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ABSTRACT
This paper is an answer to the question: "What is unique and conceptually different about mobile computing?" The paper begins by describing about a special and latest technology intrinsic to mobile computing, and examining the impact of these technology on this rapid expanding world. This new and latest technology is nothing but GPS(Global Positioning System) Our ancestors had to go to pretty extreme measures to keep from getting lost. They erected monumental landmarks, laboriously drafted detailed maps and learned to read the stars in the night sky

Things are much, much easier today. For less than $100, you can get a pocket-sized gadget that will tell you exactly where you are on Earth at any moment. As long as you have a GPS receiver and a clear view of the sky, you'll never be lost again. In this paper, we'll find out how these handy guides pull off this amazing trick. As we'll see, the Global Positioning System is vast, expensive and involves a lot of technical ingenuity, but the fundamental concepts at work are quite simple and intuitive.

INTRODUCTION

Have you ever been lost and wished there was an easy way to find out which way you need to go? Ever find that perfect fishing or hunting spot and been able to remember how to get back to it easily? How about finding yourself out hiking and not known which direction you should go to get back to your camp or car? Ever been flying along and needed to locate the nearest airport or identify the type of airspace you were in? May be you have faced with the fact that its time to pullover and ask somebody for direction. The Global Positioning System (GPS) was designed to show your exact position on the Earth anytime, in any weather, anywhere. It is the most advanced system of navigation. There are three components to GPS: the

space component, the control component, and the user component. The space component consists of 24 satellites that emit high-frequency radio waves. Each satellite has its own orbit 11,000 nautical miles (1 nm = 6080ft.) above the Earth. There are also five ground stations located around the world that make up the control component. They track and monitor the GPS satellites. The user component is the GPS receivers like the ones you will be using today. A receiver detects, decodes, and processes GPS satellite signals.

What is GPS?
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a location system based on a constellation of about 24 satellites orbiting the earth at altitudes of approximately 11,000 miles. GPS was developed by the United States Department of Defense (DOD), for its tremendous application as a military locating utility. The DOD's investment in GPS is immense. Billions and billions of dollars have been invested in creating this technology for military uses. However, over the past several years, GPS has proven to be a useful tool in non-military mapping applications as well. GPS satellites are orbited high enough to avoid the problems associated with land based systems, yet can provide accurate positioning 24 hours a day, anywhere in the world. Uncorrected positions determined from GPS satellite signals produce accuracies in the range of 50 to 100 meters. When using a technique called differential correction, users can get positions accurate to within 5 meters or less.

Today, many industries are leveraging off the DOD's massive undertaking. As GPS units are becoming smaller and less expensive, there are an expanding number of applications for GPS. In transportation applications, GPS assists pilots and drivers in pinpointing their locations and avoiding collisions. Farmers can use GPS to guide equipment and control accurate distribution of fertilizers and other chemicals. Recreationally, GPS is used for providing accurate locations and as a navigation tool for hikers, hunters and boaters. Many would argue that GPS has found its greatest utility in the field of Geographic Information Systems (GIS). With some consideration for error, GPS can provide any point on earth with a unique address (its precise location). A GIS is basically a descriptive database of the earth (or a specific part of the earth). GPS tells you that you are at point X,Y,Z while GIS tells you that X,Y,Z is an oak tree, or a spot in a stream with a pH level of 5.4. GPS tells us the "where". GIS tells us the "what". GPS/GIS is reshaping the way we locate, organize, analyze and map our resources.

Trilateration - How GPS Determines a Location


In a nutshell, GPS is based on satellite ranging - calculating the distances between the receiver and the position of 3 or more satellites (4 or more if elevation is desired) and then applying some good old mathematics. Assuming the positions of the satellites are known, the location of the receiver can be calculated by determining the distance from each of the satellites to the receiver. GPS takes these 3 or more known references and measured distances and "triangulates" an additional position. As an example, assume that I have asked you to find me at a stationary position based upon a few clues which I am willing to give you. First, I tell you that I am exactly 10 miles away from your house. You would know I am somewhere on the perimeter of a sphere that has an origin as your house and a radius of 10 miles. With this information alone, you would have a difficult time to find me since there are an infinite number of locations on the perimeter of that sphere.

Second, I tell you that I am also exactly 12 miles away from the ABC Grocery Store. Now you can define a second sphere with its origin at the store and a radius of 12 miles. You know that I am located somewhere in the space where the perimeters of these two spheres intersect - but there are still many possibilities to define my location. Adding additional spheres will further reduce the number of possible locations. In fact, a third origin and distance (I tell you am 8 miles away from the City Clock) narrows my position down to just 2 points. By adding one more sphere, you can pinpoint my exact location. Actually, the 4th sphere may not be necessary. One of the possibilities may not make sense, and therefore can be eliminated. For example, if you know I am above sea level, you can reject a point that has negative elevation. Mathematics and computers allow us to determine the correct point with only 3 satellites

How the Current Locations of GPS Satellites are Determined


GPS satellites are orbiting the Earth at an altitude of 11,000 miles. The DOD can predict the paths of the satellites vs. time with great accuracy. Furthermore, the satellites can be periodically adjusted by huge land-based radar systems. Therefore, the orbits, and thus the locations of the satellites, are known in advance. Today's GPS receivers store this orbit information for all of the GPS satellites in what is known as an almanac. Think of the almanac as a "bus schedule" advising you of where each satellite will be at a particular time. Each GPS satellite continually broadcasts the almanac. Your GPS receiver will automatically collect this information and store it for future reference. The Department of Defense constantly monitors the orbit of the satellites looking for deviations from predicted values. Any deviations (caused by natural atmospheric phenomenon such as gravity), are known as ephemeris

errors. When ephemeris errors are determined to exist for a satellite, the errors are sent back up to that satellite, which in turn broadcasts the errors as part of the standard message, supplying this information to the GPS receivers. By using the information from the almanac in conjunction with the ephemeris error data, the position of a GPS satellite can be very precisely determined for a given time.

Computing the Distance Between Your Position and the GPS Satellites
GPS determines distance between a GPS satellite and a GPS receiver by measuring the amount of time it takes a radio signal (the GPS signal) to travel from the satellite to the receiver. Radio waves travel at the speed of light, which is about 186,000 miles per second. So, if the amount of time it takes for the signal to travel from the satellite to the receiver is known, the distance from the satellite to the receiver (distance = speed x time) can be determined. If the exact time when the signal was transmitted and the exact time when it was received are known, the signal's travel time can be determined. In order to do this, the satellites and the receivers use very accurate clocks which are synchronized so that they generate the same code at exactly the same time. The code received from the satellite can be compared with the code generated by the receiver. By comparing the codes, the time difference between when the satellite generated the code and when the receiver generated the code can be determined. This interval is the travel time of the code. Multiplying this travel time, in seconds, by 186,000 miles per second gives the distance from the receiver position to the satellite in miles.

Satellites to give a 3D position


In the previous example, you saw that it took only 3 measurements to "triangulate" a 3D position. However, GPS needs a 4th satellite to provide a 3D position. Why??

Three measurements can be used to locate a point, assuming the GPS receiver and satellite clocks are precisely and continually synchronized, thereby allowing the distance calculations to be accurately determined. Unfortunately, it is impossible to synchronize these two clocks, since the clocks in GPS receivers are not as accurate as the very precise and expensive atomic clocks in the satellites. The GPS signals travel from the satellite to the receiver very fast, so if the two clocks are off by only a small fraction, the determined position data may be considerably distorted. The atomic clocks aboard the satellites maintain their time to a very high degree of accuracy. However, there will always be a slight variation in clock rates from satellite to satellite. Close monitoring of the clock of each satellite from the ground permits the control station to insert a message in the signal of each satellite which precisely describes the drift rate of that satellite's clock. The insertion of the drift rate effectively synchronizes all of the GPS satellite clocks. The same procedure cannot be applied to the clock in a GPS receiver. Therefore, a fourth variable (in addition to x, y and z), time, must be determined in order to calculate a precise location. Mathematically, to solve for four unknowns (x,y,z, and t), there must be four equations. In determining GPS positions, the four equations are represented by signals from four different satellites. The clocks on the satellites are also affected by both special and general relativity, which causes them to run at a slightly faster rate than do clocks on the Earth's surface. This amounts to a discrepancy of around 38 microseconds per day, which is corrected by electronics on each satellite. This offset is a dramatic proof of the special theory of relativity in a real-world system, as it is exactly that predicted by the theory, within the limits of accuracy of measurement.

Sources of GPS measurement errors


Ideally, GPS receivers would easily be able to convert the C/A and P(Y)code measurements into accurate positions. However, a system with such complexity leaves many openings for errors to affect the measurements. The following are several causes of error in GPS measurements.
Clocks

Both GPS satellites and receivers are prone to timing errors. Ground stations throughout the world monitor the satellites to ensure that their atomic clocks are kept synchronized. Receiver clock errors depend upon the oscillator provided within the unit. However, they can be calculated and then eliminated once the receiver is tracking at least four satellites.
Ionosphere

The Ionosphere is one of the leading causes of GPS error. The speed of light varies due to atmospheric conditions. As a result, errors greater than 10 meters may arise. To compensate for these errors, the second frequency band L2 was provided. By comparing the phase difference between the L1 and L2 signals, the error caused by the ionosphere can be calculated and eliminated.
Multipath

The antenna receives not only direct GPS signals, but also multipath signals: reflections of the radio signals off the ground and/or surrounding structures (buildings, canyon walls, etc). For long delay multipath signals, the receiver itself can filter the signals out. A variety of receiver techniques, most notably Narrow Correlator spacing , have been developed to mitigate multipath error contributions to pseudorange measurements. For shorter delay multipath signals that result from reflections from the ground, special antenna features may be used such as a ground plane, or a choke ring antenna. Shorter multipath signals from ground reflections can often be very close to the direct signals, and can greatly reduce precision.
GPS Jamming

A large part of modern munitions, the so-called "smart bombs" or precisionguided munitions , use GPS. GPS jammers are available, from Russia , and are about the size of a cigarette box. The U.S. governmen believes that such jammers were used occasionally during the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan . Some officials believe that jammers could be used to attract the precision-guided munitions towards noncombatant infrastructure, other officials believe that the jammers are completely ineffective. In either case, the jammers are attractive targets for anti-radiation missiles.

The U.S. Air Force conducted GPS jamming exercises in 2003. A detailed description of how to build a GPS jammer was posted on a hackers' site by an anonymous author. And there has been at least one welldocumented case of unintentional jamming; if similar, but stronger, signals were generated on purpose, they could interfere with aviation GPS receivers at a range of 50 km. According to the reference below, "IFR pilots should have a fallback plan in case of a GPS malfunction". Techniques to improve GPS accuracy The accuracy of GPS can be improved in a number of ways:

Differential GPS (DGPS) can improve the normal GPS accuracy of 4-20 meters to 1-3 meters.[3] DGPS uses a network of stationary GPS receivers to calculate the difference between their actual known position and the position as reported by the GPS signal. The "difference" is broadcast as a local FM signal, allowing many civilian GPS receivers to "fix" the signal for greatly improved accuracy. The Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS). This uses a series of ground reference stations to calculate GPS correction messages, which are uploaded to a series of additional satellites in geosynchronous orbit for transmission to GPS receivers, including information on ionospheric delays, individual satellite clock drift, and suchlike. Although only a few WAAS satellites are currently available as of 2004, it is hoped that eventually WAAS will provide sufficient reliability and accuracy that it can be used for critical applications such as GPS-based instrument approaches in aviation (landing an airplane in conditions of little or no visibility). The current WAAS system only works for North America (where the reference stations are located), and due to the satellite location the system is only generally usable in the eastern and western coastal regions. However, variants of the WAAS system are being developed in Europe (EGNOS, the Euro Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service), and Japan (MSAS, the MultiFunctional Satellite Augmentation System), which are virtually identical to WAAS. A Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS). This is similar to WAAS, in that similar correction data are used. But in this case, the correction data are transmitted from a local source, typically at an airport or another location where accurate positioning is needed. These correction data are typically useful for only about a thirty to fifty kilometre radius around the transmitter.

Exploitation of DGPS for Guidance Enhancement (EDGE) is an effort to integrate DGPS into precision guided munitions such as the Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM). A Carrier-Phase Enhancement (CPGPS). This technique utilizes the 1.575 GHz L1 carrier wave to act as a sort of clock signal, resolving ambiguity caused by variations in the location of the pulse transition (logic 1-0 or 0-1) of the C/A PRN signal. The problem arises from the fact that the transition from 0-1 or 1-0 on the C/A signal is not instantaneous, it takes a non-zero amount of time, and thus the correlation (satellite-receiver sequence matching) operation is imperfect. A successful correlation could be defined in a number of various places along the rising/falling edge of the pulse, which imparts timing errors. CPGPS solves this problem by using the L1 carrier, which has a period 1/1000 that of the C/A bit width, to define the transition point instead. The phase difference error in the normal GPS amounts to a 2-3 m ambiguity. CPGPS working to within 1% of perfect transition matching can achieve 3 mm ambiguity; in reality, CPGPS coupled with DGPS normally realizes 20-30 cm accuracy. Wide Area GPS Enhancement (WAGE) is an attempt to improve GPS accuracy by providing more accurate satellite clock and ephemeris (orbital) data to specially-equipped receivers. Relative Kinematic Positioning (RKP) is another approach for a precise GPS-based positioning system. In this approach, accurate determination of range signal can be resolved to an accuracy of less than 10 centimetres. This is done by resolving the number of cycles in which the signal is transmitted and received by the receiver. This can be accomplished by using a combination of differential GPS (DGPS) correction data, transmitting GPS signal phase information and ambiguity resolution techniques via statistical testspossibly with processing in real-time (realtime kinematic positioning, RTK). Many automobile GPS systems combine the GPS unit with a gyroscope and speedometer pickup, allowing the computer to maintain a continuous navigation solution by dead reckoning when buildings, terrain, or tunnels block the satellite signals. This is similar in principle to the combination of GPS and inertial navigation used in ships and aircraft, but less accurate and less expensive because it only fills in for short periods.

System reliability
The GPS signal is more fragile than might be supposed. A network of at least 24 satellites is required for full coverage. Satellites cannot be repaired and have a limited life. As of 2005: there are 28 satellites in orbit, of which 16 are already beyond their design lifethe oldest have nearly reached twice their design life. The failure rate is about two satellites per year. The launch rate of new satellites is about two per year

Applications

Military
The primary military purposes are to allow improved command and control of forces through improved locational awareness, and to facilitate accurate targeting of smart bombs, cruise missiles, or other munitions. The satellites also carry nuclear detonation detectors, which form a major portion of the United States Nuclear Detonation Detection System.

Civilian Navigation
GPS can be used in taxis for location or as a map.It is a good example of using GPS in daily life.

Even fixed systems may use GPS, in order to get precise time. This antenna is mounted on the roof of a hut containing a scientific experiment needing precise timing.

Magellan GPS receiver in a marine application. The system is used by countless civilians as well, who can use the GPS's Standard Positioning Service worldwide free of charge. Low cost GPS receivers(price $100 to $200) are widely available, often combined in a bundle with a PDA, car computer, or vehicle tracking system. The system is used as a navigation aid in airplanes, ships and cars. The system can be used by computer controlled harvesters, mine trucks and other vehicles. Hand held devices are used by mountain climbers and hikers. Glider pilots use the logged signal to verify their arrival at turnpoints in competitions. More costly and precise receivers are used by land surveyors to locate boundaries, structures, and survey markers. Commercial use can be land measurement, navigation and road construction.

Precise Time Reference


Many synchronization systems use GPS as a source of accurate time, hence one of the most common applications of this use is that of GPS as a reference clock for time code generators or NTP clocks. For instance, when deploying sensors (for seismology or other monitoring application), GPS may be used to provide each recording apparatus with some precise time source, so that the time of events may be recorded accurately.

GPS for the visually impaired

There have been many attempts at integrating Global Positioning System into a navigation-assistance system for the blind. GPS was introduced in the late 1980s and since then there have been several research projects such as MoBIC, Drishti, and Brunel Navigation System for the Blind, NOPPA, BrailleNote GPS and Trekker

Geocaching
The availability of hand-held GPS receivers for a cost of about $90 and up (March 2005) has led to recreational applications including the popular activity Geocaching, in which a GPS unit is used to search for objects deliberately hidden in nature, by traveling to the GPS coordinates. Geocaching is popular with both children and adults.

GPS tracking
A GPS tracking system uses either GPS and some radio technology to automatically track and record a vehicle's, person's, or pet's field activities. Position is determined using GPS and recorded by modules attached to each vehicle. The data can be transmitted back to a variety of locations, or to a central, internet-connected computer, using radio communications such as a GSM/GPRS, CDMA, or iDEN or other cellular modem, or 2-way radio or satellite. The data can then be analyzed and reports can be downloaded in real-time using either web browser based tools or customized software.

GPS on airplanes
Most airlines allow private use of ordinary GPS units on their flights, except during landing and take-off, like all other electronic devices. Portable GPS units do not transmit radio signals like mobile phones; however there is some concern that the local oscillator, used to match the GPS frequency to the internal receiver could cause interference to communications equipment on the aircraft. This is a concern, as stray emissions from GPS units in the aircraft are electronically shielded to prevent the energy from the oscillator from leaking into the equipment. Additionally, some airline companies

disallow use of hand-held receivers for security reasons, such as unwillingness to let ordinary passengers track the flight route. On the other extreme, some airlines integrate GPS tracking of the aircraft into their aircraft's seat-back television entertainment systems, available even during takeoff and landing to all passengers.

CONCLUSION
GPS technology affords society the ability to find ones location and gives assistance in finding ones way. It allows parents and caregivers the ability to keep watch over loved ones. It saves lives. However, as with any new technology, GPS comes with a cost other than that which is listed on

the price tag. Erosion to societal privacy rights and values is one such cost. Arming a would-be stalker with the ability to secretly watch and plot against their target is another. Erosion of constitutional rights is yet another. The good news is that these costs may be recovered and prevented in the future given education, a citizenry unwilling to surrender its ideals and, possible, appropriate legislation.

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