Mughal Architecture

in India

PROJECT ON

MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE IN INDIA

Submitted by KAPADIA ZEAL (22) POTDAR NAMITA (38)

MOOLUR TANVI (31)

Under the guidance of Ms. Shaikh Afzal

(Professor)

Class: F.Y.B.M.M

Date: 14th August, 2006

Palanjji Sadan, Munshi Nagar, Andheri (west). Mumbai: 400 058

Bhartiya Vidhya Bhavans College

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to express our deep gratitude towards all the people who have helped us in our project. We take the opportunity to thank our respected Principal, Dr.V.Kattchi, our co-ordinator, Miss. Rumina Rai and Ms.Shaikh Afzal, for showing confidence in us and assigning such a challenging project. We are indeed thankful to them for their valuable guidance, help, encouragement and time to time assistance during the progress of the project work. Our special thanks to our Prof.Ms.Shaikh Afzal, for her expert advice and practical knowledge for our project work. Last but not the least, we cannot forget the assistance, rendered to us, by the other staff members of our institution and also our parents, who have directly indirectly, helped us in our project work

KAPADIA ZEAL POTDAR NAMITA MOOLUR TANVI

CONTENTS
Introduction Evolution Of Architecture n India Introduction to Mughal Architecture Buildings & Architecture- An Overview
Delhi -

Qutub Minar Complex Red Fort Humayuns Tomb Jama Masjid

Agra

Agra fort Taj Mahal

Fatehpur Sikri

Important Buildings Lessons from the past Conclusion

INTRODUCTION

erhaps no branch of human culture reflects with greater exactitude the progress or decadence of man than architecture. In the progress of architecture from the most primitive types of human habitation of magnificent temples and palaces, we can discover the ceaseless effort of man to express his social and religious environment and his attitude towards life. In the development of architecture, we can also detect the aesthetic taste, which actuated man to combine beauty with utility. The progress of Indian architecture from the primitive to the sophisticated was no exception to this historical process. One definition of a great civilization is the magnificence of its architectural legacy, and India is surely among the foremost. In ancient India, architecture was a huge part of its culture. It is one of the most interesting things about India, and probably one of the main reasons that most tourists come to India. Architecture and sculpture were used together on almost all structures. The country is dotted with the remains of ages gone by, many world famous like the Taj and Qutab Minar, and some still cloaked in obscurity, off the tourist circuit, waiting to be 'discovered', but architectural gems nevertheless. Sadly, because of invaders coming to the Indian lands many of its ancient temples were destroyed. Indian architecture is as diverse as its culture. The architecture of India offers a unique blend of Vedic/Hindu, Islamic, Jain, Buddhist and British architectural designs. Until the arrival of Islam, Vedic art and architecture was dominant in India. The rise of the Mughal Empire in the 16th century established Mughal architecture in northern Indian subcontinent. The colonization of India in the 19th century paved the way for the development of Anglo-Indian architecture while Portuguese and French architectural designs prevailed in their former colonies in India.Works of art and architecture produced on the Indian subcontinent are now divided among India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. With a past stretching back to 2500 B.C., there are innumerable examples to choose from. It is difficult to select truly representative monuments those that clearly typify the spirit of their age and/or usher in a new style. Equally, it is difficult to decide which ones to omit.

EVOLUTION OF ARCHITECTURE IN INDIA

Between 1856 and 1919, workers on the Lahore-Multan railway in India used a convenient supply of ancient kiln-dried bricks to provide a solid footing for their tracks. Unknown to anyone at the time, the bricks hundreds of thousands of themcame from Harappa, one of the world's oldest cities. In the 1920s archaeologists began work at Harappa and other sites in the Indus Valley, including the great city of Mohenjo-daro. The cities of the Indus Valley Civilization are the first surviving evidence of architecture/town planning in the sub-continent.

INTRODUCTION TO MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE

The Mughal Empire is arguably the greatest of the Indian empires. From 1527, with the victory of Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire and first of a dynastic succession of great princes, until 1707 and the death of the Aurangzeb, the Mughals unified the fragmented subcontinent of many Hindu clans and squabbling Muslim factions into a great nation. The power of the Mughals was so great that even after their downfall at the hands of the northern Hindu Rajputs, the Marathas and ultimately the British; their legacy has survived, particularly in the form of unparalleled architectural splendor.

The mix of Muslim and Hindu design on the Diwan-i-Am at the Agra Fort

BUILDING & ARCHITECTURE AN OVERVIEW

The Mughals built many forts, palaces, mosques, and tombs throughout their realm. These structures were as much functional as they were imperial symbols of wealth, power, and indomitability. Nothing is known about the inspired individuals directly responsible for the construction of the great Mughal monuments. At the time, design was an anonymous group effort, glory belonging to the purse that paid rather than the hands that carved. Thus no one individual was credited with the labor other than the emperor, and no emperor was ever content just to inherit the work of his predecessor, rather seeing fit to build more, sometimes using material salvaged from the former structures razed to make room for new. It was important for each new ruler to put a stamp on his own particular reign. Many people have thought Mughal architecture as little more than imported Muslim Persian design. While it is true that the Mughals were Muslim and that artisans certainly had to conform to certain Islamic strictures, it must also be remembered that the conquerors were new arrivals to a land with a long Hindu and Buddhist tradition and 300 hundred years of earlier Muslim influence. Locally hired craftsmen were not brought in to follow a particular plan but to help improvise a new one and add their unique abilities to it. And so, they were wont to rely on what they knew. Thus, local history and practice heavily influenced much of the design, which, neither Persian nor Hindu, can be considered as something uniquely Mughal. Touched with classically Muslim features (like the pointed arch) the buildings were nevertheless inspired by local design.

The Mughals were not shy about using their wealth for construction. Each of its greatest leaders wanted his own palace, a mosque built under his patronage, a glorious tomb prepared as a monument to his accomplishments, and so much more. Today, there are complex Mughal structures all over India and Pakistan. While the most enduring and impressive are clustered around Delhi and Agra, those located in provincial centers - Srinagar (Kashmir), Lahore (Pakistan), Allahabad and Ajmer - should not be forgotten. Our attention here will focus mostly on the structures in Delhi, Agra, and at Fatehpur Sikri.

DELHI
Delhi is a city of eight cities. Unlike many cities around the world, many conquering invaders in Delhi opted to build new cities next to the old one rather than destroy and rebuild on the same location. Thus, today, spread across a wide plain on the west bank of the Yamuna River, lies evidence of many cities. Although there were older settlements, the oldest city of which there are significant remains is that of Qutb-ud-din Aibak, first sultan of Delhi and former deputy of Muhammad of Ghur, the first Muslim conqueror to take Delhi (1192 AD). Qutb-ud-din's city incorporated two older 11th-century forts; the older of these, known as Lol Kot, was the first city of Delhi. Six more Muslim cities were established between the 12th and 19th centuries. Little more than a few buildings and squat ramparts remain of the first four of these cities - Siri, Tughlaqabad, Jahanpannah, and Ferozabad. The last two, Purana Qila and Shahjahanabad, built by the Mughal emperors Humayun and Shah Jahan, respectively, survive the latter corresponding to today's Old Delhi and comprising the famous Red Fort and the Jama Masjid. The last of Delhi's eight cities, inaugurated in 1931, is the extensive New Delhi, designed by the British to be in keeping with India's grandeur.

QUTUB MINAR

At 72.5 metres high, the Qutub Minar is the tallest brick minaret in the world.

One of the earliest Muslim monuments in India, it was erected (c.1230) by Iltutmish of the Delhi Sultanate. It is 240 ft (73 m) high, covered with relief work, and was probably built to celebrate a victory. The Qutb complex is an array of monuments and buildings at Mehrauli in Delhi, India, the most famous of which is the Qutub Minar. This complex was first constructed by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, the first ruler of the Slave Dynasty, and his successor Iltutmish (aka Altmash) in his new city called the Qila-RaiPithora near Prithivraj Chauhan's older city. The complex was added to by

many subsequent rulers, including Iltutmish and Ala-ud-din Khilji as well as the British. The most famous monument situated in the complex is the Qutub Minar; other important constructions in the complex are the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque, the Ala-I-Darwaza, the Alai Minar and the iron pillar. Qutub Minar is the tallest brick minaret in the world, and an important example of Indo-Islamic Architecture. The Qutub Minar is 72.5 metres (239 ft) high. The diameter of the base is 2.3 metres wide while the top floor measures 2.7 metres in diameter. It is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Inspired by the Minaret of Jam in Afghanistan and wishing to surpass it, Qutb-ud-din Aibak, the first Muslim ruler of Delhi, commenced construction of the Qutub Minar in 1193; but could only complete its basement. His successor, Iltutmish, added three more stories and, in 1368, Firuz Shah Tughluq constructed the fifth and the last storey. The developments of architectural styles from Aibak to Tuglak are quite evident in the minaret. The Qutub Mahal comprises several superposed flanged and cylindrical shafts, separated by balconies carried on Muqarnas corbels. The minaret is made of fluted red sandstone covered with intricate carvings and verses from the Qur'an. The Qutub Minar is itself built on the ruins of Lal Kot, the Red Citadel in the city of Dhillika, the capital of the Jat Tomars and the Chauhans, the last Hindu rulers of Delhi. The purpose for building this beautiful monument has been speculated upon, apart from the usual role of a minaret - that of calling people for prayer in a mosque- in this case it is the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque. Other reasons ascribed to its construction are as a tower of victory, a monument signifying the might of Islam, or a watch tower for defence. Controversy also surrounds the origins for the name of the tower. Many historians believe that the Qutub Minar was named after the first Turkish sultan, Qutb-ud-din Aibak but others contend that it was named in honour of Khwaja Qutb-ud-din Bakhtiar Kaki, a saint from Baghdad who came to live in India who was greatly venerated by Akhbar. Alai Minar

The incomplete Alai Minar.

Ala-ud-din Khilji started building the Alai Minar, which was conceived to be two times higher than Qutub Minar. The construction was abandoned, 8

however, after the completion of the 24.5 meter high first storey; soon after death of Ala-ud-din. The first story of the Alai Minar still stands today. Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque (Might of Islam) (also known as the Qutb Mosque or the Great Mosque of Delhi) was built by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, founder of the Mamluk or Slave dynasty. The mosque construction started in the 1190s when Aibak was the commander of Muhammad Ghori's garrison occupied Delhi. The mosque is said to be built by the parts taken by destruction of twenty-seven Hindu and Jain temples. It was the first mosque built in Delhi after the Islamic conquest of India. Expansion of the mosque continued after the death of Qutub. His successor Iltutmish extended the original prayer hall screen by three more arches. By the time of Iltutmish, the Mamluk empire had stablized enough that the Sultan could replace most of his conscripted Hindu masons with Muslims. This explains why the arches added under Iltutmish are stylistically more Islamic than the ones erected under Qutb's rule. The mosque is in ruins today but indigenous corbelled arches, floral motifs, and geometric patterns can be seen among the Islamic architectural structures. To the west of the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque is the tomb of Iltutmish which was built by the monarch in 1235. The construction of this mausoleum clearly represented a departure from the Hindu custom of cremating the dead. Ala-I-Darwaza The Ala-I-Darwaza is a magnificent gateway in the complex. The gateway was built by the first Khilji sultan of Delhi, Ala ud din Khilji. The gateway is decorated with inlaid marble decorations, latticed stone screens and showcases the remarkable craftsmanship of the Turkish artisans who worked on it. Iron pillar The iron pillar is one of the world's foremost metallurgical curiosities. The pillar, almost seven metres high and weighing more than 9

six tonnes, was erected by Kumara Gupta I of the Gupta dynasty that ruled northern India 320-540. Admired as a metallurgical achievement, the 98% wrought iron column has never rusted.It is the only piece of the Hindu temple remaining, which stood there before being destroyed by Qutb-uddin Aibak to build the Qutub Minar and Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque. Qutub built around it when he constructed the mosque. A fence was erected around the pillar due to the popularity of a tradition that it was considered good luck if you could stand with your back to the pillar and make your hands meet behind it. Inscriptions have survived the test of time on the iron pillar. Purana Qila Located at the eastern edge of Delhi on the banks of the Yamuna River, the ruins of Purana Qila are all that is left of the first of the Mughal Delhis. Construction commenced during the early years of Humayun's reign. When Sher Shah Sur defeated Humayun and forced him into exile, Sher Shah continued the work on Purana Qila. The two buildings that have survived to this day Sher Mandal and Qila-i-Kholina Masjid are both from Sher Shah's time, although Humayun used both structures when he reconquered the realm. The large mound in the center of this old fort is believed by some archaeologists to be the original site of Indraprastha, the first settlement along the Yamuna as described in the Mahabharata. In plan the Old fort, now simply called Purana Qila by Delhites, is irregularly orbital. The walls of the immense Qila tower down on the road that takes one to Pragati Maidan from the height of 18m, and run on for about 2km. It has three main gates the Humayun darwaza, Talaqi darwaza and Bara darwaza (which one uses to enter the fort today). The double-storeyed gates are quite huge and are built with red sandstone. Of all the gates entry was forbidden from Talaqi (forbidden) darwaza, the northern gate. It is not clear why this was so. Qila-i-kuhna Masjid One of the most fascinating buildings, and also one of the few that still survive, in the Purana Qila is the Qila-i-kuhna masjid. Sher Shah Suri built it in 1541 and he was obviously out to make a definite style statement. The mosque is quite a place; its prayer hall measures 51.20m by 14.90m and has five doorways with the 'true' horseshoe-shaped arches. Apparently the idea was the build the whole mosque in marble, but the supply ran out and red sandstone had to be used instead. But the builder used the materials at hand very skillfully and the result is quite 10

spectacular the red sandstone and the marble contrast beautifully with each other to give the mosque a very distinctive air. The mihrabs (prayer niches) inside the mosque are richly decorated with concentric arches. From the prayer hall, staircases lead you to the second storey where a narrow passage runs along the rectangular hall. The central alcove is topped by a beautifully worked dome. In the courtyard at one time there was a shallow tank, which had a fountain. The mosque has an inscription which says 'As long as there are people on this earth, may this edifice be frequented, and people be happy in it.' A noble thought amen to it. Why don't we know for sure whether ancient Indraprastha was located on the spot where the Purana Qila stands? There are several reasons for this. First of all, we are not sure whether the Mahabharata is purely a legend, or whether it is a legend based on events that actually happened. Secondly, even in some of the events and people mentioned in the story were real, the evidence from the excavations at the Purana Qila really doesn't tell us about these events or people. What is does tell us is that there was a very old settlement at or near the Purana Qila perhaps from about 1000 B.C. onwards. Here is a table showing the seven layers or periods identified by archaeologists at the Purana Qila. Different sorts of artifacts were found at the different levels. Remember that the older layers are found at the bottom of a site, and the upper layers are more recent. Think of these archaeological levels as different floors in a seven-storeyed building. As you travel in a lift from the ground floor to the seventh floor, you are traveling forward in time, from earlier to more recent periods. Period VII: 16th - 19th century Period VII: 13th - 15th century Period VI: 10th - 12th century Period V: 7th - 9th century Period IV: 4th - 6th century Period III: 1st - 3rd century A.D. Period II: 2nd - 1st century B.C. Period I: Northern Black Polished Ware level (4th / 3rd century B.C.) (Pieces of Painted Grey Ware pottery were found but the PGW level was not identified). In the sixteenth century, the Mughal king Humayun built his fort at this place. Today, we can see the fort, but the older history of this site is buried deep underground, invisible.

RED FORT
11

The Red Fort is a good example of Mughal military architecture. The tall ramparts, heavily fortified gateways, a moat surrounding the fort, etc., reflect the architectural skills of the Mughal rulers. The style of architecture followed in building the monuments within the periphery of this fort conforms to the Islamic style with liberal local influences. A good example of the Islamic style is the use of elaborate patterns and intricately carved marble screens (jali). Red Fort - A monument of India

12

Shahjahan, the fifth Mughal emperor and grandson of Akbar, moved the imperial capital back to Delhi from Lahore in 1638. Within eight years, Shahjahanabad was completed with the Red Fort-the then Quila-I-Mubarak (fortunate citadel)ready in all its magnificence to receive Shahjahan. However, Shahjahan could not enjoy his new city as his son Aurangzeb imprisoned him in the Agra Fort, where spent the rest of his life. Though much has changed now because of large-scale demolitions during the British occupation of the fort, its important structures have survived. The Red Fort gets its name from the use of red sandstone in its construction. It is situated on the western banks of the Yamuna (which has since changed its course). The walls of this fort extend for 2 km and vary in height. The height of the walls is 18 m on the riverside, while it is 33 m on the city side. At the Red Fort, an entire complex of buildings and reception rooms, cusped-domed roofs, dry waterways and gardens. The true luster has dulled but it is not difficult to see how magnificent this once was. The years have tarnished but not tainted. A pervasive odor of dust and smoke hovers just above the ground. The crumbling stone flakes red into my hands as I pull around a pillar, slide off a ledge. The fort has two important gateways-Lahori Gate and Delhi Gate. The Lahori Gate is the main entrance to the Red Fort. The gate faces the direction to Lahore (now in Pakistan), hence the name Lahori Gate. The gate forms a part of a massive stone fortification and is made up of dull pink sandstone. The grassy area above this massive gateway and below the tall ramparts of the fort is the place from where the prime minister of India addresses and leads the nation in celebrating the Independence Day.

Important Monuments within the Red Fort There are a number of important and interesting buildings within the Red Fort. As soon as one enters the Lahori Gate, one finds himself in a vaulted arcade-the Chatta Chowk-that is full of shops selling souvenirs and gift articles. During the time of the Mughals, the shopkeepers used to sell silk items, jewelry, and gold. This arcade of shops was then known as the 13

Meena Bazaar. The arcade leads to the Naubat Khana (drum house), where musicians played for the emperor and announced the arrival of the royalty and important dignitaries. Passing the Naubat Khana, one comes face to face with the Diwan-I-Aam (hall of public audience). It was in this flat-roof hall, having rows of cusped arches, that the emperor met his subjects. The emperor sat on a lavish marble-paneled throne set within an inlaid and painted alcove, built into the back wall of the hall. The throne was also studded with precious stones. A platform is located below the throne where the announcer read out royal farmans (royal edict) and list of gifts to be handed out to important people.

The Diwan-I-Aam served as a screen that protected the royal quarters behind it from the prying eyes of outsiders. The private quarters of the royalty consisted of a number of buildings. The Diwan-IKhas (hall of private audience), made out of white marble, is a luxurious chamber where the emperor held private meetings with important people or with other members of the royal family. The roof and walls of this hall were painted and decorated with inlay work (pietra dura). Though precious stones from the inlay work have gone, the original splendor remains. The floral patterns that are still there reflect the high degree of skill of the Mughal artisans. The centerpiece of this hall was the magnificent Peacock Throne. It is said that the throne was built out of solid gold and had figures of peacocks standing behind it. However, presently, one can only see the marble pedestal on which the throne used to rest. The other important feature of this hall was that it had a ceiling made out of silver. Inscribed on the walls of the Diwan-I-Khas is the famous Persian couplet: "Gar firdaus, ruhe zamin ast, hamin asto, hamin asto, hamin asto" (If there is a paradise on the face of the earth, it is here, it is here, it is here.).
Moti Masjid

Next to the Diwan-I-Khas are the hammams or royal baths; these consist of three rooms topped by domes, with a fountain in the center. These rooms have floors and walls made of marble and inlaid with precious stones. Near the hammams is a three-story octagonal structure called the Shahi Burj (royal tower), which was emperor Shahjahan's private working area. The waterworks from this tower on the northeastern part of the fort go to the Rang Mahal (palace of the chief queen) in the 14

south. To the west of the royal baths is the Moti Masjid (pearl mosque) built in AD 1659 by Aurangzeb (Shahjahan's son) for his personal use.

HUMAYUNS TOMB

Humayun's tomb is known as the first example of the monumental scale that would characterize subsequent Mughal imperial architecture. Commissioned, it is believed, by Humayun's senior widow, Haji Begam, or by her son Akbar, the tomb is the first to mark the grave of a Mughal emperor; Humayun's father Babur, who founded the dynasty, had requested out of piety that he be buried in a garden. Humayun's Tomb is now one of the best-preserved Mughal monuments in Delhi. The tomb design is attributed to Sayyid Muhammad and his father, Mirak Sayyid Ghiyath (Mirak Mirza Ghiyas), Persian architects and poets active in the Timurid and later the Mughal courts. The tomb is situated south of the Purana Qila, on the eastern edge of Delhi. It is set in the center of a garden in the classical Mughal char bagh pattern. A high wall surrounds the garden on three sides, the fourth side being bounded by what was once the bank of the river Jamna, which has since been diverted. The garden is divided into four parts by two bisecting water channels with paved walkways (khiyabans), which terminate at two gates: a main one in the southern wall, and a smaller one in the western wall. The tomb sits at the center of a plinth, about 21feet (7m) high. The top of its central dome reaches 140 feet from the ground. The dome is double-layered; the outer layer supports the white marble exterior facing, while the inner one defines the cavernous interior volume. The rest of the tomb is clad in red sandstone, with white marble ornamentation. A large iwan, a high arch, punctuates the center of each facade, and is set back slightly. 15

Together with the other arches and openings, this effect creates a varied and complex impression of depth at each facade. Detailed ornamentation in three colors of stone adds to the richness to the surfaces. The plan of the main tomb building is intricate. It is a square 'ninefold plan', where eight two-storyed vaulted chambers radiate from the central, doubleheight domed chamber. The chambers of each level are interconnected by straight and diagonal passages. In Humayun's tomb, each of the main chambers has in turn eight more, smaller chambers radiating from it. The symmetrical ground plan contains 124 vaulted chambers in all. The sarcophagus of Humayun is found in the central domed chamber, the head pointing south, and facing east according to Islamic practice. The vaulted chambers also contain sarcophagi that were added later. The sex of each occupant is marked by a simple carved symbol: a box of writing instruments indicates a male, and a writing slate indicates a female. The sarcophagi are not otherwise inscribed, but among them are known to be those containing the wives of Humayun, and several later Mughal emperors and princes. Although the architect of the tomb was 'imported' from Persia, it has been observed that the distinctly Indian aspects of the tomb, such as the Hindu chattris (domed pavilions) that surround the central dome, set Humayun's tomb firmly in the Indo-Islamic tradition that was already emerging at the time. Many of the tomb's basic elements, such as the octagonal plans and high iwans, are derived from earlier tombs built for Delhi sultans. The unprecedented scale and grandeur of the monument, however, are aspects that were to define much of subsequent Mughal tomb building, and are among the similarities commonly cited between Humayun's tomb and the Taj Mahal in Agra.

JAMA MASJID

16

The Masjid-i-Jahan Numa, commonly known as Jama Masjid of Delhi is the principal mosque of Old Delhi in India. Commissioned by the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan and completed in the year 1656 AD, it is the largest and best known mosque in India. (There are also Jama Masjids in many other cities with a history of Islamic rule, or large Muslim populations.) Shah Jahan built several important mosques in Delhi, Agra, Ajmer and Lahore. The Jama Masjid's floorplan is very similar to the Moti Masjid at Agra, but the Jama Masjid is the bigger and more imposing of the two. Its majesty is further enhanced because of the high ground that he selected for building this mosque. The courtyard of the mosque can be reached from the east, north and south by three flights of steps, all built of red sandstone. The northern gate of the mosque has 39 steps. The southern side of the mosque has 33 steps. The eastern gate of the mosque was the royal entrance and it has 35 steps. These steps used to house food stalls, shops and street entertainers. In the evening, the eastern side of the mosque used to be converted into a bazaar for poultry and birds in general.
The dome of Jama Masjid

The mosque faces west. Its three sides are covered with open arched colonnades, each having a lofty towerlike gateway in the centre. The mosque is about 261 feet (80 m) long and 90 feet (27 m) wide, and its roof is covered with three domes with alternate stripes of black and white marble, with its topmost parts covered with gold. Two lofty minarets, 130 feet (40 m) high, and containing 130 steps, longitudinally striped with white marble and red sandstone, flank the domes on either side. The minarets are divided by three projecting galleries and are surmounted by open twelve-sided domed pavilions. On the back of the mosque, there are four small minarets crowned like those in the front.
The Dome of Jama Masjid

Under the domes of the mosque, is a hall with seven arched entrances facing the west and the walls of the mosque, up to the height of the waist, are covered with marble. Beyond this is a prayer hall, which is about 61 meters 17

X 27.5 meters, with eleven arched entrances, of which the centre arch is wide and lofty, and in the form of a massive gateway, with slim minarets in each corner, with the usual octagonal pavilion surmounting it. Over these arched entrances there are tablets of white marble, four feet (1.2 m) long and 2.5 feet (760 mm) wide, inlaid with inscriptions in black marble. These inscriptions give the history of the building of the mosque, and glorify the reign and virtues of Shah Jahan. The slab over the centre arch contains simply the words "The Guide!" The mosque stands on a platform of about five feet (1.5 m) from the pavement of the terrace, and three flight of steps lead to the interior of the mosque from the east, north, and the south. The floor of the mosque is covered with white and black marble ornamented to imitate the Muslim prayer mat; a thin black marble border is marked for the worshippers, which is three feet long and 1 feet wide. In total there are 899 such spaces marked in the floor of the mosque. The back of the mosque is cased over to the height of the rock on which the mosque stands with large hewn stones.

AGRA
Agra was once the capital of India. For 80 years starting in 1570 when Akbar the Great transferred his court from Delhi to Agra's neighboring Fatehpur Sikri up until Aurangzeb moved it back to the new Red Fort of Delhi, Agra was the central site of imperial India. Typically, every emperor who set foot in this city saw fit to build there. Both Babur and Humayun had already undertaken some early projects there, but Akbar, Jahangir, and especially Shah Jahan raised fantastic structures at Agra, most notably the Agra Fort and, of course, the Taj Mahal.

18

AGRA FORT
This great monument of red sandstone dominating a bend in the river Yamuna, 2km northwest of Taj Mahal was constructed by the Mughals during 1565-1571. It was Emperor Akbar who laid the foundation of this majestic citadel in 1565. The fort was ready by 1571 period of Shahjahan, Akbar's grandson. The fort is crescent shaped, flattened on the east with a long, nearly straight wall facing the river. Fort's colossal double walls rise 69 ft in height and measure 2.5 km in circumference encircled by a moat and contain a maze of buildings which form a small city within a city. The fort contains splendid mosques and palaces in red sandstone and white marble built by two generations of creative builders during the time of Akbar and later Jehangir and Shahjahan. The wall has 2 gates, the Delhi Gate and the Amar Singh Gate. The original and grandest entrance was through the Delhi Gate, which leads to the inner portal called the Hathi Pol or Elephant Gate. But now the entrance to the fort is only through the Amar Singh Gate. Jehangiri Mahal: This is the first notable building as one enters through the Amar Singh Gate and emerges out of the passage. Situated north of the gate at the end of a spacious lawn, the Jehangir's palace was built by Akbar as a residence for his son Jehangir. The largest private residence in the fort, it is a blend of Hindu and Central Asian architectural styles. The Mahal is reached through an impressive gateway and its inner courtyard consists of a two storey facade of beautiful halls, profuse carvings on stone, heavy brackets exquisitely carved with animal and floral motifs, piers and cross beams with remnants of the rich gilded decorations which once covered much of the structure. There is a verandah with slender pillars on the eastern front facing the river front. This is the most important building remaining from Akbars period as his successors demolished several of Akbar's red sand structures replacing them with marble one's. To the right of Jahangiri Mahal is a simple palace of Akbar's favourite queen Jodha Bai.

19

Khas Mahal: Built entirely of marble by Shah Jahan in 1637, the Khas Mahal or the Private Palace demonstrates distinctive Islamic-Persian features. The enclosure has three pavilions overlooking the Yamuna, with a fountain opposite the central pavilion. The central pavilion an airy edifice, used by the emperor as a sleeping chamber has three arches on each side, five in front, and two turrets rising out of the roof. It overlooks the Angoori Bagh (grape garden). The Mahal is flanked by two golden (copper) pavilions, one with white marble and was supposedly decorated with gold leaf, while the other is made with red stone, which were meant for the prominent ladies of the harem. The Khaas Mahal provides the most successful example of painting on a white marble surface. On the three sides of the Grape garden are residential quarters of women. Musamman Burj: On the left of the Khas Mahal is the Musamman Burj, an octagonal tower with an open pavilion build by Shahjahan for his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal. It is made of delicate marble lattices with ornamental niches for the ladies of the court to gaze out, unseen. The chamber with a marble dome on top is surrounded by a verandah with a beautiful carved fountain in the center. The tower looks out over the River Yamuna and is traditionally considered to have one of the most poignant views of the Taj. This is where Shah Jahan spent his last few years as a captive of his son Aurangazeb and where he lay on his death bed, gazing at the Taj. Diwani-i-Khas: Diwan-I-Khas (hall of private audience) built by Shahjahan in 163637 was used to receive kings, dignitaries and ambassadors. It is a three sided pavilion with a terrace of fine proportions. Outside the structure is the marble throne terrace, where a pair of thrones was kept. The black throne belonged to Jehangir. Sheesh Mahal: Opposite to the Mussaman Burj and just below the Diwan-i-Khas hall, at the northeastern end of the Khas Mahal courtyard is the Sheesh Mahal or the Glass Palace. It is believed to have been the royal dressing room and its walls are inlaid with tiny mirrors, one of the best specimens of glass-mosaic decoration in India. The Sheesh Mahal is composed of two large halls of equal size, each measuring 11.15m x 6.40 m. Both are connected in the centre by a broad arched opening and on the sides by two narrow passages. 20

Macchhi Bhawan: Opposite to the Diwan-i-Khas is the Macchhi Bhawan, a grand enclosure meant for harem functions. The emperor sat on the white marble platform of the Diwani-i-Khas facing this courtyard. It once contained pools and marble fountains which were carried off by Jat Raja Surajmal to his palace at Deeg. On another side stands a small mosque built for Shahjahan by his son Aurangzeb. Hammam-i-Shahi: To the right of Diwan-i-khas is the Hammam-i-Shahi or the Shah Burj. It is an airy apartment, attached to the residential quarters which were used as a summer retreat. Diwan-i-Am: The Hall of Public Audiences, made of red sandstone, was constructed by Shahjahan. It is here the emperor met officials and commoners and listened to the petitioners. The women of the palace could watch the court without being seen by others from the pavilion through jali (lattice) screens. The open sided, cusped arched hall (64x23m) built of plaster on red stone, is very impressive. The throne alcove of richly decorated white marble completed after 7 years work in 1634 was used to house the famous Peacock Throne, later shifted to Delhi by Aurangazeb and was finally carried away to Iran. The Peacock Throne The Nagina Masjid or the gem mosque is a private mosque raised by Shah Jahan with typical cusped arches for ladies of the court. There is Mina bazar for the royal ladies to buy things from the marble balcony beneath the Nagina Masjid. The Moti Masjid near the Nagina Masjid is a perfectly proportioned pearl mosque built in white marble. This grand mosque has three domes in white marble raising their heads over the red sandstone wall.

TAJ MAHAL
Taj Mahal mausoleum, Agra, Uttar Pradesh state, North India, on the Yamuna River. It is considered one of the most beautiful buildings in the world and the finest example of the late style of Indian Islamic architecture. The Mughal emperor Shah Jahan ordered it built after the death (1629) of his favorite wife, Arjumand Bano Begum, who is better known as Mumtaz Mahal. The building, which was completed between 1632 and 1638, was designed by the local Muslim architect Ustad Ahmad Lahori; set in its carefully laid out grounds, it is a reflection of the gardens of Paradise to which the faithful ascend. The entire complex, with gardens, gateway structures, and mosque, was completed in 1643.

21

The Taj Mahal mausoleum stands at one end of the garden adorned with fountains and marble pavements. The garden contains four water channels to echo the four rivers of the Islamic Paradise. It rises from a platform 313 ft (95 m) on a side, bearing a white marble minaret at each corner; the enclosure, 186 ft (57 m) on a side, has truncated corners and a high portal on each side. The white marble exterior is inlaid with semiprecious stones arranged in Arabic inscriptions (designed by a local artist Amanat Khan, who was Shah Jahan's calligrapher), floral designs, and arabesques, and the salient features of the interior are accented with agate, jasper, and colored marbles. The roofing dome, on the inside, is 80 ft (24.4m) high and 50 ft (15.2 m) in diameter; outside it forms a bulb, which tapers to a spire topped by a crescent. The tomb chamber, with its two sarcophagi, is an octagonal room in the center of the edifice (the royal couple, however, are buried in an underground vault). The chamber is softly illuminated by the light that passes through double screens of intricately carved marble set high in the walls. Origin and inspiration

Location of the Taj Mahal within India

Shah Jahan, who commissioned the monument, was a prolific patron with effectively limitless resources. He had previously created the gardens and palaces of Shalimar in honor of his wife, Mumtaz. After her death in childbirth (she had already borne him fourteen children) Shah Jahan was reportedly inconsolable, and soon after he began construction of the Taj Mahal. His lavish aesthetic and romantic nature is apparent in every aspect of the Taj Mahal. Influences on Taj Mahal design The Taj Mahal incorporates and expands on many design traditions, particularly Islamic, Persian, Hindu and earlier Mughal architecture. The overall design derived inspiration from a number of successful Timurid and Mughal buildings: these include the Gur-e Amir, Humayun's Tomb, Itmad-Ud-Daulah's Tomb (sometimes called the Baby Taj), and his own Jama Masjid. Under Shah Jahan's patronage, Mughal building reached new levels of refinement. Previous Mughal building had primarily been 22

constructed of red sandstone; Shah Jahan promoted the use of white marble inlaid with semi-precious stones.
Interior of decoration masjid dome, showing inlaid geometric

Hindu craftsmen, particularly sculptors and stonecutters, plied trade throughout Asia during this period, and their work was particularly prized by tomb builders. Whilst the rock-cut architecture which characterises much of this construction had little or no influence on the Taj Mahal, other Indian buildings such as the Man Singh palace in Gwalior were an inspiration for much Mughal palace architecture and the source for the chhatris which can be seen on the Taj Mahal. Design elements Consistent repeated design elements are employed throughout the complex. These unify the complex with a single aesthetic vocabulary.

Design elements of the Taj Mahal

Major design features of the tomb are echoed throughout the complex -both the tomb and the outlying buildings.

Finial: decorative crowning element of the Taj Mahal domes Lotus decoration: depiction of lotus flower sculpted on tops of domes Onion dome: massive outer dome of the tomb (also called an amrud or apple dome) Drum: cylindrical base of the onion dome, raising it from the main building Guldasta: decorative spire attached to the edge of supporting walls Chattri: a domed and columned kiosk Spandrel: upper panels of an archway Calligraphy: stylized writing of verses from the Qu'ran framing main arches Arch: also called pishtaq (Persian word for portal projecting from the facade of a building) Dado: decorative sculpted panels lining lower walls

Most of the elements can be found on the gateway, mosque and jawab as well as the mausoleum. 23

The garden The complex is set in and around a large charbagh (a formal Mughal garden divided into four parts). Measuring 320 m 300 m, the garden has sunken parterres or flowerbeds, raised pathways, avenues of trees, fountains, water courses, and pools that reflect the Taj Mahal.

Walkways besides reflecting pool

Outlying buildings
Gateway to the Taj Mahal

The Taj Mahal complex is bounded by a crenellated red sandstone wall on three sides. The river-facing side is unwalled. Outside the wall are several additional mausoleums, including those of many of Shah Jahan's other wives, and a larger tomb for Mumtaz's favorite servant. These structures, composed primarily of red sandstone, are typical of smaller Mughal tombs of the era. On the inner (garden) side, the wall is fronted by columned arcades, a feature typical of Hindu temples later incorporated into Mughal mosques. The wall is interspersed with domed kiosks (chattris), and small buildings which may have been viewing areas or watch towers (such as the so-called Music House, now used as a museum).
Interior of jawab

The main gateway (darwaza) is a monumental structure built primarily of red sandstone. The style is reminiscent of that of Mughal architecture of earlier emperors. Its archways mirror the shape of the tomb's archways, and its pishtaq arches incorporate the calligraphy that decorates the tomb. It utilizes bas-relief and pietra dura (inlaid) decorations with floral motifs. The vaulted ceilings and walls have elaborate geometric designs, like those found in the other sandstone buildings of the complex. At the far end of the complex, two grand red sandstone buildings open to the sides of the tomb. Their backs parallel the western and eastern walls.
Taj Mahal mosque or masjid

24

The two buildings are precise mirror images of each other. The western building is a mosque; its opposite is the jawab or "answer", whose primary purpose was architectural balance (and which may have been used as a guesthouse during Mughal times). The distinctions are that the jawab lacks a mihrab, a niche in a mosque's wall facing Mecca, and the floors of the jawab have a geometric design, while the mosque floor was laid out the outlines of 569 prayer rugs in black marble. The mosque's basic design is similar to others built by Shah Jahan, particularly to his Jama Masjid in Delhi: a long hall surmounted by three domes. Mughal mosques of this period divide the sanctuary hall into three areas: a main sanctuary with slightly smaller sanctuaries to either side. At the Taj Mahal, each sanctuary opens on to an enormous vaulting dome. The tomb Base

Simplified diagram of the Taj Mahal floor plan.

The focus of the Taj Mahal is the white marble tomb. Like most Mughal tombs, the basic elements are Persian in origin: a building with arched entrances, topped by a large dome. In India, and most especially at the Taj Mahal, this simple idea reached its zenith. The tomb stands on a square plinth. The base structure is a large, multichambered structure. The main chamber houses the cenotaphs of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz (the actual graves are a level below). The base is essentially a cube with chamfered edges, roughly 55 meters on each side (see floor plan, above). On the long sides, a massive pishtaq, or vaulted archway frames an arch-shaped doorway, with a similar archshaped balcony above. These main arches extend above the roof the building by use of an integrated facade. To either side of the main arch, additional pishtaqs are stacked above and below. This motif of stacked pishtaqs is replicated on the chamfered corner areas.
Main arch and side pishtaqs

25

The design is completely uniform and consistent on all sides of the building. Four minarets, one at each corner of the plinth, facing the chamfered corners, frame the tomb. Dome The marble dome that surmounts the tomb is its most spectacular feature. Its height is about the same size as the base building, about 35 m. Its height is accentuated because it sits on a cylindrical "drum" about 7 m high. Because of its shape, the dome is often called an onion dome (also called an amrud or apple dome). The top of the dome is decorated with a lotus design, which serves to accentuate its height. The dome is topped by a gilded finial, which mixes traditional Islamic and Hindu decorative elements.
Base, dome, and minaret

The dome shape is emphasized by four smaller domed chattris (kiosks) placed at its corners. The chattri domes replicate the onion shape of main dome. Their columned bases open through the roof of the tomb, and provide light to the interior. The chattris also are topped by gilded finials. Tall decorative spires (guldastas) extend from the edges of the base walls, and provide visual emphasis of the dome height. The lotus motif is repeated on both the chattris and guldastas. Finial The main dome is crowned by a gilded spire or finial. The finial provides a clear example of the integration of traditional Islamic and Hindu decorative elements. The finial topped by a crescent moon, a typical Islamic motif, whose horns point heavenward. Because of its placement on the main spire, the horns of the moon and the finial point combine to create a trident shape -- reminiscent of the traditional Hindu symbols of Shiva.

is

Similarly, the spire is made up of a number of bulbous forms. The central form bears a striking resemblance to a Hindu sacred water vessel (kalash or kumbh).

26

Minarets At the corners of the plinth stand minarets: four large towers each more than 40 m tall. The minarets again display the Taj Mahal's basic penchant for symmetrical, repeated design. The towers are designed as working minarets, a traditional element of mosques, a place for a muezzin to call the Islamic faithful to prayer. Each minaret is effectively divided into three equal parts by two working balconies that ring the tower. At the top of the tower is a final balcony surmount ed by a chattri that mirrors the design of those on the tomb. The minaret chattris share the same finishing touches: a lotus design topped by a gilded finial. Each of the minarets was constructed slightly out of plumb to the outside of the plinth, so that in the event of collapse (a typical occurrence with many such tall constructions of the period) the material would tend to fall away from the tomb. The inner chamber The inner chamber of the Taj Mahal contains the cenotaphs of Mumtaz and Shah Jahan. It is a masterpiece of artistic craftsmanship, virtually without precedent or equal. The inner chamber is an octagon. While the design allows for entry from each face, only the south (garden facing) door is used. The interior walls are about 25 m high, topped by a "false" interior dome decorated with a sun motif. Eight pishtaq arches define the space at ground level. As is typical with the exterior, each lower pishtaq is crowned by a second pishtaq about midway up the wall. The four central upper arches form balconies or viewing areas; each balcony's exterior window has an intricate screen or jali cut from marble. In addition to the light from the balcony screens, light enters through roof openings covered by the chattris at the corners of the exterior dome. Each of the chamber walls has been highly decorated with dado bas relief, intricate lapidary inlay, and refined calligraphy panels, reflecting in miniature detail the design elements seen throughout the exterior of the complex. The jali The octagonal marble screen or jali which borders the cenotaphs is made from eight marble panels. Each panel has been carved through with intricate pierce work. The remaining surfaces have been inlaid with 27

semiprecious stones in extremely delicate detail, forming twining vines, fruits and flowers. The cenotaphs
Cenotaphs, interior of the Taj Mahal

Muslim tradition forbids elaborate decoration of graves, so the bodies of Mumtaz and Shah Jahan are laid in a relatively plain chamber beneath the inner chamber of the Taj Mahal. They are buried on a north-south axis, with faces turned right (west) toward Mecca. The Taj Mahal has been raised over their cenotaphs (from Greek keno taphas, empty tomb). The cenotaphs mirror precisely the placement of the two graves, and are exact duplicates of the grave stones in the basement below. Mumtaz's cenotaph is placed at the precise centre of the inner chamber. On a rectangular marble base about 1.5 by 2.5 m is a smaller marble casket. Both base and casket are elaborately inlaid with precious and semiprecious gems. Calligraphic inscriptions on the casket identify and praise Mumtaz. On the lid of the casket is a raised rectangular lozenge meant to suggest a writing tablet. Shah Jahan's cenotaph is beside Mumtaz's to the western side. It is the only asymmetric element in the entire complex. His cenotaph is bigger than his wife's, but reflects the same elements: A larger casket on slightly taller base, again decorated with astonishing precision with lapidary and calligraphy which identifies Shah Jahan. On the lid of this casket is a sculpture of a small pen box. (The pen box and writing tablet were traditional Mughal funeary icons decorating men's and women's caskets respectively.) Construction Construction began with setting foundations for the tomb. An area of roughly three acres was excavated and filled with dirt to reduce seepage from the river. The entire site was levelled to a fixed height about 50 m above the riverbank. The Taj Mahal is 180 feet tall. The dome itself measures 60 feet in diameter and 80 feet high.

View from the Agra Fort

28

Instead of lashed bamboo, the typical scaffolding method, workmen constructed a colossal brick scaffold that mirrored the inner and outer surfaces of the tomb. The scaffold was so enormous that foremen estimated it would take years to dismantle. According to legend, Shah Jahan decreed that anyone could keep bricks taken from the scaffold, and it was dismantled by peasants overnight. A fifteen-kilometre tamped-earth ramp was built to transport marble and materials from Agra to the construction site. According to contemporary accounts teams of twenty or thirty oxen strained to pull the blocks on specially constructed wagons. To raise the blocks into position required, elaborate post-and-beam pulley system teams of mules and oxen provided the lifting power. The order of construction was

The The The The The

plinth tomb four minarets mosque and jawab gateway

The plinth and tomb took roughly 12 years to complete. The remaining parts of the complex took an additional 10 years. (Since the complex was built in stages, contemporary historical accounts list different "completion dates"; discrepancies between so-called completion dates are probably the result of differing opinions about the definition of "completion". For example, the mausoleum itself was essentially complete by 1643, but work continued on the rest of the complex.) Materials The Taj Mahal was constructed using materials from all over India and Asia. Over 1,000 elephants were used to transport building materials during the construction. The white marble was brought from Rajasthan, the jasper from Punjab and the jade and crystal from China. The turquoise was from Tibet and the Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, while the sapphire came from Sri Lanka and the carnelian from Arabia. In all, 28 types of precious and semi-precious stones were inlaid into the white marble. Costs The total cost of the Taj Mahal's construction was about 40 million rupees. At that time, 1 gram of gold was sold for about 1.3 rupees. Based on the October 2005 gold price that would translate to more than 500 million US$. (Comparisons based on the value of gold in two different economic eras are often misleading, however).

29

History Soon after its completion, Shah Jahan was deposed and put under house arrest at nearby Agra Fort by his son Aurangzeb. Legend has it that he spent the remainder of his days gazing through the window, at the Taj Mahal. Upon Shah Jahan's death, Aurangzeb buried him in the Taj Mahal, next to his wife, the only disruption of the otherwise perfect symmetry in the architecture. By the late 19th century, parts of the Taj Mahal had fallen badly into disrepair. During the time of the First war of Indian Independence, the Taj Mahal faced defacement by British soldiers, sepoys and government officials who chiselled out precious stones and lapis lazuli from its walls. The Taj Mahal is often described as one of the seven wonders of the modern world. Millions of tourists have visited the site -- more than three million in 2004, according to the BBC -- making it one of the most popular international attractions in India. LEGENDS & THEORIES SURROUNDING THE TAJ MAHAL Origins of the name The name comes from Taj Persian, the language of the Mughal court, meaning crown, and Mahal means palace. Most sources suggest that Taj Mahal is a shorter variant of Mumtaz Mahal, the nickname of Arjumand Banu Begum, meaning First Lady of the Palace. As early as 1663, the French traveller Francois Bernier referred to the place as Tage Mehale. The "Black Taj" A longstanding popular tradition holds that an identical mausoleum complex was originally supposed to be built on the other side of the river, in black marble instead of white. The story suggests that Shah Jahan was overthrown by his son Aurangzeb before the black version could be built. Ruins of dark marble found across the river are, the story suggests, the unfinished base of this "Black Taj." Recent scholarship disputes this theory, and throws some interesting light on the design of the Taj Mahal. All other major Mughal tombs were sited in gardens that form a cross, with the tomb at the intersection of the vertical and horizontal pieces. The Taj Mahal gardens, by contrast, form a great 'T', with the tomb at the centre of the crosspiece. But the outline of the ruins on the other river bank would extend the design of the Taj Mahal gardens to form a cross of proportions typical of other Mughal tombs. Further, the marble in the ruins opposite the Taj Mahal, while dark from staining, were 30

originally white. In addition, an octagonal pool in these ruins would have reflected the Taj Mahal. Scholars have called these ruins the Mahtab Baugh or "Moonlight Garden". Shah Jahan's asymmetric tomb Aurangzeb had Shah Jahan's tomb and cenotaph placed in the Taj Mahal rather than building him a separate mausoleum such as other emperors had. He thus destroyed the symmetry of the Taj Mahal design. A variation on the Black Taj legend suggests that Aurangzeb's decision was made from malice or parsimony. In Itmad-Ud-Daulah's Tomb however, which was a major influence on the Taj Mahal design, Aurangzeb's grandparents were interred in a similar asymmetric fashion. Aurangazeb was a pious man, and Islam discourages all kinds of ostentation - least of all in death. That is why they do not use box-coffins but rather bury their dead in a white shroud. Islamic books describe burying in coffins or boxes as 'wasting wealth that can be used in good deeds like feeding the hungry or needy' Shah Jahan's building itself was thus a waste of money according to Aurangazeb's worldview. Thus he just buried his father next to his mother's tomb without much ado. Mutilation of the craftsmen A seemingly endless number of stories describe, often in horrific detail, deaths, dismemberments and mutilations which Shah Jahan visited on various craftsmen associated with the tomb. No respected authorities find these legendary horrors credible. Perhaps the most common story prevailing is that Shah Jahan had the finest architects and sculptors at his disposal. After the completion of the work, Shah Jahan had their hands cut off and their eyes pulled out so that they would not build a monument more beautiful than Taj Mahal. Stolen items Legends abound concerning items originally attached to the Taj Mahal which were stolen. Some original items have been removed over time, but many are mere legends only. These legends include:

Gold leaf, supposed to have covered all or part of the dome. A golden railing supposed to have circled the cenotaphs (suggested perhaps by a temporary enamel railing that was replaced after completion of the marble jali) Diamonds supposedly inlaid in the cenotaphs A blanket woven of pearls supposedly covering Mumtaz's cenotaph

Numerous items from the Taj Mahal have gone missing however; these include

An entrance door of carved jasper Gold leaf that adorned the cast iron joints of the jali screen around the cenotaphs Numerous rich carpets that covered the interior of the tomb 31

Enameled lamps from the interior chamber Was the Taj Mahal originally a temple or a palace?

P.N. Oak, President of The Institute for Rewriting Indian History, has repeatedly asserted that the Taj Mahal was a Hindu temple of the god Shiva, usurped and remodelled by Shah Jahan. The temple's name, he says, was originally "Tejo Mahalaya"; this was corrupted over time to "Taj Mahal". Oak also claims that the tombs of Humayun, Akbar and Itmiad-u-Dallah as well as the Vatican in Rome, and Stonehenge, and "all historic buildings" in India were also Hindu temples or palaces. The Taj is only a typical illustration of how all historic buildings and townships from Kashmir to Cape Comorin though of Hindu origin have been ascribed to this or that Muslim ruler or courtier. He further says that if Taj Mahal was not a Shiva temple, that it might then have been the palace of a Rajput king. In any case (he says), the Taj Mahal was Hindu in origin, stolen by Shah Jahan and adapted as a tomb although Oak also claims that Mumtaz is not buried there. Oak further states that the numerous eyewitness accounts of Taj Mahal construction, and Shah Jahan's construction orders and voluminous financial records, are elaborate frauds meant to hide its Hindu origin. His many provocative assertions have gained a lot of popular interest and made Oak a well-known media figure. He has sued to break open the cenotaphs, and to tear down brick walls in the lower plinth: In these "fake tombs" and "sealed apartments", Oak says Shiva lingams or other temple items were hidden by Shah Jahan. According to Oak, the Indian government's refusal to allow him unfettered access amounts to a conspiracy against Hinduism. Oak's assertions are not accepted by legitimate scholars. But these stories are widely believed and publicized by some contemporary Hindutva (Hindu nationalist) activists. In 2000 India's Supreme Court dismissed Oak's petition to declare that a Hindu king built the Taj Mahal, and reprimanded him for bringing the action. In 2005 a similar petition was dismissed by the Allahabad High Court. This case was brought by Amar Nath Mishra, a social worker and preacher who claims that the Taj Mahal was built by the Hindu King Parmar Dev in 1196.

32

FATEHPUR SIKRI

Located 25 miles west of Agra is the odd deserted city Fatehpur Sikri. Built to house the relocated Mughal capital when Akbar chose to leave Delhi, Fatehpur Sikri was mysterious and suddenly abandoned in 1586. The extensive display of structures that have survived unscathed by war and none the worse, in extreme weathers, reveal the architectural glory of the Mughal Empire when it was at its apogee.
Emperor Akbar

Legend has it that Akbar, concerned that he had no male heir, consulted a Muslim seer living in reclusion on a hill near Sikri. The latter's prediction of three sons came true. To honor his prescience and provide the fitting services to his wives and their attendants who had been transferred to Sikri to bask in the auspicious company of the seer, Akbar commanded that an imperial city be built: Fatehpur Sikri, Fatehpur meaning City of Victory. The two surviving centers of attraction are the two principal structures: the Palace and the Jama Masjid. It is regarded as Emperor Akbar's crowning architectural legacy. Indeed, its numerous palaces, halls, and masjids satisfy his creative and aesthetic impulses, typical of Mughals. Design The layout of the city shows a conscious attempt to produce rich spatial effects by the organisation of built forms around open spaces in interesting ways. Of particular note is the way in which shifts in axes occur as one moves along the city and the location of squares in important places with buildings forming a backdrop or envelope. Unlike other important Mughal cities (such as Shahjahanabad, which has a very formal planning), Fatehpur Sikri has aspects of informality and improvisation. Indeed, the newly constructed city bore a similarity to the movable imperial encampment also designed by Akbar. 33

IMPORTANT BUILDINGS
The buildings of Fatehpur Sikri show a synthesis of various regional schools of architectural craftsmanship such as Gujarati and Bengali. This was because indigenous craftsman from various regions were used for the construction of the buildings. Influences from Hindu and Jain architecture are seen hand in hand with Islamic elements. The building material predominantly used is red sandstone, quarried from the same rocky outcrop on which it is situated. Some of the important buildings in this city, both religious and secular buildings, are:

Naubat Khana Drum house: near the entry, where important arrivals are announced. Diwan-i-Am Hall of Public Audience: a building typology found in many Mughal cities where the ruler meets the general public. In this case it is a pavilion like multi-bayed rectangular structure fronting a large open space. Diwan-i-Khas Hall of Private Audience: famous for its central pillar with thirty-six voluted brackets supporting a circular platform for Akbar. Raja Birbal's house: the house of Akbar's favourite minister, who was a Hindu. Notable features of the building are the horizontal sloping sunshades or chajjas and the brackets which support them.

Birbals palace

Jodha Bai's palace: the palace of Akbar's favourite queen, a Hindu Gujarat. The building shows Gujarati influence and is built around a courtyard, with special being taken to ensure privacy.
Jodha bais palace

from care

Pachisi Court: a square marked out as a large sized board game (modern day Ludo) where live coins- people- participated.

34

Char Chaman Tank: a tank with a central platform and four bridges leading up to it. Panch Mahal: A five-storied palacial structure. The bottom floor has 176 intricately carved columns. From the right angle the building appears like a delicate, truncated, off-center pyramid. This building may have been a residence for women, as were Jogh Bai's Palace, the residence of the emperor's most important wives.
The Mahal five-storey Panch

Buland Darwaza the 'Gate of Magnificence': one of the gateways to the Jama masjid, a stupendous piece of architecture from the outside, gradually making a transition to a human scale in the inside. Much larger than the rest of the mosque, this gate was added later. It is never really visible from any perspective other than directly below it as the farther away the viewer gets, the farther down a long flight of steps and then an incline he or she goes. The sense of height is further exaggerated by powerful vertical. Jami Masjid: the mosque, built in the manner of Indian mosques, with liwans (aisles) around a central courtyard. A distinguishing feature is the row of chhatris (small domed pavilions) over the sanctuary. Tomb of Salim Chisti: a white marble encased tomb within the Jama mosque's courtyard.

The Tomb of Salim Chisti seen immediately after entering through Buland Darwaza.

35

LESSONS FROM THE PAST

To begin, it should be pointed out that in the large volume of published work on world architecture, there is comparatively little on India (the word 'India' here denotes the sub-continent - including Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. These countries, though separated by political boundaries, share a common cultural heritage). This is not surprising - by far the majority of authors are Westerners. It has been traditionally difficult for Western historians to make a correct and unbiased appraisal of Indian architecture - even if they should choose to do so. One chief cause is that Indian architecture - both Hindu and Muslim - has been traditionally considered exotic, not subject to the same rules of analysis as Western examples. Much research still needs to be done - a beginning has been made but the majority of the Indian vernacular still waits to be dissected. This is a pity since there are many lessons to be learnt - lessons especially valid today when modern Indian architects, trained in schools of architecture closely patterned on Western examples, are lacking in all but the most rudimentary knowledge of their own heritage and the conditions - social, cultural, political - which spawned it. Valuable insights on building morphology, use of material and climatic appropriateness - which today are all major issues - can be gleaned from the ingenious solutions in the vernacular. This section is also an attempt to strip Indian architecture of its 'exotic' tag, and present it for what it is - an intelligent, innovative response to local conditions.

CONCLUSION
Indian architecture as it stands today is a body of production that cannot easily be exemplified by the approaches, buildings and architects cited above. It has evolved over the centuries and has been affected by numerous invaders who have brought different styles from their motherlands. However, it is an unavoidable fact that certain expressions tend to be magnified and others reduced when set against the vast canvas of the world. A more representative selection can occur only at a deeper level of study.

36