ELEX1 Lecture 02

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Introduction to Semiconductor Theory

Recall that a semiconductor is a material that is
between conductors and insulators in its ability to conduct
electrical current. A semiconductor in its intrinsic (pure)
state is neither a good conductor nor a good insulator.
Single-element semiconductors are characterized by atoms
with four valence electrons (tetravalent).

Most Common Single -Element Semiconductors:
1. Silicon
2. Germanium

Silicon
It is the most widely used semiconductor material in diodes, transistors, integrated
circuits and other semiconductor devices. An isolated atom has 14 protons and 14 electrons.
The first orbit contains two electrons and the second orbit contains eight electrons. The four
remaining electrons are in the outer orbit.

Germanium
The nucleus of a germanium atom contains 32 protons. This time, the orbiting
electrons distribute themselves as follows: 2 electrons in the first orbit, 8 in the second, and
18 in the third. The last four electrons are in the outer or valence orbit.

Elementary Electronics 1
Lecture Notes 002
Engr. Divino Fiel A. de Bien
Page 2 of 28

Energ Energ Energ Energy yy y Band Band Band Bands ss s (Th (Th (Th (The ee e Ene Ene Ene Energ rg rg rgy yy y Leve Leve Leve Level ll l Diagram) Diagram) Diagram) Diagram)

Recall:
The more distant the electron from the nucleus, the higher the energy state, and any
electron that has left its parent atom has a higher energy state than any electron in the
atomic structure.

There are three distinct energy bands in insulator, semiconductor and insulator
materials: the valence band, energy gap (or sometimes known as forbidden region) and the
conduction band.

Recall that the valence shell of an atom represents a band of energy levels and the
valence electrons are confined to that band, thus the name valence band.

When an electron acquires enough additional energy from an external source (for
example: heat, light, etc) it can leave the valence shell and become a free electron and exist in
what is known as the conduction band.

The energy gap is the difference in energy between the valence band the conduction
band. This is the amount of energy that a valence electron must have in order to jump from
the valence band to the conductio n band. Once in the conduction band, the electron is free to
move throughout the material and is not tied to any atom.

Observe that the energy levels are expressed in electron volts (eV). 1 eV is equivalent
to 1.6 x 10
-19
J. It is a unit of work done in moving an electron through a potential of 1 volt.

Lecture Notes 002
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Semiconducto Semiconducto Semiconducto Semiconductor rr r Crysta Crysta Crysta Crystal ll l Structur Structur Structur Structure ee e & && & Covalen Covalen Covalen Covalent tt t Bonding Bonding Bonding Bonding
When certain atoms combine to form a solid material, they arrange themselves in a
fixed pattern called a crystal. The periodic arrangement of the atoms si known as lattice. The
atoms within the crystal structure are held together by covalent bonds, which are created by
the interaction of the valence electrons of the atoms. Silicon is a crystalline material.

Silicon Crystal Structure Silicon Lattice Structure

For the figure below, the left structure is a silicon crystal. Each silicon atom positions
itself with four adjacent silicon atoms. A silicon atom with its four valence electron shares an
electron with each of its four neighbors. This effectively creates eight electrons for each atom
and produces a state of chemical stability.

With the reference to the previous figure, the right structure considers a single silicon
atom with the magnified eight electrons. This sharing of valence of electrons produces the
covalent bonds that hold the atoms together; each shared electron is attracted equally by two
adjacent atoms which share it as shown below.

Lecture Notes 002
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Types of Semiconductor

1. Intrinsic Semiconductor
2. Extrinsic Semiconductor

Intrinsi Intrinsi Intrinsi Intrinsic cc c Semiconductor Semiconductor Semiconductor Semiconductor

A silicon crystal is considered as an intrinsic semiconductor when there are no other
atoms present besides silicon atoms. The same concept is also true for an intrinsic germanium
crystal. An intrinsic material is a semiconductor that has been carefully refined to reduce the
impurities to a very low level- essentially as pure as can be made available through modern
technology. In other words, an intrinsic semiconductor is a pure semiconductor.

Conduction Electrons and Holes

Recall that at a very low
temperature, thesilicon crystal behaves
like an insulator, since there are no free
electrons present in the material to produce
electric current.

An intrinsic silicon crystal at room
temperature derives heat energy from the
surrounding air, causing some valence
electrons to gain sufficient energy to jump
the gap from the valence band into the
conduction band, becoming free electrons
not bound to any one atom but free to drift.
Free electrons are also called conduction
electrons.

Lecture Notes 002
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When an electron jumps to the conduction band, a vacancy is left in the valence band.
The vacancy is called a hole . This breaking of a covalent bond generates an electron-hole
pair.

On the other hand, recombination occurs when a conduction-band electron loses
energy and falls back into a hole in the valence band. The amount of time between the
creation and disappearance of a free electron is called the lifetime .

NB: There is always an equal number of free electrons and holes in an intrinsic
semiconductor .

Lecture Notes 002
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Conduction of Electric Current in an Intrinsic Semiconductor

Let us now examine how the free electrons and holes contribute to the conduction of
electric current in a semiconductor material. When an external voltage, V, is applied across a
pure silicon or germanium crystal, the thermally generated free electros are repelled by the
negative terminal of the battery towards the positive terminal.

This movement of free electron in one direction is one type of current in a
semiconductive material and is called electron flow.

On the other hand, when a valence electron from a neighboring atom acquires
sufficient amount of energy to fill a nearby hole, it leaves another hole from where it came
from. As this occurs, the hole, effectively, has moved from one place to another in the crystal
structure. This movement of hole constitutes a current flow called hole flow.

Lecture Notes 002
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Extrinsi Extrinsi Extrinsi Extrinsic cc c Semiconductor Semiconductor Semiconductor Semiconductor

Extrinsic material is a semiconductor that has been
subjected to a doping process to alter its conductivity. Doping
means adding impurity elements to a pure silicon or pure
germanium crystal. This process of adding impurities can
drastically increase the conductivity of silicon and germanium. The
added impurities can increase the number of current carriers (either
electrons or holes).

Two Types of Extrinsic Materials:
1. N -Type (Negative -Type) Semiconductor
2. P-Type (Positive-Type) Semiconductor

N NN N - -- -Typ Typ Typ Type ee e Material Material Material Material

To increase the number of conduction-band (free) electrons in intrinsic silicon or
germanium, pentavalent impurity atoms are added. These are atoms with five valence
electrons such as arsenic (As), phosphorus (P), bismuth (Bi) and antimony (Sb).

For the figure above, four of the five valence electrons of the antimony atom are
tightly bound to the silicon atoms except for one, the fifth electron. This extra electron
becomes a conduction electron because it is not attached to any atom. Because the
pentavalent atom gives up an electron, it is often called a donor atom.

The number of conduction electrons can be carefully controlled by the number of
impurity atoms added to the silicon. A conduction electron created by this doping process
does not leave a hole in the valence band because it is in excess of the number required to fill
the valence band.

Lecture Notes 002
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Majority and Minority Carriers

Since most of the current carriers are electrons, silicon (or
germanium) doped with pentavalent atoms is an N-type
semiconductive material (the N stands for negative charge on an
electron). The electrons are called the majority carrie rs in N-type
material.

Although the majority of current carriers in N-type material
are electrons, there are also a few holes that are created when
electron-hole pairs are thermally generated. Holes in an N -type
material are called minority carriers .

CAVEAT : These holes are NOT produced by the addition of the pentavalent impurity atoms.

P PP P - -- -Typ Typ Typ Type ee e Material Material Material Material

Meanwhile, to increase the number of holes in intrinsic silicon (or germanium),
trivalent impurity atoms are added. These are atoms with three valence electrons such as
aluminum (Al), boron (B), indium (In), and gallium (Ga).

From the structure above, each boron atom forms covalent bonds with four adjacent
silicon atoms. All three of the boron atoms valence electrons are used in the covalent bonds ;
and since four electrons are required, a hole results when each trivalent atom is added.
Because the trivalent atom can take an electron, it is often referred to as an acceptor atom.

Similarly with N-type materials, the number of holes in a P -type material can be
controlled by the number of trivalent impurity atoms added to the silicon (or germanium).

Lecture Notes 002
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Majority and Minority Carriers

type material.
Since most of the current carriers are holes, silicon (or
germanium) doped with trivalent atoms is called a P -type
semiconductive material. Holes can be thought of as positive
charges because the absence of an electron leaves a net positive
charge on the atom. The holes are the majority carriers in a P-

There are also a few free electrons that are created when
electron-hole pairs are thermally generated. Electrons in p-type
material are the minority carriers.

CAVEAT : A hole created by this doping process is NOT accompanied by a conduction (free)
electron.

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The Junction Diode

Recall:

A P-type material consists of silicon (or germanium) atoms and
trivalent impurity atoms (such as B oron, Indium or Galium). The
trivalent atom adds a hole (a vacancy) when it bonds with the silicon
atoms. However, since the number of protons and the number of
electrons are equal through the material, there is no net charge and so it is
neutral.

On the other hand, an N-type material consists of silicon (or
germanium) atoms and pentavalent impurity atoms (such as Phosphorus,
A rsenic or Antimony). The impurity atom releases an electron when it bonds with
four silicon atoms. Since there is still an equal number of protons and electrons
(including the free electrons) throughout the material, there is no net charge and so it is also
neutral.

Th Th Th The ee e P PP PN NN N Junction Junction Junction Junction

A PN junction is formed when a piece of intrinsic silicon is doped so that half is N-
type and the other half is P-type.

The P region has many holes (majority carriers) from the impurity atoms and only a
few thermally generated free electrons (minority carriers). The N region has many free
electrons (majority carriers) from the impurity atoms and only a few thermally generated
holes (minority carriers).

Lecture Notes 002
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Formation of the Depletion Region (No Bias)

At the instant the PN junction is formed, the free electrons near the junction in the N
region begin to diffuse across the junction into the P region where they combine with holes
near the junction.

The N region loses free electrons as they diffuse across the junction. This creates a
layer of positive charges (pentavalent ions) or cations near the junction. Consequently, the P
region loses holes as the electrons and holes recombine. This creates a layer of negative
charges (trivalent ions) or anions near the junction. These two layers of cations and anions
form the depletion region.

The term depletion refers to the fact that the region near the PN junction is depleted of
charge carriers (both electrons and holes) due to diffusion across the junction.

Lecture Notes 002
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Due to the
cations on one sid

After the initial surge of free electrons across the PN junction, the depletion region
has expanded to a point where equilibrium is established and no further diffusion of electrons
across the junction.

Here is a summary of events:
Electrons continue to diffuse across the junction, more and more positive and negative
charges are created near the junction as the depletion region is formed.
A point is reached where the total negative charge in the depletion region repels any
further diffusion of electrons into the P region and the diffusion stops.
The depletion region would then act as a barrier to further movement of electrons
across the junction.

Barrier Potential

polarized nature of the depletion region, i.e.,
e and anions on the other side , electric field will
obviously be setup. This electric field is a barrier to the free electrons in
the N region (to diffuse towards the P region) and energy must be expended to
move them through the electric field. Therefore, external energy must be applied to
get the electrons to move across the barrier of the electric field in the depletion region.

Barrier potential is the potential difference of the electric field across the
depletion region. This is also the amount of energy required to move the free
electrons through the electric field and is expressed in volts.

Typical barrier potential is 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for germanium at 25
0
C.
Barrier potential is dependent on several factors:
the type of semiconductive material
amount of doping
temperature

Lecture Notes 002
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Biasing the PN Junction

No electrons move through the PN junction at equilibrium; and since the flow of
electrons is electrical current, there is no electrical current through the PN junction.

The term bias refers to the use of a dc voltage to establish certain operating conditions
for an electronic device. In relation to a PN junction, there are two bias conditions: forward
and reverse.

The Forward Bias Condition

Forward bias is the condition that allows the current through a PN junction. A dc
voltage source is connected across a PN junction in the direction to produce forward bias.

The presence of the resistor limits the current to a value that will not damage the PN
structure.

There are two requirements to achieve forward bias condition. First, the negative
terminal of the external dc voltage source should be connected to the N region and the
positive terminal to the P region. Secondly, the bias voltage, V
BIAS
, should be greater than the
barrier potential.

Lecture Notes 002
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Refer to the figure below.

Notes:

On the negative side:
The negative terminal pushes the free electrons (majority carriers in the N region)
toward the PN junction. This flow of free electrons is called electron current
(electron flow).
The negative side of the source also provides a continuous flow of electrons through
the external connection and into the N region.
The bias voltage gives sufficient energy to the free electrons for them to overcome the
barrier potential of the depletion region and move on thr ough the P region.
Once in the P region, these conduction electrons have lost enough energy and they
immediately combine with holes in the valence band.

On the positive side:
The positive terminal pulls or attracts the valence electrons toward the left end of
the P region. The holes in the P region provide a pathway for these valence electrons
through the P region.
The electrons move from hole to the next toward the left.
Recall that holes are the majority carriers in the P region. The effective flow of holes
is called the hole current (hole flow).

On the conductor:
Electrons flow out of the P region through the external connection and to the positive
terminal of the bias voltage.
Recall that conduction band in a conductor overlaps the valence band so that is takes
much less energy for an electron to be a free electron.
There is a continuous availability of holes effectively moving toward the PN junction
to combine with the continuous stream of electrons as they come across the junction
into the P region.

Lecture Notes 002
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The Effect of Forward Bias on the Depletion Region

Here is a visual (exaggerated) comparison between a no bias PN junction and a
forward bias PN junction.

N NN NO OO O BIAS BIAS BIAS BIAS

In a no-bias condition, the depletion region at equilibrium will look like this.

FORWARD BIAS

During forward bias conditions, more electrons flow into the depletion region, thus,
the number of positive ions (cations) is reduced. As more holes effectively flow into the
depletion region on the other side of the PN junction, the number of negative ions (anions) is
reduced. This reduction in cations and anions during forward bias causes the depletion region
to narrow.

Lecture Notes 002
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The Reverse Bias Condition

Reverse bias condition prevents current through the PN junction. A dc voltage is
connected across a PN junction wherein the positive terminal is connected to the N region
and the negative terminal to the P region. Observe that the depletion region is much wider
than in forward bias and equilibrium (no bias).

The positive terminal of the biasing voltage pulls the electrons, which are the
majority carriers in the N region, away from the PN junction. As the electrons flow away
toward the positive terminal, additional positive ions are created, widening the depletion
region and aiding the depletion of majority carriers.

In the P region, electrons from the negative terminal of the source enter as valence
electrons and move from hole to hole toward the depletion region where they create
additional anions. This will result to the further widening of the depletion region and
depletion of majority carriers.

NB:
The initial flow of charge carriers is transitional and lasts for only a very short time
after the reverse-bias is applied. As the depletion region widens, the availability of majority
carriers decreases. The electric field between the cations and the anions increases in strength
until the potential across the depletion region until the potential across the depletion region
equals the bias voltage. At this point, transition current essentially ceases except for a very
small reverse current that can usually be neglected.

Lecture Notes 002
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Reverse Current

The reverse current that exists under reverse-bias condition is also called the reverse
saturation current and is represented by IS. This reverse current exists after the transition
current dies out and is caused by the minority carriers in the N and P regions that are
produced by thermally generated electron-hole pairs. The small number of free minority
electrons in the P region is pushed toward the PN junction by the negative bias voltage.

The reverse saturation current is seldom more than a few microamperes (A) except
for high-power devices. Recent technology has been able to keep the reverse saturation
current at a minimum: typically in the nanoamperes (nA) for silicon and low microampere
range for germanium.

Reverse Breakdown

The reverse saturation current has been called such because of that fact that it reaches
its maximum level quickly and does not change significantly with increase in the reverse-bias
potential.

However, if the external reverse-bias is increased to a value called the breakdown
voltage, the reverse current will drastically increase. The high reverse-bias
voltage imparts energy to free minority electrons so that as they speed
through the P region, they collide with atoms with enough energy to knock
valence electrons out of orbit and into the conduction band (secondary
emission). The newly created conduction (or free) electrons are also high
in energy and repeat the process. As these high-energy electrons go through
the depletion region, they have enough energy to go through the N
region as conduction electrons, rather than combining with holes.

This multiplication of conduction electrons is known as avalan che and
results in a very high reverse current that can damage the PN structure
because of excessive heat dissipation.

Lecture Notes 002
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Semiconductor Diode

A semiconductor diode is a two-terminal electronic device which is formed by joining
an N type and a P type semiconductor material.

The terminal connected to the P type material is called the anode (A ) and the terminal
connected to the N type material is called the cathode (K ). The arrowhead in the schematic
symbol represents the anode terminal and the bar represents the cathode. The arrow in the
symbol points in the direction of conventional current (opposite to electron flow).

Here are some examples of actual semiconductor diodes:

Lecture Notes 002
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Diode Characteristic Curve
In the forward bias region, negligible amount of current flows through the diode until
the voltage across it, V
D
, reaches the turn-on voltage, V
T
which is actually equal to the
magnitude of the barrier potential across the PN junction. (0.7 for silicon and 0.3 for
germanium) As VD increases to a value greater than V T, the diode current, ID, increases
exponentially.

When V
D
becomes negative (anode is made negative with respect to cathode), a small
amount of I
D
flows through the diode, which is equal to the reverse saturation current, I
S
. In the
reverse bias region, I
S
, remains approximately equal to zero until V
D
is equal to the reverse
breakdown voltage, VBR. Reverse breakdown voltage is also referred to as Peak Reverse
Voltage or Peak Inverse Voltage in the manufacturers data sheet. When VD becomes
more negative than V
BR
, a rapid change in I
D
occurs and this portion in the
characteristic curve is known as the reverse breakdown region.
An ordinary diode operated in the reverse breakdown region will usually be damaged
due to excessive current and heat brought about by two phenomena:
1. Avalanche breakdown the high V
BR
causes the minority carriers to move across
the junction at high speed, making them collide with atoms in the crystal. This results
in the generation of additional current carriers, causing reverse current to increase
rapidly.
2. Zener breakdown a strong electric field produces a form of field emission that
suddenly increases the number of carriers in the reverse breakdown region.

Lecture Notes 002
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D S
k -
Diode Current
The diode current defined in the characteristic curve of a semiconductor diode in the
forward and reverse bias region is defined by the Boltzmann diode equation:

|

kV
D
|
T
K

where: I
D
diode current
I = I e 1|
|

\
I
S
reverse saturation current
V
D
voltage drop across the diode
1(Ge)

11,600
=

; 2(Si)

forlowdiodecurrentlevel

=
1(Ge&Si)forhighdiodecurrentlevel
T
K
temperature in K

Effect of Temperature in Diode Characteristic

Effect on forward current
Temperature has a significant effect on the operational characteristic of a
semiconductor diode.

Lecture Notes 002
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I = I e
1 0
E ffect on reverse saturation current

It has been verified experimentally that the reverse saturation current will
approximately double for every 10
0
C increase in temperature.

k (T
1
T
0
)
ST
1
S T
0

where: I
ST1
saturation current at temperature T
1
I
ST0
saturation current at room temperature T
0

k 0.07/
0
C
T1 new temperature
T0 room temperature

Effect on turn -on voltage, V
T

The voltage across the diode is inversely proportional to the operating temperature
with the diode current held constant. VD decreases by about 2 mV/
0
C for silicon diodes and
decreases by about 2.5 mV/
0
C for germanium diodes.

V
TT
= V
T T
+ k
(
T
1
T
0
)

where: V
T-T1
= turn on voltage at new temperature T
1

V T-T0 = turn on voltage at room temperature
= 0.3 for Si and 0.7 for Ge
k = -2.5 mV/
0
C (Ge) and 2.0 mV/
0
C (Si)

Exercise Problems:

1. Determine the diode current at 20
0
C for a silicon diode with IS = 50 nA and VD = 0.6
V.

2. Determine the I
D
at 20
0
C for a silicon diode with I
S
= 0.1 A and V
D
= -10 V.

3. When a diode is conducting at a temperature of 25
0
C, VT = 0.7 V. What is the VT at
100
0
C?

Lecture Notes 002
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D
d
d
Resistance Resistance Resistance Resistance Levels Levels Levels Levels
A. dc or Static Resistance, R
D

The applied dc voltage in a circuit containing a semiconductor diode will establish a
quiescent operating point (Q-point) on the diodes characteristic curve. The resistance of the
diode at the operating point, R
D
, is obtained by finding the corresponding value of V
D
and I
D
.
By Ohms Law,

R =

V
D

I
D

The dc resistance levels at the knee (threshold or turn-on) and below will be greater
than the resistance levels obtained for the vertical rise section of the characteristic curve.

B. ac or Dynamic Resistance, r
d

An application of a varying input (an ac voltage, for
instance) will move the instantaneous operatin g point up
and down a particular region since the value of I
d
and V
d
will also vary. With no applied varying signal, the point of
operation would be the Q-point set by the applied dc
voltage.
To determine the value of r
d
graphically, a straight
tangent line passing through the Q-point is drawn. This line
will define a particular change in voltage ( V
d
) and
current ( Id) that can be used to determine the dynamic
resistance. In equation form, it is presented as:
r =

V
d

I
d
The ac resistance can also be determined
mathematically by following the basic definition, the
derivative of a function at a point is equal to the slope of
the tangent line drawn at that point. The dynamic
resistance is given as
r =
26 mV

I
D
Ge,Si

Lecture Notes 002
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Average ac Resistance

The average ac resistance is
the resistance associated with the
device when a large signal is used as
an input to produce a broad swing.
To determine this value, a straight
line is drawn between two
intersections established by the
maximum and minimum values of
input voltage. In equation form:

r
ave

Summary:
=

V
d

I
d
pt. t opt.

Lecture Notes 002
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Diod Diod Diod Diode ee e Capacitance Capacitance Capacitance Capacitance

Electronic devices are inherently sensitive to very high frequencies. In the PN
junction diode, there are two capacitive effects to be considered. Both types of capacitance
are present in the forward- and reverse-bias region, but one so outweighs the other in each
region that only one would be considered for each region.

In the reverse-bias region, transition- or depletion-region capacitance (C
T
) is
considered. Meanwhile, in the forward-bias region, diffusion or storage capacitance (C D) is
considered.

The capacitive effects are represented by a capacitor in parallel with the ideal diode.
For low- or mid-frequency applications (except in the power area), however, the capacitor is
not included in the diode symbol.

C
T
or C
D

Lecture Notes 002
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have a t
rr
in the
with a t
rr
of only

Revers Revers Revers Reverse ee e Recover Recover Recover Recovery yy y Time Time Time Time

An important consideration in high-speed switching
applications is the reverse recovery time. The reverse recovery
time , denoted by t
rr
, is the sum of the storage time (t
s
) and the
transition time (t
t
).

Storage time is the period of time required for the minority
carriers to return to their majority-carrier state in the opposite
material. In essence, the diode will remain the short-circuit state
with a current I
reverse
determined by the network parameters.

Transition time is the period of time beginning when the storage phase is over until
current will reduce to a level that is associated with the nonconduction state.

Most commercially available switching diodes
nanoseconds to 1 s. Units are available, however,
picoseconds (10
-12
).
range of a few
a few hundred

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Diode Equivalent Models

A diode equivalent model or equivalent circuit is a combination of circuit elements
chose to best represent the actual characteristics of a semiconductor diode under a specific
operating condition.

Three Diode Equivalent Models:
1. Ideal Diode Model
2. Complete Piecewise Linear Model
3. Approximate Piecewise Linear Model

Idea Idea Idea Ideal ll l Diod Diod Diod Diode ee e Model Model Model Model

When the turn-on voltage (also known as knee voltage and as threshold voltage) of
the semiconductor diode (V
T
) is very small compared to other voltages in the circuit and the
diodes resistance is negligible compared to other resistance values in the circuit, the ideal
diode model may be used. An ideal diode approximates the actual behavior of a practical
semiconductor diode by representing it as a simple switch. When an ideal diode is forward
biased, it acts as a closed switch or a short-circuit having a zero resistance since a
semiconductor allows heavy flow of charges, or current to pass through it under this
condition. When an ideal diode is reverse biased, it acts as an open switch or an open-circuit
having an infinite resistance since a very small amount of current or no current passes
through a semiconductor diode under this condition.

Lecture Notes 002
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Complet Complet Complet Complete ee e Piecewis Piecewis Piecewis Piecewise ee e Linea Linea Linea Linear rr r Model Model Model Model

Practical semiconductor diodes (silicon and germanium) in a circuit may be replaced
by its complete piecewise linear equivalent model.

This equivalent model considers the following:
reverse bias resistance of the diode, Rr, which is usually in megaohms (M)
forward bias resistance of the diode, R
f
, which represents the contact and the bulk
resistance of the diode with a value less than 50
diodes turn-on voltage, V
T
, which is 0.7 for Si and 0.3 for Ge

Using this diode equivalent mode, the ideal diode D1 acts as a closed switch and ideal
diode D2 acts as an open switch when the diode is forward biased. The voltage across the
diode, V
D
, becomes equal to the sum of VT and the voltage drop across R
f
.

V
D
= V
T
+ I
D
R
f

When the diode becomes reverse biased, ideal diode D1 acts as an open switch and
ideal diode D2 acts as a closed switch. The drop across the diode, V
D
, becomes equal to the
product of R
r
and the reverse saturation current passing through the diode.

V
D
= I
S
R
r

Lecture Notes 002
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Approximat Approximat Approximat Approximate ee e Piecewis Piecewis Piecewis Piecewise ee e Linea Linea Linea Linear rr r Equivalen Equivalen Equivalen Equivalent tt t Model Model Model Model

Usually, the diodes forward resistance, Rf, is too low compared to other resistance
values in the circuit and its reverse resistance, Rr, is too high compared to other resistance
values in the circuit. So, one can further simplify the piecewise equivalent model by ignoring
the effect of R
f
and R
r
.

Using this diode equivalent model, V
D
is equal to V
T
for any value of I
D
when a
semiconductor diode is forward biased since the ideal diode acts a closed switch. On the other
hand, when a semiconductor diode is reverse biased, the ideal diode present in the equivalent
circuit acts as an open switch making ID = 0.

Lecture Notes 002

ELEX1 Lecture 02

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Introduction to Semiconductor Theory

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