Don't be afraid to express your own views

Many students are hesitant about expressing their own opinion, particularly if it contradicts the views of 'experts'. Work that is published and printed in books and learned journals is not necessarily always right nor the very last word on a topic. In the humanities and social sciences in particular, much academic writing is based on informed opinion rather than indisputable fact. Do not be afraid to have your own views on a subject. What is important is that your views should be informed, clearly expressed and based on careful consideration and knowledge of both the relevant facts and of the views of those who are acknowledged to have expertise on the topic. It may be much more difficult for science students to have new ideas or make original contributions to their subject in the early stages of their scientific education. What you can show in your writing is that you are aware of all the relevant information, and have a full knowledge and understanding of the scientific principles that underpin the experiments that you write up or the reports that you complete. When you carry out an experiment, the method you use is perhaps unlikely to be your own, and you may well 1
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need to acknowledge the source of the particular methodology you employ. However, the results that you obtain when you carry out the experiment are your own, and in their analysis and interpretation you can make your own contribution

ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY
Definition Organization Supporting our ideas Refuting opposing arguments Language Sample argumentative essay

Definition: In this kind of essay, we not only give information but also present an argument with the PROS (supporting ideas) and CONS (opposing ideas) of an argumentative issue. We should clearly take our stand and write as if we are trying to persuade an opposing audience to adopt new beliefs or behavior. The primary objective is to persuade people to change beliefs that many of them do not want to change. Choosing an argumentative topic is not an easy task. The topic should be such that it should be narrowed down X Marijuana should be considered illegal. (Not a good topic because it is too general. In some medical cases, marijuana is prescribed by the doctors and the patients are encouraged to use it in case of suffering from too much pain) Selling and using marijuana in public places should be considered illegal. it should contain an argument X We should decide whether we want a bicycle or a car. (our stand is not clear: do we support having bicycles or cars?)

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 If we are under the age of 30 and want a healthy life, we should definitely get a bicycle instead of a car. X Are you one of those who thinks cheating is not good for students? (a question cannot be an argument) Cheating helps students learn. X Considering its geological position, Turkey has an important geopolitical role in the EU. (facts cannot be arguments) Considering its geopolitical role, we can clearly say that the EU cannot be without Turkey. it should be a topic that can be adequately supported (with statistics, outside source citations, etc.) X I feel that writing an argumentative essay is definitely a challenging task. (feelings cannot be supported; we cannot persuade other people) If you believe that you can find enough evidence to support your idea and refute others effectively, you can choose challenging topics as well. You can enjoy writing about such topics: Cheating is beneficial for students. Murat 124 is a very good choice for conscientious drivers. Stress is good for the human body. Polygamy is quite natural. For women, there is no need for men. Organization: All argumentative topics have PROs and CONs. Before starting writing, it is imperative to make a list of these ideas and choose the most suitable ones among them for supporting and refuting. There are three possible organization patterns: Pattern 1: Thesis statement: 3
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PRO idea 1 PRO idea 2 CON(s) + Refutation(s) Conclusion Pattern 2: Thesis statement: CON(s) + Refutation(s) PRO idea 1 PRO idea 2 Conclusion Pattern 3: Thesis statement: CON idea 1 CON idea 2 CON idea 3 Conclusion The essay below has been written according to the third pattern. HEALTH AND HEALING AT YOUR FINGERTIPS Throw out the bottles and boxes of drugs in your house. A new theory suggests that medicine could be bad for your health, which should at least come as good news to people who cannot afford to buy expensive medicine. However, it is a blow to the medicine industry, and an even bigger blow to our confidence in the progress of science. This new -----> Refutation -----> Refutation -----> Refutation

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theory argues that healing is at our fingertips: we can be healthy by doing Reiki on a regular basis. Supporters of medical treatment argue that medicine should be trusted since it is effective and scientifically proven. They say that there is no need for spiritual methods such as Reiki, Yoga, Tai Chi. These waste our time, something which is quite precious in our material world. There is medicine that can kill our pain, x-rays that show us our fractured bones or MRI that scans our brain for tumors. We must admit that these methods are very effective in the examples that they provide. However, there are some every day complaints such as back pains, headaches, insomnia, which are treated currently with medicine. When you have a headache, you take an Aspirin, or Vermidon, when you cannot sleep, you take Xanax without thinking of the side effects of these. When you use these pills for a long period, you become addicted to them; you cannot sleep without them. We pay huge amounts of money and become addicted instead of getting better. How about a safer and more economical way of healing? When doing Reiki to yourself, you do not need anything except your energy so it is very economical. As for its history, it was discovered in Japan in the early 1900s and its popularity has spread particularly throughout America and Western Europe. In quantum physics, energy is recognized as the fundamental substance of which the universe is composed. Reiki depends on the energy within our bodies. It is a simple and effective way of restoring the energy flow. There are no side effects and it is scientifically explained. Opponents of alternative healing methods also claim that serious illnesses such as HIV/AIDS and cancer cannot be treated without drugs. They think so because these patients spend the rest of their lives in the hospital taking medicine. How can Reiki make these people healthy 5
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again? It is very unfortunate that these patients have to live in the hospital losing their hair because of chemotherapy, losing weight because of the side effects of the medicine they take. Actually, it is common knowledge that except for when the cancer is diagnosed at an early stage, drugs also cannot treat AIDS or cancer. Most of the medicine these patients use are to ease their pain and their sufferings because of the medical treatment they undergo. Instead of drugs which are expensive and have many side effects, you can use your energy to overcome the hardships of life, find an emotional balance, leave the stress of everyday life and let go of the everyday worries. Most of the chronic conditions such as eczema or migraine are known to have causes such as poor diet and stress. Deep-rooted anger or other strong emotions can contribute to viral infections as well. Since balancing our emotions and controlling our thoughts are very important for our wellbeing, we should definitely start learning Reiki and avoid illnesses before it is too late. Some people may still maintain that in our material world, everything depends on time. It is even lacking time that causes much of the stress that leads to the illnesses we mentioned. How would it be possible to find time to do Reiki to ourselves and the people around us when we cannot even find time to go to the theater? This is one good thing about Reiki; it does not require more than 15 minutes of our time. There is no need for changing clothes or special equipment. It is a wonderfully simple healing art, an effective method of relaxation and stress-relief. Most important of all, it is less time consuming than medicine if we think of all the time we spend taking medicine for some complaints and taking some more for the side effects as well. Having said these, resistance to Reiki would be quite illogical. Reiki is natural and drug-free. What is more, it is easy to learn by anyone, 6
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regardless of age and experience. It can be used anywhere, anytime. It also enhances physical, mental, emotional and spiritual well-being and the benefits last a lifetime. It is definitely high time to get away from the drug boxes we store in our drug cabinet! _________________________________________________________________________ Thesis: Do Reiki instead of taking medicine. Counter arguments 1. People should trust medicine since it is effective and scientifically proven. 2. Serious illnesses such as HIV/AIDS and cancer cannot be treated without medicine. 3. Reiki, like alternative healing methods, requires a lot of time. -----> -----> Refutation Reiki is also scientifically proven and does not have side effects. (refutation method: insufficient claim) Medicine also cannot treat serious illnesses if not diagnosed at an early stage. (refutation method: opponents are partially correct) Reiki requires less time if done regularly. (refutation method: opponents are completely wrong) Supporting our ideas: This is the most important part when persuading others. We are asking some people to change their beliefs or actions. We should be supporting our ideas with such facts, statistics and/or authorities that there should not be room for any doubts. Here are some faulty supports we should avoid: Thesis: Leaving the university and starting to work is good for the adolescent because 7
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----->

Feelings, emotional arguments ( it makes one feel much better.) Irrelevant examples (wandering off the topic) ( he would then be able to take his girlfriend to expensive restaurants.) Oversimplification ( only then would he understand what it means to be an adult.) Hasty generalizations (... it is a widely known fact that all adolescents look forward to earning money.) Unreliable, even false outside sources ( according to www.doubtme.com, 80% of working men wish they quit school when they were at university and started working at an earlier age.) For more mistakes in the logic of arguments, see Fallacies. Refuting opposing arguments: Before we start saying that the opponents are wrong, we should specify their opposing ideas. Otherwise, it would be like hitting the other person with eyes closed. We should see clearly what we are hitting and be prepared beforehand so that he cannot hit us back. We can do this by knowing what we are refuting. e.g. X Some people may say that adolescents should not leave university education; however, they are wrong. (what they say is not wrong. Maybe their supporting idea is wrong /irrelevant /insufficient. We should state their supporting idea specifically to be able to refute it.) Some people may say that adolescents should not leave university education because they are not physically and psychologically mature enough to cope with the problems of the real world. However, they forget one fact: adolescents can vote or start driving at the age of 18 (in some countries even before that age!), which proves that they are considered physically and psychologically mature at that age. 8
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Language: Signposts gain importance in the argumentative essay. They enable the readers to follow our arguments easily. When pointing out opposing arguments (CONs): Opponents of this idea claim / maintain that Those who disagree / are against these ideas may say / assert that Some people may disagree with this idea. When stating specifically why they think like that: The put forward this idea because They claim that since Reaching the turning point: However, but On the other hand, When refuting the opposing idea, we may use the following strategies: compromise but prove that their argument is not powerful enough: They have a point in thinking like that. To a certain extent they are right. completely disagree: After seeing this evidence, there is no way we can agree with what they say. say that their argument is irrelevant to the topic: What we are discussing here is not what they are trying to prove. Their argument is irrelevant.

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS; pronounced /srz/, sarz) is a respiratory disease in humans which is caused by the SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV).[1] There has been one near pandemic to date, between November 2002 and July 2003, with 8,096 known infected cases and 774 deaths (a case-fatality rate of 9.6%) worldwide being listed 9
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in the World Health Organization's (WHO) 21 April 2004 concluding report.[2] Within a matter of weeks in early 2003, SARS spread from the Guangdong province of China to rapidly infect individuals in some 37 countries around the world.[3] Mortality by age group as of 8 May 2003 is below 1 percent for people aged 24 or younger, 6 percent for those 25 to 44, 15 percent in those 45 to 64 and more than 50 percent for those over 65.[4] For comparison, the case fatality rate for influenza is usually around 0.6 percent (primarily among the elderly) but can rise as high as 33 percent in locally severe epidemics of new strains. The mortality rate of the primary viral pneumonia form is about 70 percent. Avian influenza, sometimes Avian flu, and commonly Bird flu, refers to "influenza caused by viruses adapted to birds."[1][2][3][4][5][6][7] "Bird flu" is a phrase similar to "Swine flu", "Dog flu", "Horse flu", or "Human flu" in that it refers to an illness caused by any of many different strains of influenza viruses that have adapted to a specific host. All known viruses that cause influenza in birds belong to the species: Influenza A virus. All subtypes (but not all strains of all subtypes) of Influenza A virus are adapted to birds, which is why for many purposes avian flu virus is the Influenza A virus (note that the "A" does not stand for "avian"). Adaptation is non-exclusive. Being adapted towards a particular species does not preclude adaptations, or partial adaptations, towards infecting different species. In this way strains of influenza viruses are adapted to multiple species, though may be preferential towards a particular host. For example, viruses responsible for influenza pandemics are adapted to both humans and birds. Recent influenza research into the genes of the Spanish Flu virus shows it to have genes adapted to both birds and humans; with more of its genes from birds than less deadly later pandemic strains. Mad Cow Disease Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE), commonly known as Mad-Cow Disease (MCD), is a fatal, neurodegenerative disease in cattle, that causes a spongy degeneration in the brain and spinal cord. BSE has a long incubation period, about 4 years, usually affecting adult cattle at a peak age onset of four to five years, all breeds being equally susceptible.[1] In the United Kingdom, the country worst affected, more than 179,000 cattle have been infected and 4.4 million slaughtered during the eradication programme.[2] It is believed by most scientists that the disease may be transmitted to human beings who eat the brain or spinal cord of infected carcasses.[3] In humans, it is known as new variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD or nvCJD), and by February 2009, it had killed 164 people in Britain, and 42 elsewhere[4] with the number expected to rise because of the disease's long incubation period.[5] Between 460,000 and 482,000 BSE-infected animals 10
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had entered the human food chain before controls on high-risk offal were introduced in 1989.[6]

Encephalitis http://www1.american.edu/projects/mandala/TED/pigvirus.htm Viral encephalitis

Viral encephalitis can be due either to the direct effects of an acute infection, or as one of the sequelae of a latent infection.

Bacterial and other

It can be caused by a bacterial infection such as bacterial meningitis spreading directly to the brain (primary encephalitis), or may be a complication of a current infectious disease syphilis (secondary encephalitis). Certain parasitic or protozoal infestations, such as toxoplasmosis, malaria, or primary amoebic meningoencephalitis, can also cause encephalitis in people with compromised immune systems. Lyme disease may also cause encephalitis. Bartonella henselae can also lead to thys

In the early 1999, Malaysia has experienced a major disease outbreak known as Japanese Encephalitis, which was caused by the Culex mosquitoes that breed in dirty polluted water surrounding the pig farms. Some experts believed that the unsanitary conditions and poor regulation of pig farmers in managing the drainage and sewage of pig waste has caused the virus to infect the pigs population in Malaysia. Ebola
The Ebola virus is a rare and extremely deadly virus which has appeared in scattered places around the world, most often in Zaire. It is not known where this virus exists in nature, and Ebola is only obvious when had by humans and monkeys. The virus has affected our trade in monkeys and has also affected our trade in information--or lack of it, because the existence of the virus may be kept secret so it does not scare away tourism (another form of trade). The Ebola virus may also be traded for use in biochemical warfare, although there is no evidence of this. There is also no knowledge of where this virus naturally resides, but it can travel fairly easily

Dysentery
Dysentery (formerly known as flux or the bloody flux) is a disorder of the digestive system that results in severe diarrhea containing mucus and/or blood in the feces.[1] If left untreated, dysentery can (and usually will) be fatal.

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Diarrhoea
In medicine, diarrhea (from the Greek, "diarrhoia" meaning "a flowing through"[1]), also spelled diarrhoea (see spelling differences), is characterized by frequent loose or liquid bowel movements. Acute diarrhea is a common cause of death in developing countries and the second most common cause of infant deaths worldwide. The loss of fluids through diarrhea can cause severe dehydration which is one cause of death in diarrhea sufferers. Along with water, sufferers also lose dangerous amounts of important salts, electrolytes, and other nutrients. Gastroenteritis (also known as gastro, gastric flu, tummy bug in the United Kingdom, and stomach flu, although unrelated to influenza) is inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract, involving both the stomach and the small intestine (see also gastritis and enteritis) and resulting in acute diarrhea. The inflammation is caused most often by infection with certain viruses, less often by bacteria or their toxins, parasites, or adverse reaction to something in the diet or medication. Worldwide, inadequate treatment of gastroenteritis kills 5 to 8 million people per year,[1] and is a leading cause of death among infants and children under 5.[2] At least 50% of cases of gastroenteritis as foodborne illness are due to norovirus.[3] Another 20% of cases, and the majority of severe cases in children, are due to rotavirus. Other significant viral agents include adenovirus[4] and astrovirus.

Constipation
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Constipation Classification and external resources

ICD-10 ICD-9 DiseasesDB MedlinePlus eMedicine MeSH

K59.0 564.0 3080 003125 med/2833 D003248

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Constipation, costiveness, or irregularity, is a condition of the digestive system in which a person (or animal) experiences hard feces that are difficult to expel. This usually happens because the colon absorbs too much water from the food. If the food moves through the gastro-intestinal tract too slowly, the colon may absorb too much water, resulting in feces that are dry and hard. Defecation may be extremely painful, and in severe cases (fecal impaction) lead to symptoms of bowel obstruction. The term obstipation is used for severe constipation that prevents passage of both stools and gas. Causes of constipation may be dietary, hormonal, anatomical, a side effect of medications (e.g. some opiates), or an illness or disorder. Treatments consist of changes in dietary and exercise habits, the use of laxatives, and other medical interventions depending on the underlying cause. Conjoined twins Conjoined twins Tinashe, left, and Tinotenda underwent separation surgery at Toronto's Hospital for Sick Children in 2005. (Hospital for Sick Children) Conjoined twins are rare, but they frequently enter the media spotlight and spark debate. Questions arise as to whether the twins should be separated from the ethical point of view, and whether the procedure is medically safe. Twins form in the womb when an egg splits into two. But if the split happens beyond a certain period for example, in the 12th day then the cells do not fully divide. Most conjoined twins are female. Conjoined twin births happen about once every 200,000 live deliveries. Delivering the babies can be a difficult and delicate procedure. About 40 per cent of them are stillborn and of those that do survive, less than half live long enough to be separated. Certain types of conjoined twins are easier to separate, depending on how many vital organs they share. The first such successful operation happened in the 17th century. Currently many hospitals, including Toronto's Hospital for Sick Children, have conducted numerous surgeries, successful and unsuccessful. Dr. John Templeton, an expert on conjoined twins in Pennsylvania, told the CBC News show The Current that the separation is followed by a bigger challenge, which is reconstruction. "It may take two to three hours for separation, but about six to eight hours for reconstruction." 13
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Alice Dreger, the author of One of Us, a book on conjoined twins, told The Current that if surgery is to take place, it should happen when the patients are very young, when they heal faster and before their psychological identity is established. Risks There is, of course, a risk that one or both twins could die as a result of the operation. In recent times, a set of twins from Iran, Ladan and Laleh Bijani, died in 2003 after the adult women underwent surgery to separate them at the head. In another highly publicized case, a British court ordered in 2001 the separation of twins so that one, Gracie Attard, could survive. The other, Rosie, died. But before surgery comes the debate on whether it is necessary, even with the medical capability of success. Dreger says she has looked at conjoined twins and found that most don't have a problem being joined with their twin. "What I found over and over is that they described their lives being at high quality; in fact, most of them found benefits," she said. "They couldn't imagine themselves singletons." It's believed that more than 450 sets of conjoined twins have survived, most of them born in India or Africa. It's also believed that the birth of conjoined twins happens in one out of every 200 births of identical twins. Timeline of conjoined twins 'Scottish brothers' In the 15th century, these twins were said to be performers in the court of King James III. The twins were fused in one body and lived to about the age of 28. Helen and Judith These two girls were born in Szony, Hungary, in 1701. According to literature documenting the two, one of the twins, Helen, was larger than 14
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her sister Judith. They lived until they were 21, dying within minutes of each other. Chang and Eng Bunker These twins are perhaps the best known. Chang and Eng were born in 1811 in Siam (hence the term Siamese twins). They were joined by cartilage at their sternum and each had two arms and legs. They were brought to the United States and toured with P.T. Barnum. Eventually they settled in the United States, married, became farmers and lived into their 60s. Modern-day timeline Daisy and Violet Hilton The girls were born in Brighton, England, in 1908 and were joined at their hips and buttocks. They toured in Europe and the United States. They later sued their managers and left sideshow amusement acts to pursue vaudeville entertaining. They lived into their 60s. Lori and Reba Schappell These twins, born in 1961 in Pennsylvania, are joined at the head. Reba is a country singer while Lori works in a laundry. The women have appeared on television and say that they can live their lives just fine together. Tinashe and Tinotenda Mufuka In 2005, Toronto's Hospital for Sick Children separated the twins from Zimbabwe while they were less than a year old. It was the 10th operation to separate conjoined twins by the hospital. Krista and Tatiana Hogan In October 2006, Krista and Tatiana Hogan were born in a Vancouver hospital with a combined weight of 12.69 pounds. The tops of the girls' skulls are joined, making them the country's only craniopagus twins. The twins were released from hospital in December 2006. Doctors are expected to decide in August if the girls should be separated.

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Some types of conjoined twins http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/health/conjoinedtwins.html Thoracopagus: About 35 per cent of conjoined twins are joined in the upper half of the trunk.

Omphalopagus: Another common form (30 per cent) share an anterior connection of the trunk, or lower chest. These twins usually have four arms, four legs and two pelvises and may share some functions such as the liver. Pygopagus: Twins who are joined by the buttocks represent about 19 per cent.

Craniopagus: Twins who are joined at the head are very rare, with only about 2 per cent of conjoined twins with this type. The Canadian twins born in October 2006 are of the craniopagus type.

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