plained later. This spherical volume, hence SSS, shrinks radially
and rotates about its vertical axis. The air-entraining vortex oc-
curs as the SSS collapses. The SSS is a useful concept for the
physical explanation of occurrence of the air-entraining vortex.
Theoretical consideration
This study is a continuation of the studies by Yldrm and
Kocabas (1995, 1998, 2000, 2002) on the critical submergence
742 JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC RESEARCH, VOL. 40, 2002, NO. 6
Fig. 1. Flow at the Intake: (a) No Air-Core Vortex; (b) Air-Core Vortex
just Reaches the Intake (Critical Condition); (c) Air-Entraining
Vortex; (d) Critical Spherical Sink Surface (CSSS).
Q = A .V = V.A =
i c s i i
V
D
i
i

2
4
(1)
Q S
U
i c

4
2
2
.
(2)
Fig. 2. Stream Surface of a Sphere (SSS) and Its Shrinkage when SSS
becomes CSSS.
S
Q S
U
c
i c

|
.

`
}

2
1 3

/
(3)
for intakes in both still-water reservoir and open channel ow.
Their studies are based on potential ow solutions of a uniform
owand a point sink. In the earlier studies the writers introduced
the concept of critical spherical sink surface (CSSS) whose ra-
dius is equal to the critical submergence [Fig. 1(d)]. The CSSS
has the same center and discharge as the intake. They found that,
in general, the critical submergence for an intake can be com-
puted from the continuity equation.
Where Q
i
= intake discharge; A
c
= the net total working surface
area of the CSSSafter subtracting the blockages of all impervious
boundaries and intake pipe; A
i
= cross-section area of the intake,
V
s
= critical velocity at CSSS after subtracting the blockage; V
i
= average intake velocity and D
i
= internal diameter of the intake
[Fig. 1(d)]. The blockage means loss in the surface area of a
complete CSSS due to impervious ow boundaries or structures
through which no ow is supplied to the intake. In general; V
s
is
constant for a given owand geometry and can be determined by
conducting few experiments.
For simplicity, it is better to work with a complete CSSS (no
blockage effects of impervious solid boundaries). Potential solu-
tions of Yldrm and Kocabas (1995, 2000, 2002) have shown
that for an intake in a uniform ow V
s
= U /2 and for a complete
CSSS, A
c
= 4S
c
2
. Where S
c
= critical submergence of the intake
and U = velocity of the uniform ow at upstream of the intake.
Under these assumptions, eq. (1) can be rewritten as,
One can interpret this equality in two ways. i) There is a complete
spherical surface of radius S
c
through which ow passes with a
radial velocity of U /2. ii) There is a complete spherical volume
of uid of radius S
c
whose boundary shrinks radially with a ve-
locity of U /2. As it is shown in Fig. 2, the rate of change of the
spherical volume d /dt = Q
i
= 4S
c
2
.U /2. Where = volume of
the sphere and t = time.
In the computation of S
c
, the rst interpretation is useful. As for
the explanation of the occurrence of the air-entraining vortex, the
second interpretation is useful. Let us reconsider the second inter-
pretation. Multiplying both sides of eq.(2) by S
c
one obtains
Eq.(3) is the same as the equation of a streamsurface of a sphere
(SSS) that has a radius of S
c
[Yuan (1967), eq. (7.166 b), page
234, Q
i
S
c
stands there as if the strength of a point doublet in a
uniformow]. The SSS is a useful concept for the physical expla-
nation of occurrence of the air-entraining vortex. No uid ow
passes through the SSS. In other words, a spherical volume of
uid bounded by a stream surface of a sphere develops. The
shrinkage (collapsing) of the SSS is due to the evacuation of the
uid inside the SSS by the intake. The shrinkage of the spherical
volume or SSS is very similar to that of a deating balloon
(Fig. 2). From eq. (3) and aforementioned explanations, it is un-
derstood that the CSSS must be a stream surface of a sphere
JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC RESEARCH, VOL. 40, 2002, NO. 6 743
S
Q S
V
c
i c
s

|
.

`
}

2 2
1 3
.
/
(4)
Fig. 3.Stages of Shrinkage of SSS (Potential Flow).
S
Q S
V
i
s

|
.

`
}

2 2
1 3
.
*
/
(5)
(SSS). In the case of an intake in a still-water reservoir eq.(3)
may be written as
Since an intake ow in the still-water is approximated as a point
sink [Batchelor (1974)], a spherical sink surface tangent to the
free surface can be drawn (Fig. 3). Thus, one can generally write
eq.(4) as
Where V
s
*
=radial velocity at a streamsurface for a sphere having
radius of S (submergence of the intake). Eq.(5) is also an SSS.
When the air-core vortex just enters the intake, the SSS becomes
CSSS (S = S
c
; V
s
*
= V
s
). The SSS can have a radius larger than,
equal to or smaller than that of the CSSS (Fig. 3). The largest
complete SSS is represented by maxSSS which is tangent to the
free surface and has a radius equal to S (Fig. 3). The smallest SSS
is represented by minSSS which has a radius of D
i
/2 in Fig. 3. For
simplicity let us consider an SSS. In general, eq. (5) [similarly
eqs.(3)-(5)] represents the rate of change of volume of the SSS.
The intake ow continuously evacuates the uid inside the
SSS(s). Hence, SSS shrinks down radially with the radial shrink-
age velocity of V
s
*
(Fig. 3). As SSS shrinks radially, it must si-
multaneously rotate due tothe forces caused bythe non-uniformi-
ties in the ow eld and the Coriolis force (Earths rotation)
about its vertical axis (Fig. 3). After the stage of the minSSS, the
SSS completely collapses and it is drained out as shown in Fig. 3.
744 JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC RESEARCH, VOL. 40, 2002, NO. 6

g g g
D V

(6)
Q V D n e S c
i r g c
+ [ . . sec ]( ) (7)
tan ,
tan

V
V
V
V
g
r
r
g
or
(8)
Q D n e S c
V
i g c
g
+ [ . . sec ]( )
tan

(9)
Q D n e S c
D
i g c
g
g
tan [ . . sec ]( )

+

(10)

g
g i
c g
D Q
S c D n e

( ) ( . . sec )
tan
1
(11)
The summit point A of the maxSSS (Fig. 3) has the minimum
pressure among all other points on the maxSSS. Energy indicates
that the maximum pressure-drop occurs at A. Thus, the point A
is the most favorable place for the surface depression to develop.
This statement is also valid for all SSSs and different stages of the
SSS. Due to continuity, the pressure-drop in small SSSs must be
more. Therefore, as an SSS shrinks down, the depression at the
summit point will be deeper. When the submergence is equal to
S
c
or SSS becomes CSSS, the air-core becomes sufciently deep
and enters the intake. All velocities in eqs.(3)-(5) are average ve-
locities. In a real uid case, the shrinkage velocity of the upper
portion of the SSS is larger than the lower portion of the SSS.
This is due to viscosity. Since SSSs shrink radially and rotate
about their vertical axis, streamlines form an appearance of a
swirl at the vertical rotation axis (Fig. 3). A symmetry of this
swirl should also be present in the lower portion of the vertical
rotation axis of the SSS. But, due to the blockage of the intake
pipe owing downward, it is not seen. Before the stage of CSSS,
the intake owconsists of the uid inside the CSSS only (Fig. 3).
When the SSS becomes equal to or smaller than CSSS, some
uid outside the CSSS lls out the depression in the CSSS and
enters the intake in the form of an impinging jet ow of
paraboloid hyperboloid. After the stage of CSSS, the intake ow
consists of both uids inside and outside of the CSSS. Entire free
surface ow has only one point to pass through and reach the in-
take. This point is the summit point A of the maxSSS (Fig. 3).
Whole free surface ow is converged to pass through the summit
point A. Hence, any disturbance or non-uniformity introduced to
the free surface ow is carried and passed through the summit
point A of the maxSSS (also SSSs) by the surface ow. As the
surface disturbances are carried down by means of the impinging
jet of paraboloid of revolution, the shear ow gets much stronger
and stimulates the occurrence of the air-core vortex. Therefore,
disturbances or irregularities introduced to the free surface ow
are much more effective than those disturbances introduced to the
ow below the free surface in the development of the air-core
vortex. In order to see the development of the air-core vortex and
collapsing stages of the SSS(s) explained above, a ow-visualiza-
tion experiment is conducted.
Flow visualization
Experiments are conducted for a vertically owing downward
intake pipe in a still-water reservoir [same set-up used by
Yldrm and Kocabas (1998)]. A circular steel wire ring having
a diameter of 50cmis constructed. Potassiumpermanganate crys-
tals are stuck to the inner side of the ring. This circular ring was
kept xed in vertical plane by means of a vertical stem as shown
in Fig. 4. The center point of the ring is the same as that of the
intake. By causing a small disturbance to the ring, an intensively
colored circular front line is released as shown in Fig. 4. The
photo in Fig. 4 was taken by a TV camera and recorded on a spe-
cial videocassette. This cassette was played on a special set-up
very slowly and frozen for the picture required and then printed.
The stages of collapsing of the SSS (circular central cut of the
SSS) are clearly seen in Fig. 4. This picture shows that the col-
lapsing of an SSS resembles the collapsing of a cavitation bubble
[Knapp(1979), Figs. 8.11and8.12]. The vacuumingactioninside
a cavitation bubble is created by the very fast condensation of
water vapor. In the case of CSSS, the vacuuming action is created
by the intake ow. Due to this collapsing, impinging jet ows
develop in both the cavitation bubble and the SSS. Fig. 4 con-
rms Fig. 3 and aforementioned physical explanation. The photo-
graph in Fig. 4 clearly shows that the uid elements in the upper
portion of the SSS experience very large deformation and rota-
tion. This point may be explained as follows. The uid outside
the upper portion of the SSS lls the depression in the SSS in the
form of an impinging jet-ow that has considerably high relative
velocity with respect to the ambient uid. Due to these high ve-
locity gradients the uid elements in the upper portion of the SSS
is subjected to high shear, deformation and vorticity which con-
tributes so much to the swirling of the vortex core and stimulates
the occurence of the air-core vortex.
Effect of circulation on the critical submergence
In order to investigate the effect of the circulation on the critical
submergence, consider a uid particle P just on the CSSS
(Fig. 5). In this gure, Mrepresents the center point of the intake.
Let
g
= the circulation generated by the guide vanes set at an
angle of with respect to the radial direction (Fig. 6).
Where D
g
= diameter of guide vane ring assembly and V
g
= tan-
gential velocity at a radius of D
g
/2 (Fig. 6). From the continuity
one can write [also see Jain et al. (1978), eq.(7)]
Where n = number of vanes; e = thickness of a vane sheet; V
r
=
radial velocity; = angle of vane setting measured from radial
direction and c = vertical distance from intake to bottom [clear-
ance of the intake with respect to bottom, Fig. 1(d)]. One can
write
The circulation can be written as,
JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC RESEARCH, VOL. 40, 2002, NO. 6 745
2

r V cos
(12)

g
g
r
D
(
cos
/
)

2
(13)
Fig. 4. Photograph of Stages of Shrinkage of an SSS.
Fig. 5. Centrifugal Acceleration on a Fluid Particle.
a
V
r r r
r

2 2
2
2
2 3 3
2 4 cos ( cos ) ( cos ) cos
(14)
a
D r
r
g
g

( )
cos
2
2
1
(15)
Where V

= tangential velocity of point P; = the angle between

horizontal axis and radial direction corresponding to the point P
and r = radial distance as shown in Fig. 5. From eqs.(6) and (12)
one can write;
The centrifugal acceleration a
r
acting on the particle at P is as
follows.
From eqs.(13) and (14);
The component of a
r
in the radial direction (outwards) is a
s
.
746 JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC RESEARCH, VOL. 40, 2002, NO. 6
a a
r D
s r
g
g

cos ( )

1
2
(16)
a
r
Q
S c D n e
s
i
c g

]
]
]
]
1
2
2
( )( . . sec )
tan


(17)
Fig. 6. Parameters Related to Circulation and Vane Position.
V V V
s s s

0
(18)
Fig. 7. Experimental Setup (Not to Scale).
or
From eqs.(11) and (16)
Since e is very small, n.e.sec can be neglected in comparison to
D
g
in eq.(17). Therefore one can approximate that a
r
or a
s
is
directly proportional to tan
2
or . Let V
s0
value of radial
g
2
shrinkage velocity V
s
of the CSSS (or point P) when there is no
any vane (unsteady vortex) and no-circulation is imposed on the
ow. As seen in Fig. 5 and eqs.(16) and (17), when the circula-
tion is imposed on the ow, a radially outward acceleration or
centrifugal force is generatedon the uid particle. The centrifugal
force tends to expand the CSSS (or SSSs). Considering the poten-
tial solution, as the CSSS shrinks with V
so
, the CSSS is forced to
expand with a radially outward velocity of V
s
. Hence, an addi-
tional vacuuming or suction effect in CSSS is introduced by the
circulation imposed on the ow. As a result, the net total radial
shrinkage velocity, V
s
of the CSSS (or SSS) is as follows.
The radial expansion velocity V
s
causes a kind of vacuuming
action inside the CSSS and makes the net radial shrinkage veloc-
ity V
s
to become small. Eq.(1) shows that as V
s
gets smaller S
c
increases. V
s
, V
s0
and V
s
depend on ow conditions and geome-
try of the ow eld. Eqs.(16) and (17) show that the effect of the
imposed circulation on the CSSS is not uniform and depends on
cos. At the summit point of the CSSS ( = 90) the effect of the
circulation is zero (a
s
=0; V
s
=0) and V
s
has its maximumvalue
of V
so
. This is one of the important reasons why the top portion
of the CSSS advances downward faster (as in the form of an im-
pinging jet ow of paraboloid of revolution) than the rest of the
CSSS. As the top portion of the CSSS shrinks in the form of a
downward impinging jet ow relative to the surrounding uid
inside the upper portion of CSSS, it causes a region of high
vorticity which appears as a swirling ow(Fig. 3). In Fig. 3, only
the rotation due to forces caused by the non-uniformities in the
ow eld and the Coriolis effect (Earths rotation) are present.
Considering the potential solution, V
so
in eq. (18) is the average
radial shrinkage velocity of the CSSS. Althougheqs.(16) and (17)
infer that V
s
varies with , its average value over the CSSS is
considered so as to have the average value of V
s
. In order to ex-
amine the effect of the circulation on the critical submergence for
an intake in a still-water reservoir and nd the variation of V
s
,
experiments are conducted.
Experiment
The experimental set-up is shown in Fig. 7. The experimental
procedure used in this study are very similar to that of Jain et al.
(1978). These researchers have considered only c/D
i
= 0,
[Fig. 1(d) and Fig. 7]. In this study, experiments are conducted
for several values of c/D
i
and vane angle (in both clockwise and
counter clockwise directions). The tank (Fig. 7) is constructed of
mild steel sheet 3 mm in thickness with an internal diameter of
2.50 m, and a height of 1.20 m. A steel intake pipe with internal
diameter of 5.32 cm and wall thickness of 3 mm is used. A cen-
trifugal pump is used for recirculation and the desired range of
discharge. Asolid concrete cylindrical slab (oor) has a diameter
of 1.90 mand height of 20 cmis constructed on the center bottom
of the tank. The discharge of the intake is measured by means of
an elevated triangular weir (Fig. 7). The intake pipe is changeable
and is connected to the outlet line with a threaded coupling. The
outlet line passes through the concrete oor slab. The end of the
main feeder pipe opens into the oor (20 cm below the bottom
oor of the pool) of the gap between the outer boundary of the
concentric gravel packing and the sidewall of the tank (Fig. 7).
JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC RESEARCH, VOL. 40, 2002, NO. 6 747
A S S S c S cS
c c c c c c
+ 4 2 2
2 2
( ) ( )
(19)
S
D
c
D
c
D
V
V
c
i
i i
i
s

+ + ( )
2
2
2
(20)
The energy-dissipating concentric ne gravel packing ring is 15
cm thick and has a height of 120 cm. This gravel packing ring is
bounded by ne screens and is fortied by steel bars. Gravel
packing makes the owin the pool as free of disturbances as pos-
sible (Fig. 7). For the similar experimental set-up and the re-
search, Jain et al.(1978) and Jain (1977) have used sufcient
number of vanes (64 vanes) to generate uniform and
axisymmetric circulation in the approach ow. In this study 60
guide vanes (each being 15 cmwide 95 cmhigh made from3 mm
thick steel sheet) are used and assumed to be sufcient. Acircular
Plexiglas plate (5 mm thick and diameter of 1.90 m) is tightly
fastened to the concrete oor slab at several points by means of
screws. The Plexiglas plate has an opening of diameter of 10 cm
at its center for the free passage of the intake pipe. Acircular ring
line of diameter of 182.5 cm and 60 radial lines (one for each
vane, with uniform interval angle of 6
o
) are drawn. Each vane is
pinned at its top and bottom. Both the top and the bottompins are
welded to the vanes at their vertical center lines. At the intersec-
tion points of the circular ring line and the radial lines, 60 holes
are opened for the free passage of the bottom pins of the vanes.
At the top, 60 L-shaped sufciently long steel sheet holders are
radially welded to the tanks upper edge with a uniform interval
(Fig. 7). These L-shaped steel holders are also welded to a care-
fully placed concentric circular ring (diameter of 190 cm) of steel
solid rod of diameter of 24 mm in order to secure their positions
so that the holes in the Plexiglas bottom plate and the slits in the
L-shaped steel holders are exactly in the same vertical. This is
necessary in order to keep the guide vanes in vertical plane when
their top and bottom pins are passed from L-shaped holders and
the bottom Plexiglas plate, respectively. The vanes are given a
angle and are xed in their positions by means of tightening two
nuts (in between the L-shaped holder passes) through which the
threaded top pin of the guide vane passes. The guide vanes can be
set at any desired . The procedure for the experiment is as fol-
lows. The intake pipe is connected to the outlet line with a
threadedcoupling. The ne adjustments for the desiredclearance,
c, are made by using the threaded coupling. After the intake
placed, the pit around the coupling is lled with water-resistant
plasticine to eliminate any leakage and level the Plexiglas oor.
The guide vanes are set at the desired angle, , with respect to the
radial direction. The tank is lled with water with submergence
much larger than the critical submergence. The pump is started
and the valve on the pump line opened and the discharge slowly
increased to a desired value. After waiting for a sufcient time for
ow conditions to become steady, observations are made over
one to two hours to determine whether a free-surface vortex de-
veloped. If noair-entrainment occurredduring this time, the valve
on the drain pipe (Fig. 7) was opened a small amount (i.e. sub-
mergence is decreased) when the water level in the tank reached
to desired level, the draining is stopped to keep the water level
constant. These steps are repeatedcarefullyuntil anair-entraining
vortex is developed. The air-core vortex tended to entrain air in-
termittently. When the air-entraining vortex is developed, the
measurements related to intake discharge Q
i
, and critical submer-
gence, S
c
are made. In normal case (without any vane) the rota-
tion direction of the air-entraining vortex is in clockwise direc-
tion. This experiment is conducted for all intakes with clearances
of c/D
i
= 0, 1,2, 5, 7.5 and 10 and guide vane setting angles =
0
o
, 5
o
, 10
o
, 20
o
, 30
o
, 45
o
, 60
o
and 80
o
. More details are given in
the study of Kocabas (1999). After nishing experiments with
angles giving rotation in the same direction as the rotation direc-
tion of the vortex in normal case (clockwise), the same experi-
ments are also repeated by setting angles giving rotation oppo-
site to rotation direction of the vortex in normal case. In all exper-
iments, the distances of side walls to the center point of the intake
are much larger than S
c
. Therefore, the side walls have no block-
age effect on the critical submergence. But, in the cases of S
c
>c,
the bottom has a blockage effect. In the case of S
c
<c (the block-
age effect of the bottom oor is not present) the blockage of the
intake pipe exists. Yldrm and Kocabas (2000) have shown that
for an intake pipe that has small wall thickness, the blockage ef-
fect of the intake pipe is negligible in practice. The CSSS has a
radius of S
c
. Hence, in this study, only the blockage of the bottom
is present and the following can be written.
From eqs.(1) and (19)
For c S
c
, the CSSS is a complete sphere. In this case c is set equal
to S
c
in eqs.(19) and (20). Considering eqs.(1), (19) and (20), the
experimental results are presented in Figs. 8, 9, 10 and 11. Fig. 8
shows the relation between Q
i
and A
c
when the circulation is im-
posed in the same direction as the normal rotation direction of the
vortex. Fig. 9 shows the relation between Q
i
and A
c
when the cir-
culation is imposed in the opposite direction of the normal rota-
tion direction of the vortex. Similarly, Fig. 10 and Fig. 11 show
the variation of S
c
/D
i
with the intake Froude number F =
V
i
/(gD
i
)
0.5
in which g is the gravity acceleration of Earth. The
change of S
c
/D
i
with for a given c/D
i
(i.e. c/D
i
= 1) is presented
in Fig. 12. This gure is obtained by choosing S
c
/D
i
and corre-
sponding F values on the tted curves for the data of c/D
i
= 1 in
Fig. 8. Fig. 12 indicates that the relation between S
c
/D
i
and may
be approximated as linear up to about = 60

. For values larger

than 60, the relation between S
c
/D
i
and is tending to be a very
fast increasing curve which is asymptotic to the vertical line pass-
ing from = 90

in Fig. 12. S
c
/D
i
is extremely sensitive and takes
very large values for >70. In fact, during the experiments, this
sensitivity of S
c
is observed by the writers. Eqs.(11), (17), (18)
and (1) indicate that S
c
must be very sensitive to large values of
(i.e. >70

) and be asymptotic to = 90

line in Fig. 12. To con-

duct experiments for >80

and large F values, one needs a tank

much deeper and larger than the one used in this study.
Figs. 8 and 9 indicate that the relation between Q
i
and the area of
CSSS, A
c
, may be described by a linear relation. The value of V
s
should be equal to the slope of the linear line in Figs. 8 and 9. The
variation of V
s
(Figs. 8 and 9) with is presented in Fig. 13
748 JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC RESEARCH, VOL. 40, 2002, NO. 6
Fig. 8.Relationship Between Q
i
and A
c
, Circulation Imposed in the Same Direction as the Normal Rotation Direction of the Vortex.
which shows that as increases V
s
decreases and S
c
increases
[eq.(1)]. Notice that in Fig. 13, in the case of = 0, the vanes are
radial and produces radial ow. In order to see the difference be-
tween the cases with and without the vanes, experiments are also
conducted for the case of no-vanes. When the guide vanes are not
present, the vortex is an unsteady vortex for which values of V
s
= V
so
are found to be (by following the same procedure as above)
about 6.2x10
-3
m/s, 7.3x10
-3
m/s, and 8.8x10
-3
m/s, for c/D
i
= 0,2
and 5 respectively for the intake-pipe D
i
= 5.32 cm. If these ve-
locities are compared with the velocities (for same c/D
i
and ow
condition) in Fig. 13(a), it is seen that, for a given owand geom-
etry, there is a certain value of =
c
which causes the same
V
s
=V
so
(hence same S
c
) as in the case of no-vanes (unsteady vor-
tex). In other words, for a given ow and geometry, the value of
circulation in the case of the unsteady vortex, is the same as that
introduced by the vanes set with =
c
. For example; for c/D
i
=
0,2 and 5 [considering the corresponding velocities just men-
tioned above and Fig. 13(a)], =
c
10. For <
c
, the guide
vanes cause V
s
>V
so
and smaller S
c
in comparison to the case of
no-vanes. For >
c
, the guide vanes cause V
s
< V
so
and larger S
c
in comparison to S
c
in the case of no-vanes. The critical submer-
gence attains its minimum value when the vane setting angle is
zero (vanes are set radially) since V
s
gains its maximum value
[see Fig. 13(a) and eq.(1)]. Figs. 8, 9, 10 and 11 showthat it does-
JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC RESEARCH, VOL. 40, 2002, NO. 6 749
Fig. 9. Relationship Between Q
i
and A
c
, Circulation Imposed in the
Opposite Direction of the Normal Rotation Direction of the
Vortex.
Fig. 10. Variation of Critical Submergence for an Intake Pipe in Still-
Water (Circulation Imposed in the Same Direction as the Nor-
mal Rotation Direction of the Vortex).
Fig. 11. Variation of Critical Submergence for an Intake Pipe in Still-
Water (Circulation Imposed in the Opposite Direction of the
Normal Rotation Direction of the Vortex).
nt matter whether or not the guide vanes are set to produce circu-
lation in the same direction as the direction of the normal vortex.
Same result is also reached in the study of Jain et al.(1978). As it
is seen from eqs.(11), (13), (16), (17), (18) and (1) when ap-
proaches 90
o
, becomes extremely large and V
s
approaches to
zero (Fig. 13) for which S
c
becomes innitely large [eq.(1)]. In
such a case, a small amount of suction is sufcient to cause an
extremely large S
c
[eq.(1)]. This is the case for a tornado (a par-
ent cloudy air mass is rotated by another air-jet streams in the
atmosphere). Since the air-core vortex is the result of vacuuming
action developed inside the CSSS caused by the intake ow or
imposed circulation, it is possible that, the air-core vortex (also
the destructive core of the tornado) can be eliminated by import-
ing (injecting) sufciently large amount of ow (at least equal to
the suction ow) from the far region outside the CSSS into the
CSSS (preferably close and above its center). This can be
achieved by means of different methods, i.e. by a pumped-pipe
line or a source releasing sufcient amount of gas close to the
center etc.. In the case of a tornado, S
c
is equal to the height of
the parent cloud with respect to the ground surface.
Comparison of experimental results
The experimental set-up used in this study is similar to that of
Jain (1977) and Jain et al.(1978). The experimental results of Jain
(1977) are obtained from K.G.Ranga Raju of the University of
Roorkee, India. In order to examine the effects of owconditions
and geometry on S
c
, the experimental results of this study and
that of Jain [(1977), Figs. 5.10, 5.14 and 5.16] are used. In the
experiments of Jain (1977), the tank (large tank) diameter and D
g
are 187 cm and 107 cm, respectively. In this study, the tank dia-
meter and D
g
are 250 cm and 175 cm, accordingly. Jain (1977)
750 JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC RESEARCH, VOL. 40, 2002, NO. 6
Fig. 12. Variation of S
c
/D
i
with
Fig. 13. Variation of V
s
With Vane Angle . a) Circulation Imposed in
the Same Direction as the Normal Rotation Direction of the
Vortex. b) Circulation Imposed in the Opposite Direction of the
Normal Rotation Direction of the Vortex.
has conducted experiments for c/D
i
= 0 only. Therefore, the ex-
perimental results of this study for c/D
i
= 0 are compared with his
results in Figs. 14, 15 and 16. Not to make the previous gures
extremely crowded, the comparison is done in these gures. In
Figs. 14, 15 and 16, it is seen that there are differences in the ex-
perimental results of Jain (1977). Also, there are differences be-
tween the experimental results of this study and that of Jain
(1977). These differences are due to different geometry and ow
conditions. The variation of S
c
/D
i
with for F = 1.75 is also pre-
sented in Fig. 12 as an example from the experimental results of
Jain [(1977), Fig. 5.10, D
i
= 7.46 cm, c = 0]. Figs. 14, 15 and 16
showthat thereis considerabledifferencebetweentheexperimen-
tal results related to intake pipes that have same diameter (D
i
= 5
cm 5.32 cm) which are used in this study and in the study of
Jain (1977). This indicates that for each owcondition and geom-
etry, the occurrence of the air-core vortex and the critical submer-
gence have to be determined as a case study. There can not be one
single general graph for the prediction of S
c
/D
i
and other charac-
teristics of the air-core vortex.
Conclusions
The following conclusions are derived from this study.
Theory and experiments have indicated that as the circulation
or guide vane setting angle increases, V
s
decreases and S
c
increases. The critical submergence and occurrence of the air-
core vortex is very sensitive to the circulation imposed on the
ow.
The relation between S
c
/D
i
and may be approximated as lin-
ear up to about = 60

. For values larger than 60, the rela-

tion between S
c
/D
i
and is a very fast increasing curve which
is asymptotic to the vertical line passing from = 90

(Fig. 12).
For a given ow and geometry, the vane setting angle has a
certain value of =
c
which causes the same V
s
= V
so
and S
c
as in the case of no-vanes. In case of <
c
, the guide vanes
cause V
s
to increase (V
s
>V
so
) and S
c
to decrease and for >
c
,
the guide vanes cause V
s
to decrease (V
s
< V
so
) and S
c
to in-
crease in comparison to that of no-vanes. The critical submer-
gence attains its minimum value when the vane setting angle
is zero (vanes are set radially).
Flow visualization for an intake pipe in a still-water reservoir
has indicated that when the intake has the character of a point
sink, a spherical volume of uid bounded by a stream surface
of a sphere (SSS) develops in the ow eld. This spherical
volume, hence SSS, shrinks radially and rotates about its verti-
cal axis The air-entraining vortex occurs as the SSS collapses.
JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC RESEARCH, VOL. 40, 2002, NO. 6 751
Fig. 14. Variation of Q
i
with A
c
[Comparison of Experimental Results
of This Study and That of Jain (1977)].
Fig. 15. Variation of S
c
/D
i
with F for c/D
i
= 0 [Comparison of Experi-
mental Results of This Study and That of Jain (1977)].
Fig. 16. Variation of V
s
with for c/D
i
= 0 [Comparison of Experimen-
tal Results of This Study and That of Jain (1977)].
The collapsing of SSS is very similar to that of a cavitation
bubble. The SSS is a useful concept for the physical explana-
tion of occurrence of the air-entraining vortex.
The occurrence of air-core vortex and the critical submergence
highly depends on the ow conditions and geometry. For each
ow condition and geometry the critical submergence has to
be determined as a case study.
Acknowledgements
The writers thank Prof. K.G.Ranga Raju of the University of
Roorkee-India, fromwhomthe writers obtained the experimental
results of Jain (1977) by private communication on April 19,
1996.
Ufuk Turhan and Demir Do gan are also thanked for taking the
photograph given in Fig. 4.
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Notations
The following symbols are used in this paper:
A
c
total net working surface area of the CSSS
a
r
centrifugal acceleration
a
s
component of a
r
in radial direction (outwards)
c clearance (vertical distance of the intake to bottomof canal)
D
i
internal diameter of intake pipe
D
g
diameter of guide vane ring assembly
e thickness of a vane sheet
g gravity acceleration of Earth
F intake Froude number = V
i
/(gD
i
)
0.5
n number of vanes
Q
i
intake discharge = V
i
D
i
2
/4
r radial distance
S submergence of the intake (also radius of SSS)
S
c
critical submergence (critical value of S)
t time
volume of a sphere
V
i
average intake velocity
V
r
total radial velocity
V
s
the net total critical radial velocity at CSSS (net total shrink-
age velocity of CSSS)
V
s
*
radial velocity at SSS (radial shrinkage velocity of SSS)
V
s0
value of V
s
when no circulation is imposed on the ow
V
s
radial outward velocity due to circulation imposed on the
ow
V

tangential velocity
V
g
tangential velocity at a radius of D
g
/2
the angle between horizontal axis and radial direction corre-
sponding to point P
circulation

g
circulation generated by the guide vanes
angle of vane setting measured from radial direction