Electrical Resistance

October 16, 2006

Electrical resistance (R) is a measure of the degree to which a circuit element opposes the ow of current. For many circuit elements the resistance does not depend on the amount of current ow or the applied voltage. A metal consists of a positive ionic lattice and a uid of somewhat free conduction electrons. At room temperature the movement of the conduction electrons is resisted by collisions with the thermally vibrating lattice. These collisions further excite the lattice resulting in the conversion of electrical energy to heat. For a metal near room temperature the resistance increases approximately linearly with temperature. For true metals the resistance of normal sized elements is generally low. Higher resistances are obtained by using poor metals or semimetals, including metal-oxides and carbon. For circuit elements constructed out of other types of materials the source and properties of the resistance are much more complicated.

Ohms Law
I= The SI unit of resistance is the Ohm 1 = 1 Since V olt . Ampere V R

P =VI

we can write P = I 2R =

V2 . R

And since power is being delivered to the resistor the sign convention must be that current is owing through the resistor in the direction of the voltage drop. The circuit symbol for the resistor looks like this:

Conductance (G)
The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance, G. G= 1 . R

The SI unit of conductance is the Siemen, sometimes called the mho. 1S = 1 See Wikipedia article resistor. Ampere . V olt

Some Terminology
A branch is a portion of a circuit containing only one element. A node is the point of connection of two branches. A loop is any closed path within the circuit in which no node is crossed more than once.

Series Resistive Circuits

Two branches are in series if: 1. 2. They have one and only one terminal in common, and The common point (node) between the two branches is not connected to another branch.

The current is the same through branches in series. The elements of a series circuit can be interchanged without eect. For branches in series, the total resistance is the sum of the individual resistances. R T = R 1 + R2 + + RN

Kirchhos Voltage Law (KVL)

The algebraic sum of the voltages around any loop is zero, V =0

or the sum of the voltage rises equals the sum of the voltage drops. Vrise = Vdrop

Voltage Divider
For resistances in series the voltage across any single resistance, Ri is given by: Ri Vi = V RT

Parallel Resistive Circuits

Two branches, etc. are in parallel if they have two nodes in common. The voltage across parallel branches, etc. is the same. Parallel branches, etc. can be interchanged without eect. 3

For parallel branches, etc. the total conductance is the sum of the individual conductances. 1 1 1 1 = + + + RT R1 R2 RN

The total resistance will always decrease as additional resistors are added in parallel.

Kirchhos current Law (KCL)

The algebraic sum of the currents for any node, area or system is zero, I=0

or the sum of the currents entering equals the sum of the currents leaving. Ientering = Ileaving

Current Divider
For resistances in parallel the current through any single resistance, Ri is given by: RT Ii = I Ri Remember RT is less than Ri .

More Terminology
An open circuit consists of one or more isolated terminals not connected to another branch. The current is always zero through an open circuit, R = 0. An short circuit is a direct connection between two terminals. The voltage across a short circuit is zero, R = 0.

The current through a short circuit is whatever the rest of the circuit will allow.

Measurements
Ammeters are placed in series with the branch in which current is to be measured. Voltmeters are placed in parallel with the branch or element for which the voltage is to be determined. An ohmmeter contains its own source and must be connected across the terminals of the resistance of interest with at least one of the terminals disconnected from the circuit.

Socratic Worksheets
Topic current ow resistors V, I and R Ohms Law series circuits Kirchho s voltage law voltage divider parallel circuits current divider series-parallel circuits ammeter voltmeter ohmmeter le ow resistor eir ohm_law dc_s kvl e_divide dc_p i_divide dc_sp amp_m volt_m ohm_m