Introduction 1.

Location, Environment, People Georgia is a country in Eurasia to the east of the Black Sea, most of which is located in the South Caucasus, while a portion of the territory lies in the North Caucasus. To the north, it is bounded by the Caucasus ridge, to the south by the Lesser Caucasus Mountains, and to the west by the eastern Black Sea coast. To the east, Georgia shares a border with Azerbaijan and Daghestan. However, at the pinnacle of its power (the XII early XIII centuries), Georgian borders extended as far as the Caspian Sea. Allegedly, in the earliest geological period, 28-30 million years ago, the isthmus of the Caucasus emerged and the Black and Caspian Seas were split by land, where the first man settled approximately 800 thousand years ago. The ethnological face of the Caucasus, with its numerous races and tribes, came into being over many centuries and Caucasian political units were developed. Since the ancient times Georgia has been populated by the Georgian tribes (they dwelled to the south as well, reaching the sources of the Tigris and the Euphrates) which gave rise to the Georgian nation or Georgian people. Mountains are the dominant geographic feature of Georgia. The Likhi Range (or the Surami Range) divides the country into eastern and western halves. At present the official area of Georgia totals 69, 5 sq. km.; however, almost 18,000 sq. km. of its historic territory southern Georgia is currently within Turkey; according to ancient oriental and later antique annals, the territory was always settled by the tribes of Georgian origins. The landscape within the nations boundaries is quite varied, with mountains and high peaks (Ushba, Shkhara, Kazbegi etc.), mountain ranges, hills and low-lying lands. Georgias landscape ranges from lowland marsh forests, swamps and temperate rain forests to eternal snows and glaciers, while the eastern part of the country even contains a small segment of semi-arid plains. There are alpine and sub alpine zones as well. Georgia abounds with small and large rivers the Mtkvari, the Alazani, the Aragvi, the Enguri, the Chorokhi, and the Tsenistkali, etc. One of the most important geographic regions of Georgia is swampy Colchis Plain, of triangular shape in close proximity to the Black Sea littoral. Like Colchis Plain in Western Georgia, essential regions in the East are low-lying lands consisting of three parts Inner Kartli, Lower Kartli and Kakheti. Lakes of all sizes Paravani, Ritsa, Amtkeli, Childiri (Shadow), Kartsakhi, Jandara, Lisi, and Kus (the last three are in Tbilisi) are important resources of water supply in Georgia. Some of the lakes are very deep for example, the depth of Lake Ritsa is approximately 150 m. The capital of Georgia, Tbilisi, with the population of 1. million 815 thousand, is located on the banks of the river Mtkvari. Tbilisi has not always been the capital of the country, but throughout its history, other cities and towns Mtskheta, (the first and the most ancient of all the capitals), Kutaisi, Tianeti, Telavi, Akhaltsikhe, Batumi, Sokhumi, Zugdidi, and Artanuji (currently within Turkey) - have served as capitals.

According to the most recent census of January 7, 2002, the population of Georgia totals 4 371, 500. The majority of the population of Georgia and the leading part of the nation is the Georgians. The Georgians fall into the following ethnographic groups: in Eastern Georgia the Kartlians, the Kakhians, the Mtiulis, the Khevsuris, etc; in Western Georgia the Imerians, the Mingrelians, the Svans, the Gurians, the Ajarians, the Lechkhumians, etc. Among other peoples living in the country are the Armenians, the Azerbaijani, the Russians, the Abkhazs, the Ossetians, fewer Greeks, Jews and peoples of other origins. The absolute majority of Georgians are orthodox Christians. A small part of Georgians is Muslims, largely in Turkey and Ajara, and fewer of them are Catholics, mostly in Meskheti, in southern Georgia. 2. Historical and Geographical Review Throughout the long history of Georgia, its regions, ethnographic and administrative units, as well as the country itself have been changing their names. The process is studied by a branch of science called Historical Geography. The central part of Georgia Kartli consists of Inner, Lower and Upper Kartli. To the west, Inner Kartli is bounded by the Likhi Range, which separates it from Kakheti, to the South by the Trialeti Range; to the north Lower Kartli borders with the Trialeti Range, to the west Javakheti, to the south the YerevanBambaki Range and to the east Kakheti. Lower Kartli comprises the ravines of the Algeti and the Khrami; Upper Kartli, the same Meskheti, is vast land stretching from the source of the Mtkvari and its tributaries to Tashiskari as well as from the Chorokhi basin to the narrow gorge of the Acharistskali. The region abounds with historic parts of Georgia Samtskhe, Javakheti, Artaani, Erusheti, Kola (on the upper part of the Mtkvari), Klarjeti, Shavsheti, Tao, Oltisi, and Speri (on the upper part of the Chorokhi). Apart from Samtskhe and Javakheti all the others, at present, are within Turkey. Upper Kartli is bounded by Basiani region, adjoining territory of the Araks (Araxes). Kartli shares its eastern border with Kakhet-Hereti. Kakheti is stretched on the upper part of the Iori and the Alazani, while Hereti is situated in the middle part of these rivers. In the XI century, they lost their independence as political units and united into Kingdom of Kakheti. Once, Eastern Georgia included Kakhi, Belakani and Zakatala on its northeast; however, they were taken from Georgia in the XVII-XVIII centuries and presently are within the Republic of Azerbaijan. Imereti is the central and the largest of all the regions of Western Georgia. Generally, all of Western Georgia was known as Egrisi in the ancient times, but the name was replaced with Imereti in the XI-XII centuries. Nowadays, Imereti is bounded to the north by the Racha Range, to the east by the Likhi Range, to the south by the Meskheti Range, and to the west by the river of Tskenistskali. Historically, however the border of Kartli stretched beyond the Likhi Range to Shorapan-Skanda. Mingrelia, or the vast Principality of Odishi, the political borders of which (especially the north and particularly in the late medieval era) were very volatile, lay on the west of the Tskenistskali to Anakopia

(modern Athos). In the early XVIII century, its southeastern borders reached the Enguri, to the northwest of which lies Abkhazia. Guria, another important historic region of Georgia, is situated between the River Rioni, the Meskheti Range and the Black Sea. The most important outlet to the Black Sea from Guria is Supsa with its oil terminal of international significance and value. Ajara and Lazistan, also known as Chaneti, in the southernmost regions of Georgia on the east Black Sea littoral are currently within Turkey. However, the Lazis have retained their own language, akin to Mingrelian. All the above named regions are low lands compared to other Georgian territories. The highlands in Eastern Georgia include lands in inner Kartli Dvaleti, Mtiuleti, and Khevi and in Kakheti -- Tusheti, Pshavi and Khevsureti. An amazing toponym Pkhovi was used to describe Pshav-Khevsureti. The highlands in Western Georgia include Svaneti, Lechkhumi and Racha. Historically, Lechkhumi and Racha were known as Takveri. Each of the above regions is unique with its material and spiritual culture, customs, traditions and lifestyle. All of them make up a single whole - Georgian culture. The difference between their customs and traditions used to be more marked indeed; however, they are mingling and becoming more homogenous at present. Some of the unique and important traits have vanished without being noticed or recorded. It is a part of inevitable Georgian globalization, a part of the world globalization. 3. Main Historical Sources A history of any country is based on certain historical evidence called historical sources. Georgian history is no exception. Historical sources fall into two major categories monuments of spiritual and material culture. The latter, in its turn, is divided into two types of archeological evidence monuments on the earth and monuments under the earth. The former falls into two sub-categories first, secular and religious architectural monuments and second, ethnographic materials, which are items of worship and everyday life. The two (archeological and ethnographic materials) are closely linked with each other, as in most cases the importance and application of one can be identified by means of another. Monuments of spiritual culture, in their turn, fall into two groups written documents and folklore, including linguistic materials. Written documents are of two types documental evidence and narration. Documental evidence falls into two categories historical documents and epigraphic evidence - old inscriptions, some of which may be historical documents of a kind according to their contents. Coins and the inscriptions on them, which are known as numismatic evidence, can either be considered as epigraphic evidence or as monuments of material culture. There are a few kinds of narrative documents historical compositions, works of literature and foreign written documents. The essential monuments of folklore are legends, ballades, myths, folk narrations, etc., which are works of literature (for example, there are a few written sources of the myth about Argonauts). Georgian History abounds with all the above sources.

Archeological evidence is a major source of exploration of ancient (prehistoric era) and medieval history of Georgia. Archeological excavations, with the view of scientific investigation, in Georgia, as well as in the whole world, first were launched in the XIX century. However, these excavations were sporadic. Nevertheless, the V Congress of Russian Archeological Society in Tbilisi, in 1801, was an event of special significance, as it initiated exploration of Georgian and Caucasian antiquities. Archeology at that time had a slightly different meaning. At the V Archeological Congress, reports were made on the monuments from the Stone Age to the creation of Georgian alphabet and Georgian paleography. Archeological excavations became more systematic from the 1930s, when excavations were carried out by such outstanding archeologists as G. Nioradze, Al. Kalandadze et al. The most important of all the others, bringing fame to contemporary Georgian archeology, were excavations headed by I. Javakhishvili at Mtskheta (Samtavro, Bagineti, Armaziskhevi). Underground monuments of material culture are essential sources in studying the pre-class society, its traits, culture and lifestyle of antique Georgian towns (Mtskheta, Vani, Sairkhe, Urbnisi, Kutaisi, etc.), coin mintage, cultural relations with the outer world etc. Recently excavated crania (pre-historic human being and his implements) at Dmanisi Nakalakari thought to have been the first Europeans - have been a scientific breakthrough. According to the archeologists, the age and the skeletal characteristics of the Dmanisi fossils link them to the early human species; they date the discovery to 1.8 million years. Medieval archeological monuments like the ruins of ancient towns (Dmanisi, Nokalakevi), of ancient citadels (Ujarma), of churches and monasteries (Gudarekhi, Urbnisi) as well as other monuments on the earth are a major source for studying medieval Georgian history. Despite the great significance of tangible monuments of material culture, written monuments, reports of eyewitnesses and narrations by annalists retain paramount importance in exploring history. Like all other cultured nations with a long history and a script of their own, the Georgians became interested in the development of their culture in the early years. The nation has created old Georgian historical literature, which is vital in studying its history. It begins from the early Middle Ages, almost simultaneously with creation of Georgian alphabet. Of the monuments of the original Georgian historical literature the most important are Convert of Kartli telling about the Georgians adoption of Christianity (allegedly dated to VII century, however, it could have been written earlier as it apparently contains layers of the V century) and The Life of Kartli (the core of which dates to the XI century and was supposedly written by annalist and Bishop of Ruisi, Leonti Mroveri). The latter was supplemented with new historical events through centuries and tells the history of Georgia from the ancient times through the XIV century. The Life of Kartli comprises a few works of different authors, narrations logically and historically connected with one another, sometimes the authors are known (Leonti Mroveli, Juansher Juansheriani, and Sumbat Davids son) but most of them are anonymous or known by the pseudo names given to them by historians Annalist of David the Builder, Basili Ezosmodzgvari, Chronicler, Giorgi-Lashas contemporary annalist and so on. The name of

monk and scholar Egnatashvili, of the XVIII century, is closely linked with The Life of Kartli, for he was the head of the Commission of Scholars set up by Vakhtang VI. Using different historical sources, including historic documents, the Commission revised and compiled A New Life of Kartli covering the XVI-XVII centuries. Another progressive figure of the XVIII century, historian and geographer, Prince Vakhushti, an illegitimate son of Vakhtang VI, wrote The Description of Georgia, which is not only the most valuable historical source but also is a unique work from a theoretical point of view. Vakhushti highlights the role of the environment in the life of the society, the princes of geographical division of the country, the role of psychological factor and so on. The work is far ahead not only of the contemporary Russian works (Vakhushti spent most of his life in Russia) but also of European science. The work contained a long introduction on the customs of the Georgians. It also contained a consideration of the country in provinces, with a mass of topographical details and a number of manuscript maps, which is why Vakhushti is considered the founder of Georgian cartography. The whole work of Vakhushti not only represented great advances beyond any other material which had been written up to that date, but it may certainly be regarded as among the most competent and scientific productions of the time. Among other historians living and working in the XVIII century were Papuna Orbeliani, Sekhnia Chkheidze, and Oman Kherkheulidze. All the other works dating to the XIX century are from the field of Georgian Historiography; therefore, they will be considered below. Documents historic documents, inscriptions, wills, funeral records, books and others are essential written sources in studying Georgian history. Their study has a history of its own; however, the present book will highlight only its last two decades. In the 1980s, two scientific series The Corpus of Georgian Historic Documents and The Corpus of Georgian Inscriptions were launched; however, their publication has been stopped. The Corps had to give full texts of the historic source and was to be published in a number of volumes, but unfortunately, only one volume of the former (The Corpus of Georgian Historic Documents) and three volumes of the latter (The Corpus of Georgian Inscriptions) have been published so far. Among other valuable historic sources are pieces of Georgian hagiographic literature - Martyrdom of St. Shushaniki the Queen (V century), Martyrdom of St. Abo (VIII century), Martyrdom of Constantine Kakhi (IX century); The Life of Grigol of Khandzta (954), Martyrdom of Michael-Gobron (912-918) and others; of the late medieval times Teymuraziani, Archiliani, Davitiani etc., sometimes they describe a historic event that is not mentioned in any other documents. Vital in studying Georgian history are foreign written historic sources. Chronologically, the oldest of all are ancient oriental written monuments - cuneiform inscriptions of Assyria, Babylon and Urartu containing the first and the oldest data on Georgian tribes, the dwelling places of their ancestors, and national structure of their countries and states. Georgia has a long tradition of studying these historical sources (G. Tsereteli, G. Meliqishvili). The standard achieved by our scientists meets that of Europe. Chronologically, the next are ancient Greek (Herodotus, Xenophanes, Strabo, et al.), Byzantine, and Roman sources. The fact that the data on the Georgians are given in History - the work of great Greek historian Herodotus, so-called father of History, (V century BC) - is noteworthy. Xenophon, old Greek

commander and philosopher, traveled through the southeast Black Sea littoral and in his work, Backward to the Sea (Anabazis), portrayed the Georgian tribes, their culture, and lifestyle. He speaks about their pile dwelling for protection of their houses from moisture, the method still widely used in Western Georgia, especially in Guria and Mingrelia. Abundant Armenian historical literature from the V to the XVIII century (Eghishe, Lazar Parpets) contains many valuable data about Georgia and vice versa (Georgian literature gives information on the Armenians as well as the other Caucasian peoples). For instance, only Armenian historical literature, namely Stephanoz Orbeliani, XIII century Annalist of Georgian origin, gives details of the historic event from the life of the XII century Georgia; the rebellion of the nobles against Giorgi III in 77, caused great alarm not only in Georgia but in the whole Caucasus. Another event described in the Armenian annals is the death of King David the Kuropalates, the factual founder of the Georgian feudal Monarchy and the leader of the contemporary Caucasus. According to the Armenian annalists of the XI-XII centuries, Aristarkes Lastivertsi and Matheos Urhaetsi, King David the Kuropalates was assassinated in his sleep by being smothered with a pillow by traitors sponsored by the Byzantine Emperor. The Life of Kartli translated into Armenian in the XII century further enriched Armenian literature. The series of The Sources of Georgian Literature, which include works of foreign and Georgian authors with relevant studies and comments, have been published. A list of previously published series is attached to each new issue; the first book Conversation between Shah-Tahmasp and the Osmanli Envoy was published in 1976, the last The Will of David the Builder to Shiomghvimi in 2003. There have been 83publications altogether, including the sources of Georgian History in the Persian, Armenian, Turkish, Greek, Italian, French, Arabian, English, Spanish and Georgian languages (unsurprisingly Georgian sources outnumber the others). 4. Issues of Historiography Like many other branches of science, scientific studies of Georgia started in the XIX century. In the 870s, Georgian Prince Teymuraz Bagrationi, a son of Erekle II, the first Georgian honorary member of the Imperial Russian Academy of Sciences, composed his work New History; his brother, Ioanne Bagrationi, the author of Tithe Gathering (Kalmasoba) wrote The Description of Kartli and Kakheti. Despite the modern significance of these works as primarily historical sources, they could still be considered as the first signs of Georgian historiography. In the early XIX century, the Russian Empire, seeking dominance over the East, lavishly funded the studies of oriental countries and their peoples. They invited prominent Orientalists to the Department of Oriental studies at Petersburg University, the Academy of Sciences, and the Asian Department in the Office of Foreign Affairs and started educating local scientists for comprehensive studies of these countries. Among the scientists invited in 830, was Mari Xivier Felicite Brosset (802-881), (also is known by the names Mari Brossett and Mari Ivanich in Russia), who greatly contributed to the studies of Georgian history and became the founder of European Kartvelology. He translated The Life of Kartli into French, made comments and supplements, and published it in eight volumes with the Georgian text at the Publishing House at the Petersburg Academy of Sciences. It remains the only complete translated

version of The Life of Kartli, which has retained its scientific significance. Certain parts of The Life of Kartli have been translated into English, German, and Russian languages. Having studied the past of Georgia, M. Brosset composed and published History of Georgia in French. The book was translated and published in Georgian in the late XIX century. Great was the contribution of Platon Ioseliani (809-875) and Dimitri Bakradze (827-890) to the study of the history of Georgia. The former is the author of the book The Life of Giorgi XIII, describing the events of Georgian history in the late XVIII to early XIX centuries; the latter wrote a book History of Georgia from the Ancient Times to the X century. In addition, Dimitri Bakradze is the author of a number of works published in Russian, of which Fh*tjkjubxtcrjt gentitcndbt gj Uehbb b Flxfht (Archeological Explorations in Guria and Ajara) is still relevant and valuable. In another book of his Uhepbycrfz Gfktjuhfabz (Georgian Paleography), D. Bakradze puts forward certain issues regarding Georgian script that were later extensively studied by Iv. Javakhishvili and are still pressing from the scientific point of view (different theories on the origin of Georgian alphabet, the types of Georgian script, the stages of their development, compiling a comprehensive table of the development of the script according to the dated written monuments and so on). Together with Russian art critic Academician Nikodime Kondakomeri, he was the first to give a scientific description of the crosses, icons, and other sacred items kept in Georgian churches and monasteries. The work is still invaluable, especially for studying lost items. Dimitri Bakradze was a corresponding member of Russian Academy of Sciences; however, he failed to become a real member (for qualifying as a real member one was to live and work either in Petersburg or in Moscow). A comprehensive work on the history of Georgia has never been written. Equtime Takaishvili (18631953) laid a solid foundation of the scientific study of the history of Georgia. By scrutinizing narrative and documental sources of Georgian history, he made a great contribution to the Georgian Historiography. During his long and prolific scientific studies in Georgia as well as abroad (France), E. Takaishvili published hundreds of Georgian written sources in the series (founded by him) Archeological Expeditions and Comments (two books); Georgian Antiquities (four books), Ancient Georgia (four books) and in his numerous monographs (Archeological Expedition of 902in Kola-Oltisi and Changli Archeological Expedition in Lechkhum-Svaneti in 910 Archeological Expedition in Southern Georgia in 1917 in the Georgian and Russian languages). A tremendous contribution was made to the Georgian nation and culture, by E Takaishvili, for he, in 954, returned to his country a Georgian national treasure taken abroad by the first democratic government of the country in 1921 with the view of protecting it from the Bolsheviks. In 2001, Georgian church canonized E. Takaishvili proclaiming him a man of God and established his name day. Ivane Javakhishvili (1871-940), the great scientist and the distinguished public man, started his scientific career in the late XIX century. He was educated at Petersburg University and acquired a broad knowledge in humanitarian studies and explorations; he used his knowledge and experience acquired under the direction of Nicholas Marr for the advancement of Georgian science. In 918, with his initiative Tbilisi State University was founded, which became the hearth of Georgian science and laid the foundation for establishing other scientific institutions including the Georgian Academy of Sciences. Tbilisi State University is justly named after Ivane Javakhishvili (once it was named after Stalin). The fact

that he is the only scientist whose image is depicted on Georgian money (the five Lari note) is an acknowledgment of his contribution to the advancement of the Georgian scientific school. Iv. Javakhishvili made an outstanding contribution to the development of History of Georgia as a branch of science. In the first place, he is known as a scientist and historian. He composed his famous, a fivevolume comprehensive work, The History of the Georgian Nation. Its first volume was published in 1913 and has been published five times since then; volume five On Georgia of the Late Medieval Era was published in 953. Furthermore, he laid the foundation for a number of branches of historical science: Georgian diplomacy, Georgian numismatics and metrology, Georgian paleography, history of Georgian music, history of Georgian civil engineering, history of old Georgian historical literature, etc. His monograph, The Primary Nature and Affinity of Georgian and the other Caucasian Languages (1938), is not only of scientific value but also of political importance. In this monograph, Javakhishvili maintains all the Caucasian languages derive from one root and adheres to the assumption of the XI century Georgian historian, Leonti Mroveli, who laid the ideological foundation of uniting the Caucasian countries under the leadership of Georgia, which was realized later in the XII century. Iv. Javakhishvili was not only a brilliant historian but also a prominent philologist (his works in philology have been published as a separate book). His works about Catholicos Nicholas Gulaberisdze as a writer to whom he dedicated a few essays, about Shota Rustaveli, and about Ilia Chavchavadze as a historian (I. Chavchavadze is the author of History of Georgia of the XIX century as well as Iv. Javakhishvili, who also wrote History of Georgia of the XIX century in Russian) are perfect examples of the synthesis of historical and philological studies. Between 973-002, all of the most important works of Iv. Javakhishvilis were published in twelve volumes. This edition is justly believed to be the encyclopedia of the Caucasian peoples. Until now, Iv. Javakhishvili is the only scientist to whom a special encyclopedic dictionary was dedicated; this fact laid the foundation of publishing personal encyclopedias in Georgia. Iv. Javakhishvili is the founder of the historical scientific school; his students as well as his students students have been successful historians. Of his numerous students, Svimon Janashia and Nicko Berdzenishvili deserve a special mention. The former founded Georgian Marxist Historiography and laid the foundation for a new era in Georgian historiography. He studied Georgian history from the Marxist point of view and composed his basic works Feudal Revolution in Georgia and Georgia on the Early Stages of Feudal Development. The works give a deep scientific analysis of the events, which is why they deserve a place in the gold fund of the History of Georgia. N. Berdzenishvili, whose numerous works (published in nine volumes; the first volume was published twice the second edition is amended) cover almost all aspects of Georgian history, is considered the founder of Georgian historical geography. Of the historians of later periods, Giorgi Melikishvili and Shota Meskhia are the most prominent figures. The former (a historian of worldwide importance), the Orientalist historian, successfully used the old oriental sources and applied them in the studying of ancient history of Georgia and the Caucasus. He was the first in the world to make up the corpus of Urartian cuneiform inscriptions (published twice as an article in a scientific journal and as an individual book) and was the first Soviet historian to be awarded the Lenin Prize, which was greatest recognition not only of his works but also of Georgian

historiography. G. Melikishvili is the author of monographs in history of Urartu as well as in the history of ancient Georgia. He studied the ancient peoples of Georgia, the Caucasus, and the Middle East. He wrote monographs on the prerequisites and conditions for uniting feudal Georgia. His amazing work, What Cuneiform Inscriptions Tell, tells not only about the history of deciphering the cuneiform inscriptions but also about the peoples of Urartu and other peoples of the ancient East. Shota Meskhia, the founder of scientific studies of the cities and towns of feudal Georgia, is one of the outstanding figures in the study of Georgia of the feudal era. His work, The Towns and Urban Life in Feudal Georgia, is a classic example of Georgian Historiography and has been published twice, first in Georgian and later in Russian. Of the other works, by Sh. Meskhia (published in three volumes), his comprehensive monograph on the governing system of Georgia of the XII century is noteworthy. The work gives detailed history of a feudal house of the Mkhargrdzelis as well as the political life and state system of Georgia and the Caucasus. Sh. Meskhia, the author of the model publication of XIV century written source The Monument of the Eristavis, significantly contributed to the publication of Georgian historical sources. The achievements in the study of the history of Georgia of the last few decades is summed up in the eight volumes of Essays on the History of Georgia (the first volume was published in 970), which is a creation of about 80 different authors and covers the period from the ancient times to the 980s. Editorin-chief is Giorgi Melikishvili, who at the same time is the main author of all the essays in the first volume covering the period from the prehistoric times to IV century AD. It is the first publication giving such numerous details of the history of ancient Georgia and gives new data on the stay, social structure and political history of the tribes of the Georgian stock. In 1989, the first volume of the Russian version of the Essays was published (five volumes will be published altogether). So far, I, II, III, and V volumes have been published. The edition is more concise and all the gaps of the Georgian version have been filled up. At present, there are four historians at the Georgian Academy of Sciences: David Muskhelishvili, Mariam Lortkipanidze, Roin Metreveli and Edisher Khoshtaria-Brosset. David Muskhelishvili is the author of foundation studies in Georgian historiography; in 2003, he published a monograph Georgia in the IV-VII Centuries, which studies chronological as well as social and political issues of Georgia of early feudal era from a different point of view. Of Mariam Lortkipanidzes works, the most important is Political Unification of Feudal Georgia, which studies the issue from the Marxist point of view. Roin Metreveli, in his works David IV the Builder and Queen Tamar, gives a comprehensive history of Georgia of the XII century. R. Metreveli is the author of numerous historiographic works; he studied in details social elements of old Georgia. The sphere of studies of E. Khoshtaria-Brosset includes the XIX-XX centuries; lately, he has been studying the historical sources of the medieval era; he has studied the works by Leonti Mroveli and the other issues of The Life of Kartli. 5. Ethnogeny of the Georgians: The Georgian Language among other Languages Ethnogeny is a Greek word meaning the origins (genesis) of the people (ethnic group). Defining ones origins is a paramount issue in the history of any people. The Georgians are no exception. The origins of

the Georgians or of certain Georgian tribes have been drawing the interest of Georgian and foreign historians since the ancient times. These tribes differed so completely in language and appearance from the surrounding nations that the ancients created various theories to account for the phenomenon. Herodotus (484-425 BC), known as the father of history, who states that the Georgian tribes, with the Egyptians, were the first to practice circumcision, believed them to have sprung from the people who transmigrated from Egypt during Pharaoh Sesostris reign (XX-XVIII B.C.) and thus regarded them Egyptians. Arguing in favor of this theory he maintained - both of the tribes, the Colchis and Egyptians, were swarthy, used the same method of flax production, spoke similar languages and lived alike. Undoubtedly, Herodotus was wrong in his judgment, and what is more, all the evidences given by him prove just the opposite. Nevertheless, his supposition about the genesis of the Georgians is the oldest of all the others. Their origins were of great interest for the ancient Georgians as well. Leonti Mroveli, the annalist of the XI century, developed a theory that covers not only the origins of the Georgians but also of the whole Caucasus. He derives the peoples of the Caucasus from Togarmah (Targamos). A descendant of Japhet, one of Biblical Noahs (man saved with his family from the flood sent by God) three sons - (Shem, Japheth, and Ham). Togarmah, a grandson of Japheth (a son of Tarshish) had eight sons (Heth (Haos), Kartlos, Bardos, Movakan, Lek, Heros, Caucas and Egros) who are considered the ancestors of different Caucasian peoples. Kartlos, the second of the eight, is the ancestor of the Kartvelians. Kartlos had five sons Mtskhetos, Gardabnis, Kakhis, Kukhis, Gachianis; Mtskhetos, in his turn, had three sons Uplos, Odzrkhi, Javakheti; others had descendents who together are progenitors of different tribes of Georgian stock. The principalities allotted to the sons of these two latter generations seem to indicate two successive waves of expansion by which the territory of the Georgians was extended and the first Georgian state was founded. The theory by Leonti Mroveli is based on two main assumptions. First, the annalist wrote under the influence of the historical ethnology of the Old Testament and used the chart of the genesis of the peoples given in the Bible; second, all the Caucasian peoples are akin, for they derive from the same ancestor. In the first case, the annalist integrated Georgian history with the world history or more exactly, he separated it from the other world; in the second case, he prepared the ideological basis for uniting all the Caucasian peoples into one nation, which was very much in the interests of powerful Georgia in the XI and later in the XII century during the reign of David the Builder and King Tamar. Another theory, no more than 200 years older than the one by Leonti Mroveli, is given in the earliest source of Georgian written history known as The Conversion of Kartli. According to the theory, the Kartvelians, who were the tribes inhabiting Eastern Georgia, came from Kartli. Historians and scholars believe that actually what is meant here is the southern region of Georgia the upper part of the river Chorokhi - which was within Persia under the Achaemenian dynasty. Scholars believe that the local toponyms Samtskhe (the Meskhian land), Mtskheta (of the Meskhs) serve as the proof for the Kartvelian tribes migration from the south to the northeast. In other words, tracing the origins of any people is not easy; the Georgians are no exception. The ethno genesis took place in such remote antiquity that racial origins are tangled and obscure and no written

sources can be found. In rare cases, the only available sources are oral like legends and myths. Furthermore, the real ethno genesis is a rather complicated lengthy process. There are no genetically pure people as a number of different tribes took part in shaping a people. On one hand, they were assimilated (absorbed) by the dominant tribe but on the other, they influenced their (dominant tribes) ethnicity. Despite such a complicated process, it is still feasible to work out a scientific theory of ethnogeny of a people on basis of archeological, ethnic and linguistic analyses. In the case of ethnogeny of Georgian people, theories have been put forward by Academician Iv. Javakhishvili, Academician S. Janashia and others. Iv. Javakhishvilis view on the ethnogeny of the Georgians is based on linguistic data. According to him, the Kartvelian (Georgian, Mingrelian-Zenian and Svanian), Abkhazian-Adighian, and DaghestanianVeinakhian are kindred languages. It is a prevalent belief that Georgian as well as other Caucasian languages belong to one distinct family of languages termed as Ibero-Caucasian. According to Iv. Javakhishvilis Theory of Migration, Kartvelians as well as other Caucasian peoples migrated from the south stepwise from the XIV up to the VIII century B.C. Academician S. Janashia entertained a radically different opinion. He held that approximately 5-6 thousand years ago, a major part of Asia, North Africa and Southern Europe was inhabited by kindred tribes Pyrenees with the Basques, Apennines with the Etruscans, Balkan Peninsula with the Pelasgians, Asia Minor with the Hittites and the Sumerians, who were dwelling in the region between Mesopotamia (from the upper valleys of the Tigris and the Euphrates i.e. from the modern north unit) and the Caucasus. These very Hittites and Sumerians were the ancestors of the Kartvelians. In the XIII B.C., these people swarmed and scattered until the XII-XI centuries when the strongest of them, the Mushkis and the Tubals, founded Urartu after the collapse of which Colchis and Iberia were formed on the territory of modern Georgia. According to S. Janashia, it was not flux of the Kartvelian tribes from the south to the north, not even stepwise, but rather it was a shift of the cultural and political center from the south to the north, on the vast territory inhabited by the people of the same stock. The theory by S. Janashia is known as the Theory of the Alteration of the National and Cultural Centers. Indo-European immigrant tribes of different languages and culture intruded into the vast region, namely European part, and in many cases became blended with local, aboriginal inhabitants of the same stock. The immigrant disintegrated the autochthonous population; they made a strong impact upon them but were profoundly affected in their turn. The majority of the modern Indo-European peoples are a product of a mingling of aboriginal and immigrant Indo-European tribes. Of this group of peoples, the Georgians in the Caucasus and the Basques on the Pyrenees are the sole survivors. Thus, the debatable hypothesis of the Kartvelians and Basques kinship was formed. The hypothesis traces its origins to ancient times. As is well known, the Greeks called both Kartli and Pyrenees Iberia. They believed that the King of Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar (605-562BC), transmigrated people from the Spanish Iberia to the Caucasian. However, some scholars consider the belief is based solely on the fact that the two regions share the same name. Yet, others find a lot in common between the popular customs (ethnographic way of life), the languages, etc. of the two peoples. In addition, the affinity of these two peoples was known in ancient Georgia. According to Giorgi Mtatsmindeli (1009-

1065), the Georgian writer and scholar of the XI century, another great Georgian scholar Ioanne Mtatsmindeli together with his son and his pupils decided to travel to Spain (Spanaiat) for he had heard that the Georgians were related to them and had been dwelling there once. Modern Georgian historiography assumes that the Georgian tribes are autochthonous, i.e. they originated and have been dwelling on the territory since the ancient times. The assumption is based on the findings of numerous archeological excavations carried out for more than 50 years. The facts demonstrate that the chain of cultural and social development in the Caucasus, including Georgia, is unbroken (G. Melikishvili). The theory, which is known as the Theory of the Georgians Autochthon, was further reinforced by Dmanisi archeological excavations of the crania of pre-historic human. Many theories have been put forward about the ethnogeny of the Georgians; however, each of them is questionable and scientists cannot agree on any of them. The basis of the Kartvelians individuality and their autochthon is Georgian and the other Kartvelian languages. As is well known, the world languages according to the kindred fall into different families: Indo-European, Semitic, Kemitic, Finno-Ugrian, Altaic (Turin-Mongolian), and Manchurian-Tungusian, Chinese-Tibetan, Dravidian, etc. There are no more than 5 families in all; however, each of them consists of a few branches and groups: Kartvelian or Iberian, Abkhazian-Adighian, Nakhian and Daghestanian groups. The Kartvelian or Iberain group includes - Georgian, Zanian - the common name for Mingrelian and Chanian or Lazian and Svanian. It is evident that they derive from the same proto-Kartvelian, the common ancestral language. Svanian is believed to have been the first to separate in the early 2000 B.C. Later, Mingrelian-Chanian and Kartvelian languages separated and developed individually.

1. Primitive Man on the Territory of Georgia The latest explorations suggest the first man appeared on earth 2 million years ago. The first kit of crude stone tools he used was extensive: rough axes, pointed sticks, bone pieces, knives, and so on. Gradually, he improved these implements but kept making them of stone for a long time, which is why the epoch is known as the Stone Age or Paleolithic era. The Paleolithic, or Palaeolithic, was the first period in the development of human technology of the Stone Age. It began with the introduction of the first stone tools by hominids and lasted until the introduction of agriculture. The Paleolithic era is usually divided into two subdivisions - the earlier, or lower, and the later, or upper, Paleolithic eras.

Cave of Tsona. Stone axe Lower Paleolithic AgeThe lower Paleolithic, or early Stone Age, is the longest period in the history of humankind, for it took long to improve stone implements. The Stone Age started with the appearance of the first man and ended no more than 30 thousand years ago. People lived in herds, as they would not have survived individually, for they were unable to obtain food or protect themselves from wild animals (their rough tools would not have enabled them to do so). These chance herds consisted of 20-30 men living and working together they hunted and gathered food. It was not until the lower Stone Age when the man learned to use the fire. The signs of the Stone Age man are traced to the territory of Georgia - nearby Sokhumi at the village of Iashtkva, at the village of Rukhi (Zugdidi region), Katskhi (Village Sakoria, Chiatura region), at Lashebalta (Znauri region) as well as on Javakheti plateau, in Inner Kakheti and so on. The upper Paleolithic began about 0 thousand years ago and lasted for about 8-0 thousand years. In this period, man improved and extended the kit of his implements; he started making knives, scrapers, cutting and piercing tools, from stone. He made significant progress in treating bones and stone and started making bows and arrows along with chipped spears. Improvement of his implements enabled the man to settle in one spot, and later, during the glacial epoch, he started living in the caves or mud-huts. The settled way of life led to formation of a kinship group, which in its turn resulted in the replacement of the herds with clans- a consanguineous entity headed by a patriarch, usually a female. The clans of this kind are known as matriarchal, for filiations were determined in relation to women. The upper Paleolithic saw the emergence of tribes. The proliferated clans divided further into new ones, but they did not lose links with each other and had a close intercourse. The related clans formed a community dwelling in the same defile; the alliance of the neighboring communities formed tribes. A tribe shared a common language, common territory, common customs and common religious beliefs. The habitations of the primitive man are found in the gorge of the river Chkherimela, called Giants Hole (Devis Khvreli) in Kharagauli region, in Sakajia Cave (Terjola region), Sagvarjile Grotto (Zestaponi region) and so on. It was not until the Paleolithic era when the first apotropaic religion emerged; specifically, it involved sympathetic magic; the people worshiped natural forces and events.

Odishi. Bone implements Neolithic Age Primitive men sought the favor of their gods for they believed gods were kind and evil and could be pleased and gratified. This belief gave rise to religious festivals, rituals and sacrifices. A great breakthrough in the treatment of stone gave rise to the New Stone Age, or Neolithic, which began approximately 12thousand years ago and lasted until 7-6 thousand years. Man learned to polish, rub and pierce stone implements; thus, he improved and made them more efficient for hunting and working. The activity of the primitive man advanced along with the improvement of his implements and tools. He learned simple ways of agriculture and farming and developed primitive craft. Georgia is widely acknowledged as the cradle of various cereal and forage crops. Scientific studies corroborated that the ancient hearth of agriculture in general and of cereal crops in particular was located on the territory of Georgia and its neighboring countries. Development of agriculture and farming, which resulted into the mans conversion into inhabitant producer, was an event of such a great importance that is regarded as Neolithic Revolution. The settlements dating back to the Neolithic have been traced in Khutsubani, Kobuleti, (Ajara), Anaseuli, Gurianta (Guria), Tetramitsa (nearby Kutaisi), Zemo Alvani (Akhmeta region). The Copper-stone age started approximately 7-6 thousand years ago and lasted until the 4000 B.C. During this age, the man still used implements made of stone but started using others made of copper. Agriculture underwent significant changes he started to irrigate and plow the land.

Didi Gora of Khrami. Bone implements. The advancement of agriculture and farming made men more important than women; the mans role in the community increased and consequently matriarchy was replaced by patriarchy. The human habitation was also changed. The men left caves and started living in round or oval huts made of clay and hay. A settlement of a few dozen houses, usually located on hillocks, was surrounded by a ditch or ashlars for defensive purposes. The proliferated population usually moved to new places and formed new settlements A few such settlements formed tribal entity with a language of their own. The initial settlement was the most important, in fact, it was the center with a shrine, where patriarchs of the community met and conferred together.

Trialeti, Pottery. Middle Bronze Age.In 3500-2500 B.C. is the Bronze Age in the world as well as in Georgian history. All

the implements and weaponry were made of bronze. The Bronze Age falls into three periods (according to the stages of development) the early, the middle and the late Bronze Age. 3500-3000 B.C., the early Bronze Age, saw the development of an advanced culture, known in history as the culture of the Mtkvari-Araks, which later enveloped the Transcaucasia and spread to Asia Minor. 2500-1500 B.C. is the Middle Bronze Age, which is marked with formation of the major alliances among the tribes. They formed the alliances to work together, to defend themselves and to wage wars. Chiefs of the tribes were much revered; when they died or were killed their bodies together with valuable artifacts -such as dishes - were laid on the four-wheeled chariots and placed in a stone or wooden edifice under an enormous barrow 0-5 meters in height and almost hectare in width. Trialeti Culture (explored during archeological excavations) serves as a proof of the above. In the barrows in Trialeti has been unearthed a golden goblet adorned with precious gems in one and a vessel decorated with beautiful paintings in another.

Sadugha (Kakheti). Sculpture of a lion. gold (length 4.1 cm) The late 2000s B.C. 1500-1000 B.C. is the late Bronze Age in Georgia, during which two cultural entities -the eastern and the western co-existed on its territory. The two cultures are roughly similar, which means the tribes inhabiting here had close relations with each other.

Manglisi Bronze Buckle. 2000-1000 B.C.The emergence of metal tools increased productivity of labor, which in its turn resulted

in surplus products. Thus, some people, normally patriarchs, chiefs and their close associates, had an opportunity to appropriate them. In the late Bronze Age, vigorous economic development and increase of various crafts were accompanied by an increase in social inequality, with the rich and the poor, which meant the end of the primitive tribal formation.

2. Ancient Georgian Kingdoms Diaochi (Taochi) and Qolha

Samtavro, Mtskheta. Engraved bronze belt VIII-VII B.C.Diaochi. As early as Trialeti culture, large tribal entities inhabited in the southwest of ancient Georgia. Their southern neighbors were the people of the oldest civilization: Hittites, Mitanians, later Assyrians and Urartians. Later, in the late 2000 B.C., after their further development, kingdoms of Diaochi and Qolha were formed. The data on them are retained in the Assyrian and Urartian cuneiform inscriptions dating back to the XIII VIII centuries BC. Diaochi, located on the southwest of ancient Georgia, was called Daiaen by the Assyrians and Diouh by the Urartians. Ancient Greek historian and military leader Xenophon, who traveled through this region in 401B.C. calls the local people Taochs, the name retained by an old Georgian province - Tao.

In the XII B. C., Diaochi headed a large military tribal union The Nairi Countries - against Assyria. Eventually in 1112, the union was defeated by the King of Assyria, Tiglath-Pileser, who captured the leader of the alliance, Sien of Diaochi and escorted him to Assyria. The alliance of the Nairi Countries was not made by chance as they always kept together in their fights against enemies. In , a union of the tribes inhabiting the coastline of the Upper or Big Sea (the Black Sea) came to assist the Nairi Countries. The union is called Qolha in the inscriptions of the King of Assyria Tiglathpileser. Other data on Diaochi and Qolha are given in Urartian cuneiform inscriptions. Kingdom of Urartu with its capital Tushpa (on the coast of Lake Van) round Lake Van (currently within Turkey) emerged in the IX century B.C. The powerful country created a menace for Diaochi, which must have been the reason why in 845 B.C. King Assia of Diaochi presented himself to the Shalmaneser III of Assyria with gifts; he declared obedience, for the Shalmaneser III had invaded Urartu, and king Assia was hopeful that with the assistance of Assyria he could repulse more dangerous enemies - Urartu and Qolha. However, his high hopes proved to have been wrong, for in the late IX and early VIII centuries, Urartu grew more powerful than Assyria; Diaochi was left alone against the strengthened Urartu. King Menuas (810-786) and Argishtis I (786-764) of Urartu fought against Utuphurs of Diaochi several times; they took the southern regions of his country and levied a heavy tax on him. The data are retained in the inscriptions of King Argishtis I on the rock of Van. According to the inscription, Argishtis I burned the royal city of Zua and subjugated its king, but later, after levying heavy tax on him, set him free. Diaochi sent Urartu numerous cattle and thousands of horses, gold, silver and copper. The inscription says Argishtis was to get 41mina of pure gold (1mina equaled to 505 grams), ten thousand minas of copper and so on. The amount suggests that Diaochi was a large and strong country with highly developed cattle breeding and metallurgy; moreover, King Menuas calls Diaochi a powerful country, which is the only case when Urartian inscriptions use such epithets about its rival.

Trialeti Gold bowl (height 7 cm).

1500-2000 B.C. II millennium B.C.

Trialeti Chased silver bowl. (height -11.3. cm)

Subjugating Diaochi must not have been easy. In 768, Utupurs rose in revolt against Argishtis I. Unfortunately, the Urartian sources do not give any other data on Diaochi. However, a final nail in Diaochis coffin was its northern neighbor - Qolha. Urartu and Qolha divided its territory after its collapse in the mid VIII, for Diaochi was no longer able to resist invasions from the two sides. In the XI-VIII centuries, after the collapse of Diaochi, Qolha, on the south and east Black Sea littoral, and Urartu became neighbors. The inscriptions of Sardur II, successor of Argishti I, give important information on Qolha. In 750-741, he invaded Qolha twice, seized the royal city of Ildamusa, massacred its population, and replaced the vicegerent of Qolha with his own deputy. According to Sardurs inscription, Qolha was successful in cattle breeding and metallurgy. The inscription tells about seizing cattle and making the Iron Ring by king Sardur II.

Sagarejo - Engraved bronze belt. VIII-VII B.C. Until then, this region of the Black Sea lay, generally, beyond the borderland of Greek knowledge. When the early Greeks first arrived here, they were so enchanted by the powerful, prosperous and ancient land that it gave inspiration to their mythological fantasies. At that time, The Golden Fleece the skin of ram with golden wool - was kept by the King of Qolha, Aietes, the son of Helius. Fifty Greek heroes under Jason set out in their quest of the Golden Fleece. The name Argonauts derives from the name of their boat Argo. (Recently the route taken by the Argonauts was repeated by a famous English scientist Tim Severin, who in this way proved that at that time it was possible to come to Qolha by that route.) Aietes welcomed them to his palace. According to a Greek poet of the III century, Apollonius of Rhodes (Argonautica), the Argonauts were able to reach the palace unnoticed as their protector, the goddess Hera, enveloped them in thick mist. The Greeks were

fascinated and enthralled with the gorgeousness and splendor of Aietes palace: its fence, wide gates, tall stone columns adorned with copper merlons, 4 fountains under green vineyard in his yard. Milk gushed forth from one, wine from another, scented oil from the third and water from the fourth, which during Pleiades (i.e. at the onset of winter) warmed and at the beginning of summer became cool and pure. Aietes of Qutaea (Kutaisi) had had Hephaestus, the god of fire, smiths and artisans make it. An immense building, with two other even higher buildings on its right and left, stood in the middle of the yard. One was for Aietes and his wife and the other for his son Apsyrtus. Other rooms were taken by his daughters Qalkiop, Medea and their maids. Aietes had the same Hephaestus forge copper-legged, firebreathing bulls and a plow made of solid metal. As a guest of Aietes Jason was entertained until he demanded from his host the Golden Fleece and offered his help in the fight against his neighbors. Aietes agreed to give the ram to Jason if he performed several tasks. He was to face fire-breathing bulls and make them plow the field before planting the dragons teeth in the earth. Jason must then defeat armed men that would spring out of the earth he had just sowed. Aietes was confident Jason would never be able to do that; however, it was childs play for Aietes himself. To achieve this, the goddess Aphrodite had Medea, Aietes daughter - sorceress beauty- instantly fall in love with Jason. The next day Aietes took his immense shield and spare that nobody else but Heracles could have lifted, got into his phaeton and headed for the field of Ares. Assisted by Medea, Jason successfully had the pair of fire-breathing bulls tied and collared to a yoke, thus fulfilling the task given by Aietes. Nevertheless, Aietes had no intention of giving him the ram, Medea administered a sleeping herb to its guard, the dragon. Jason took the Golden Fleece while the latter was sleeping and escaped together with the ram and Medea. Aietes had pursuers under Medeas brother, Apsyrtus, chase them, but the Greeks defeated them and killed Apsyrtus. The myth is a blend of fabulosity and history, which speaks for prosperity and glory of Qolha, its power and political significance, the high level of agriculture and metallurgy it had attained by that time. The iron plow corroborates the idea that in 1500 -000 B.C. Georgia was acquainted with iron mining, which is linked with the name of the Khalybes of the Pontine Coast who are associated with the discovery and production of iron. (The old Greek name of steal khalybes derives from the Khalybes.)

Bronze axe from Colchis. VII-VI B.C.Another myth that credits the Georgians with the development of metallurgy is a myth about Prometheus that is almost similar to the legend about Amiran (3,500 years ago). Prometheus stole the fire from Zeus and gave it to the mortals, who started hardening steel by using the fire. To get revenge on Prometheus, Zeus had him carried to the Caucasus in Georgia. This very fact speaks about the connection of the myth of Prometheus with Georgia. Numerous battles with Urartu appeared to have been devastating for Qolha. The savage nomadic tribes intruding from the North Caucasus the Cimmerians - put an end to its existence in the last quarter of the VIII century B.C. In 780, the Urartians were decisively defeated by the Cimmerians who had to pass through Qolha in order to get to Urartu. Therefore, Qolha was the first to be invaded by the Cimmerians, a part of the Qolhas population were annihilated, and the rest fled to neighboring regions. The Cimmerians were greatest menace for Asia. In Georgian vocabulary, their name is associated with undefeated, the Georgian word Gmiri (hero) derives from the name of the Cimmerians Gmir. In the VIII B. C., the Transcaucasia, first, and Asia, later, were devastated and depopulated by the Scythians who intruded into the region via the Azov Sea.

Bronze axe with patterns and engraved animal images. VIII-VII B.C.In 590 B.C., the Medians together with the Scythians and other Caucasian peoples annihilated the Kingdom of Urartu. A part of its population moved to the north; they found themselves under the dominance of the Kartvelian tribes and assimilated with them later. A number of words in the Georgian language attest to the fact, for Georgian has retained quite a few words that can be explained in the Urartian language only (not in Georgian) like kiramala, tavdakira, (upside-down). Kira does not denote anything in Georgian but meant the soil in Urartian; the cult of Arale, the deity of crops, was brought into Georgian from Urartian; Georgian songs Orovela and Kalospiruli begin with the address to Arale: Ivri Arale, Tari Arale, Ari Arale meaning Lord Arale, mighty Arale, grant us Arale. Most of the Urartian territory was occupied by the Armenian tribes dwelling on its west circumference. Armenia became the southern neighbor of Georgia, for the majority of the local Urartian population assimilated with them.

Georgia in the VI-III B.C.

3. Formation of Egrisi (Colchis) Kingdom After devastating Cimmerian invasions, a part of the population of Georgian plains were slaughtered; another part fled the land. The collapse of the kingdom of Qolha inevitably resulted from two things: first, the primitive mountainous tribes dwelling on the abandoned places and second, the destruction of agriculture. However, these unfavorable conditions did not halt the progress of the society and eventually, a new kingdom, called Colcheti or Egrisi Kingdom, emerged from the ruins of ancient Qolha in the VII-VI centuries B.C. The name Egrisi was given by Eastern Georgian tribes (Karts) according to ethnicity of its population (Egri-Megri-Mingrelians). Powerful Egrisi (Colchis) kingdom frustrated numerous attempts by the Acaemenian Iran to conquer it (in the VI-IV centuries the Acaemenian house wrested control of the country, therefore Iran of the VI-IV centuries is often referred to as Acaemenian Iran). According to Herodotus, the Colchis voluntarily paid tribute to the Acaemenian dynasty in the size of 100 young girls and 100 boys every five years. In addition, the Colchi had assumed military obligation. According to Greek author Xenophon the political center of Colchis was on the bank of the river Rioni (Phazis). However, Georgian historical annals name its capital as Tsikhe-Goji (on the spot of modern Nakalakevi), located 17 km away from the town of Senaki. Currently, ruins of massive fortress have been found there, and archeological excavations are being carried out.

From the IV centuries, the ancient Greeks founded numerous settlements on the east Black Sea littoral Phasis (modern Poti), Gyenos (Ochamchire), Pitiunt (Bichvinta), Dioscurias (Sukhumi), (main regions of Dioscurias are currently covered by water); other settlements were founded on the north Black Sea coastline Panticapaeum, Olvia, Chersonese. The new settlements facilitated the development of trade and economy among the Black Sea population. In addition, these settlements played a vital role in the political life of this region. The Greek cities of the North Black Sea coastline made up a political union, which later turned into the powerful Kingdom of Bosporus with its capital Pantikapeum (V century B.C.).

Vani. Necklace with a pendant of tortoise and ear pendants with images of birds. V B.C.The Greek settlements of Western Georgia were far more advanced socially, economically and culturally than those on the North Black Sea littoral. The restored kingdom of Colchis was mighty, which was why the Greek settlements were unable to become a dominant force, and they found themselves under the influence of Colchis; eventually the Greek settlements turned into Colchis trading centers. The Greek settlements enabled Colchis to have intense trading with Greece. It imported goods of various kinds from Greece textiles, jewelry, crockery, luxuries, food (oil and wine); in its turn exported flax, fur, leather, timber for shipbuilding and furniture, gold, iron, and slaves. According to Greek annalists, Colchis was an advanced country with well-developed metallurgy and agriculture - husbandry, viticulture, fruit-growing, and farming. Local trading and crafts centers (Vaniin the region of Vani, Dablagomi at Samtredia) flourished along the Greek settlements in Western Georgia. Valuable archeological materials have been recovered in the excavations of these regions. One of the ancient cities mentioned in Greek sources is the town of Cytaia (Kutaisi).

Locally minted Georgian money called Colchian Tetri (White meaning minted from silver) - a coin of a small size without any inscriptions, with a human head on one side and a bull (lion in rare cases) on the other- was the local currency from the VI B.C. Minting coins was one indication of being an advanced country. The remnants of tribal society were still rampant in Egrisi. The upper class of the society exploited not only a few slaves but also free and semi-free agriculturists. After Alexander the Greats (334-323 B.C.) conquest of the oriental countries, the Greek culture dominated. The period is known as the Hellenistic (VI-I B.C.), for the old Greeks were called the Hellene. The beginning of the Hellenistic period saw a relative decline of Egrisi Kingdom; the king was replaced by the Eristavi (Chief of the nation), which meant fall in the power of the local authorities. 4. Formation of Kingdom of Kartli (Iberian). King Farnavazi (Parnabazus) Formation of Kartli or Iberian Kingdom took place in unfavorable conditions. After the fall of Diaochi, the oldest national entity of the Kartvelian tribes, various tribal peoples settled on the territory of Eastern Georgia, of which the most active were the Meskhians intruding from the Asia Minor in the VI B.C. Their names have been retained in the local toponyms Meskheti, Samtskhe (Meskhian land). Some scientists argue that even Mtskheta means Meskhian city.

Akhalgori fragments of gold necklace. IV B.C.After the death of Alexander the Great, his empire disintegrated and was divided among his commanders. Middle Asia integrated into so-called country of Saldukids, which was founded by a commander of Alexander Selevk; Parthia separated from the Saldukids in the III century; the kingdom of Pontus emerged on the western border of Georgia. All the named countries were seeking domination over Georgia.

Farnavazi liberated the Iberians from the yoke of Azon, a Macedonian governor. The old Georgian tradition credits Farnavaz with formation of the kingdom of Kartli (Iberia). According to Georgian annalist, Leonti Mroveli, the author of The Life of Kings (the first work in the Life of Kartli) Alexander the Great conquered Georgia, after Persia and Asia Minor, and left a commander of his Azon to rule the country. (Alexander the Great did not invade Georgia but a commander of his may have intruded into the country). Azon had all the local strongholds destroyed, and all the Georgian population (capable of fighting) slaughtered. The struggle against Azon was headed by Farnavazi or Parnabazus, a resident of Mtskheta, a nephew of Samara, the Mamasakhlisi (governor) of Mtskheta, (both his father and uncle were killed in their fight against Alexander the Great). Young Farnavazi returned to Mtskheta and chummed up with Azon. Before long, he distinguished himself as a brilliant hunter and shooter. According to a legend, once, when he was hunting, it started to rain; Farnavazi found shelter in a nearby cave, where he accidentally came across a tremendous treasure. It took Farnavazi and his family five nights to bring the treasure home. Later, Farnavazi approached Kuji, the ruler of Egrisi and offered him to fight jointly against Azon. They used the treasure to get arms. In their battle, the Georgians were assisted by the Ossetians and the Lazghis as well as by 1,000 best warriors from Azons troops. In the fierce battle, the invaders sustained a defeat, and Azon was killed. Having liberated his country, Farnavazi declared himself the king of Kartli. He gave his sister in marriage to Kuji and appointed him the ruler of Egrisi. He appointed eight governors (Eristavis) to the different divisions of his kingdom and assigned Spaspeti (Commander-in-chief) to rule the central one Inner Kartli. Farnavazi is credited with turning Mtskheta into the capital city, constructing a wall to Mtskheta, building strongholds, and renovating other town fortresses demolished by the enemy. Before Christianity, the Georgians practiced heathenism. In order to centralize the country Farnavazi declared Armazi (the deity of the Moon) the central and the supreme of all the pagan gods and erected its idol in Armazi region. Farnavazi descended from the legendary eponymous ancestor of the Georgians Uplos (Kartlos). He ascended the throne at the age of 7 and reigned for 65 years.

Vani; gold bracelets. V-IV B.C.According to the Life of the Kings, six different languages were spoken in Kartli before Farnavazs reign, but he gave preference to Georgian and made it the official language of the Kingdom of Kartli. No other tongue was spoken in the

Kingdom since then. The life of the Kings credits Farnavaz with creating the Georgian alphabet and written language. It is a fantastic legend; however, it undoubtedly contains a grain of truth. Other data also suggest that the Kingdom of Kartli, headed by the Farnavaziani dynasty, emerged on the verge of the IV-III centuries B.C. Further data like the division of the country into eight administrative units (seven Eristavates and one Saspaspeto) by Farnavazi, establishing one religion, and other data seem to be close to the truth.

Vani; Temple pendants, IV B.C.Kingdom of Kartli, or Iberia, as it was the name used by the ancient Greeks, reached the peak of its power in the III B.C. Its southern borders reached the Araks and the northern the Caucasus chain. Farnavazis authority spread through almost all the eastern, western and southern Georgia, which in its turn, brought the population of Georgia closer together and greatly facilitated the process of their unification and their ultimate formation as one people. The Caucasian highlanders (the Lazghis and the Ossetains) also fell under the suzerainty of the Kingdom of Kartli. We are familiar with Strabos (64 B.C.-20 A.D.) account of the towns of the Mtkvari plain: the houses have roofs covered with tiles and display skill in building; there are market-places in these and various kinds of public edifices. Trade was flourishing in Georgia for the trading route (the Rioni, the Mtkvari and the Caspian Sea) connecting Greece with India lay through the country. The Greek geographer Strabo relates that the Iberians were divided into four different classes: the Royal family (and the oldest of all the akin to the King), the priestly caste (Qurums- religious men), the freeman and warriors, and the royal slaves. Scientists argue it was an early slave-owning system or classless society; they consider that the third social category was comprised free producers and warriors, who were later known as eri (lay), and the fourth category was comprised of royal slaves, royal serfs, a rudiment of feudal social classes.

5. Invasions of Pompey in Georgia From the early II B.C., the powerful Roman Empire started its invasions to the east. Armenian rulers liberated themselves from the Saldukids supremacy after the latter was defeated by Rome in 190 B.C. at the town of Magnezia (in Asia Minor). Two states were formed on the territory of Armenia: Big and Minor Armenia. Of the two, the more powerful was Big Armenia founded by Artashes I, which before long annexed a part of the southern Georgia.

Georgia in the II B. C. II A. D. From the south, the Kingdom of Pontus, on the south Black Sea littoral, became the neighbor of Georgia. The majority of its population was from western Georgian tribes (the Lazghis, the Chans, the Colchis, the Khalyobes, the Mosinics and others). The Kingdom of Pontus reached the pinnacle of its power and development during the reign of King Mithredates VI (111-63B.C.), who conquered the north and east Black Sea coastline including the Kingdom of Bosporus, Colchis and Minor Armenia; he subjugated most of the towns on the south and western Black Sea coast. Later, assisted by Tigran II of Armenia, he embarked on seizing the whole Asia Minor.

Roman Commander Gneus Magnus Pompey B.C.Rome opposed to strengthening of Pontus and Armenia, for it considered Asia Minor its own domain. Mithredates took advantage of anti-Roman sentiment of the peoples of Asia Minor and declared a holy war on Rome. Eventually he won; however, his suzerainty was no better than Rome, and the conquered Asian peoples rose against Mithredates. Meanwhile, Rome rallied its army and they jointly checkmated Mithredates. Both, the Kingdom of Kartli and Albania were allies of Pontus and Armenia. An ancient Greek annalist, Plutarch, names Iberain archers among the defenders of the ancient Armenian capital Artishan (68 B.C.) and says Tigran, the King of Armenians, relied on and trusted these Georgian warriors more than others, for they were bravest of all. In 66 B.C., the Senate of Rome had an outstanding commander, Gneus Magnus Pompey, who waged war against Mithredates and Tigran. Pompey inflicted a defeat on Mithredates and in the same year broke into Armenia. In 63B.C., Mithredates committed suicide after both of his sons rose against him. Before long, Armenia was also defeated, and eventually, in 66 B.C., Rome and Armenia signed a peace treaty according to which Armenia lost a number of previously annexed regions and was to pay a contribution in the size of six thousand Talants. Tigran II was conferred the title of Friend and Ally of Rome, which meant de facto political subordination to Rome. Later, in 65 B.C. the Roman army set out to invade Georgia.

Armaziskhevi (Mtskheta) gold necklace II B.C.The Roman historian, Dio Cassius or Cassius Dio (II-III centuries), gave a detailed description of Pompeys invasions in Iberia and furnished noteworthy material for Georgian history of this period. Artag of Kartli decided to play a hoax on Pompey. He sent his envoys to him and offered his alliance, however, was secretly getting ready for an assault. Pompey found out about Artags treachery and made a surprise attack. By the time Artag heard about Pompeys intrusion, the latter had already reached the Achropolis (Armaztsikhe). Artag, unable to defend the stronghold, fled and reached the other bank of the Mtkvari and burnt down the bridge (the bridge was built nearby modern Mtskheta station in the narrowest of all the places and is known as Pompeys bridge, however, only its piers have survived). The garrison defending the stronghold of Armazi sustained a defeat and surrendered to the enemy. Pompey subjugated the whole of the territory on the right bank of the Mtkvari. Artag asked for an armistice and promised he would build a new bridge and provide his troops with food. Artag kept his promise; nevertheless, Pompey crossed the river. The former fled to the Pelor (Aragvi), to the other main stronghold of Mtskheta - Sevsamora, or Zadentsikhe - and the latter chased and defeated him. Yet, Artag managed to cross the Aragvi and burnt the bridge; some of Artags warriors, who were left on the other bank of the river, scattered. They defended themselves for a few days by shooting arrows from the trees; but the trees were felled and the warriors killed. Many women were taken prisoners of war as they had been fighting bravely alongside men. More than 9,000 Georgians were killed in the battle, yet 10, 000 more were taken captives.

Roman Emperor Vespasian (69-79)Pompey and Artag tried to negotiate but in vain. Pompey demanded Artag give him his children as hostages, but Artag refused. However, when hot summer enabled Pompey to cross the Aragvi easily Artag had to yield and give him his children. In the end, a truce was arranged. Artag gave Pompey lavish gifts of a gold bed, a throne and a table. Rome did not abolish the Crown in Kartli but declared Artag a Friend and Ally of Rome, i.e. a vassal of Rome. Having invaded Iberia, Pompey marched into Colchis (where his navy was awaiting him) and seized it after pitched battles. Pompey appointed as the ruler of Colchis an Aristarq. A coin, with a mans head on one side and a goddess sitting on the throne on the other, minted under him has been discovered. The inscription on the coin says: Aristarq from Colchida, and the coin bears a sign indicating the twelfth year of Aristarqs reign (approximately 52 B.C.) Coins as this are kept in Leningrad (Hermitage), Paris and Izmir. The coin kept in Hermitage was discovered nearby Sukhumi. 6. Kingdom of Kartli in the I-II Centuries In the I-II centuries, the Kingdom of Kartli was strong and powerful with de facto freedom from Romes suzerainty. Favorable political conditions, such as the decline of Armenia and hostilities between Rome and Parthia, facilitated the strengthening of Kartli. In 247 BC, Parthia, located on the southeastern Black Sea littoral and headed by the Arsakids dynasty, seceded from the Saldukids dynasty. After a series of invasions, its territories stretched from the Amudaria to the Euphrates. In 34, Artaban III of Parthia enthroned his son Arshak in Armenia. In 35, Rome took advantage of the uprising against the king of Parthia and enthroned its devoted man there. Mithredates of Iberia adhered to Romes interests in Persia and secured the Armenian throne for his son. The Iberians, headed by Prince Farsman and assisted by the Albanians as well as the Alan-Ossetians, clashed against the numerous Parthian troops headed by Prince Orod in Armenia. In an encounter, Farsman cut Orods helmet with his sword and cleft his head. After the death of the Parthian prince and confusion in the Parthian army, the Georgians turned out the winners. Thus, Mithredates, Mithredates son and his successor, Farsman Is brother ascended the throne in Armenia. However, before long, Farsman of Kartli had to send numerous troops under his son Radamist to invade Armenia, for Farsman of Armenia refused to submit to him. Radamist held his power in Armenia for a short period. In order to make all the above clear, see the family tree below:

Unfortunately, the Kingdom of Kartli failed to retain Armenia, for it had to vie with such powerful rivals as the Roman Empire and Parthia. In 63, the two contenders signed a peace treaty according to which Armenia fell under double suzerainty it was in the domain of Parthian dynasty, cadet branch, and at the same time was seen as a vassal of Rome and was to get the Crown from Rome. De facto Armenia fell to Parthia, which was why the Kingdom of Kartli could no longer lay claim to Armenia. Parthia had Albania, an old ally of Georgia, take its side, for Kartli was a threat for the independence of Albania. It is clear that Iberia sought suzerainty in the Transcaucasia. During the reign of Mithredates, who was Farsmans son, powerful Kartli was actively involved in the political life of Asia Minor. Rome sought better relations with Kartli for the successful invasions by Mithredates boosted its prestige. A stone with a Greek inscription dated to 75, discovered at Mtskheta proclaims Mithredates (Mihrdati) as the friend of the Caesars. The inscription written by order of Vespasian, Roman Emperor (69-75) tells about fortifying the fence of Armazi stronghold by the Romans. The II century ancient Kartli reached the acme of its power. Farsman II, called Qweli the good expanded the borders of Kartli to southwest and reached the Black Sea littoral. Farsman openly fought against the Roman Empire as the latter strongly opposed such strengthening of Kartli. In 128, the Emperor Hadrian sent lavish gifts (an elephant, detachment of 500 men and so on) to Farsman and invited him to Rome. In return, Farsman of Kartli sent him generous gifts immense valuable and golden robes, but refused to present himself to Hadrian. The irate Emperor had his gladiators dress in the golden robes; Incensed Farsman II opened the Daryali passes and had the AlanOssetians invade eastern provinces of Roman Empire. However, the relations between Kartli and Rome significantly improved during Hadrians successor, Antoninus Pius, reign as the latter compromised a little. Moreover, he acknowledged the expansion of the Georgian borders. Farsman accepted Antoninuss invitation and presented himself with his entourage to him; Rome gave him a hearty welcome; Farsman was permitted the unusual honor of making offerings in the Capitol. The emperor attended military trainings of

Mtskheta, Armazi; Vespasians inscription Farsman, his brother and other Georgian nobles and did him the signal honor of erecting Farsmans equestrian statue in one of the temples (Belogn) in the capital. In addition, the Emperor had a marble board with inscription about this visit of the Georgians erected on the Martian Fields. On the other hand, the relations strained between Iberia and Parthia. The story of Farsman the Qweli in the Life of the Kings tells about his fight against Parthia. Seeing that all their endeavors of subjugating Farsman with power were fruitless the Parthians bribed his cook and poisoned him. Xsepharnug succeeded Farsman on the throne of Kartli. A bilingual Aramaic- Greek inscription, , (Aramaic was the most widespread written language in Asia Minor at that time) discovered on the stele in the Armaziskhevi necropolis on the grave of Seraphiti, a 21-year-old wife of Iodmangan the ezosmodzgwari (royal chancellor) of king Xsepharnug, says Seraphitis father Zevakh was a Pitiakhsh of King Farsman and Iodmangans father Agripa was Farsmans Ezosmodzgwari. The inscription suggests the preceding king of Xsepharnug was Farsman II. The kingdom of Kartli waged wars during the reign of Xsepharnug; the inscription credits Iodmangan with the victories in numerous wars waged by King Xsepharung. 7. Roman Suzerainty in Western Georgia. Revolt under Anicetus For a while, under Aristarq (65-47 B.C.), Colchis enjoyed independence; however, before long, it fell under the suzerainty of Pontus, a vassal country of Rome. In 69 B.C., Nero, the Roman Emperor, abolished the kingdom of Pontus and incorporated it in Roman Empire, declaring Pontus a Roman province and Colchis a part of Pontus. Rome appointed its rulers in the major Egrisian cities and quartered their troops. The decline of the local authorities and inefficient Roman administration created favorable conditions for primitive highlanders invasions and their settlements here. This in turn had grave consequences for the seaside towns of Colchis (especially Pitiunt and Dioscurias), for they had a large population decline and lost their importance as trading centers. In 69, the population of south and

east Black Sea littoral (Colchis and Pontus) rose in revolt. The event is described by Roman Annalist Tacitus (I-II centuries).

Roman Emperor - Hadrian (117-138) Roman domination in Western Georgia was profoundly undermined by an uprising led by an ex-slave of Polemon of Pontus, later the head of Pontus marine, Anicetus. Anicetus in Georgian means invincible. He tempted the tribes on the Black Sea littoral with the loot, united them and invaded Trebizond with his numerous troops. They massacred the Roman cohort stationed there and seized the city and a number of ships. Vespasian had a military detachment under the command of an experienced commander Virdi Gemin fight against Anicetus, who after being defeated, fled to find a sanctuary with the Sedokhezs (Lazian tribe) living at the tribute of the river Khobi. Threatening they would wage a war against his people, the Romans persuaded the chief of the Sedokhezs to deliver Anicetus. Thus, the uprising was quelled. The uprising under Anicetus, despite its failure, proved that Rome would be unable to fully subjugate Colchis. Eventually, the Roman Empire compromised and acknowledged local authority, for the strengthened Iberia sought the annexation of Western Georgia. Four different principalities were formed on the territory of Western Georgia Lazica, Apsilia, Abasgoi and Sanigia the princes of which were considered vassals of Rome. 8. Georgian Heathen Pantheon Like in primitive tribal society in the early stages of class society (XII century. B.C. to IV century A.D.), dominant religion was heathenism with numerous deities. The worship of the elements of Nature (the sky, the sun, the moon and the stars, the thunder, the clouds, the day and the night etc) was common to all primitive religions. Each tribe and community worshiped a deity of their own; they personified these elements of Nature in deities around whom elaborate cults were built. They made idols and sacrificed animals to them. The primitive men believed these deities had special force and introduced order in the

Nature and the society; they held religious rituals and ceremonies to worship them. A silver goblet unearthed in a burial mound in Trialeti dating back to the mid-Bronze age as well as other artifacts is embellished with the scenes of such religious rituals. Some of the rituals and ceremonies have been passed down to modern Georgians Berikaoba, Keenoba, Khatoba and others.

Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius (138-161). Georgian folklore, myths and tales are replete with old religious ideas and beliefs. The characters of these tales and legends have the qualities and appearances of human beings and either descend into the underground or ascend to heaven, where they meet and speak to the sun, the moon, and the stars. The sun is a woman and the moon is a man, the god of weather and clouds, Taros, is a man too, and so on. Along with the formation of Georgian states, the conceptions of the primitive tribal deities became confused and finally merged; it was a sort of religious centralization and establishment of a certain hierarchy among these deities. Armazi (the cult of the moon), the central deity of the Georgians, was in the form of a warrior made of copper, wearing a gold helmet. The sacred animal for Armazi was an ox, and oxen were sacrificed to Armazi. The ox horns are of crescent form, which was why Armazi was associated with an ox. The image of ox horns or ox head were frequently used in old pagan shrines (later in Christian churches and monasteries as well). Advanced husbandry was the cause of making the cult of the ox so important for the Georgians. The ancient Georgian cult the deity of the moon - was exported, along with other cultural elements from Asia Minor by the Meskhs and was named Armazi

Mtskheta - Epitaph on Seraphitis grave; the so-called Armazi bilingual inscription; I half of the III centuryGreek text: Seraphiti, a daughter of Zevakh, minor Pitiakhshi, son of Pitiakhshi Publicios Agripas son, the wife of Royal Housekeeper Iodmangan, the winner of many victories of great King of Iberia Xeparnug. This unmatched beauty died very young, at the age of 21 (Translated by Ac. T. Kaukhchishvili). Aramaic inscription: I am Seraphiti, a daughter of Zevakh the Mtsire, the Pitiakhshi of King Parsman, the wife of Iodmangan, who was victorious in many fierce battles, and who is Royal Housekeeper of King Xeparnug, Agripas son, Royal Housekeeper of King Farsman, who took the upper hand over those who Farnavazi failed to beat. And, so, Seraphiti was of unmatched beauty and kindness. She died at the age of 21 (Translated by Ac. T. Kaukhchishvili) during Farnavazs reign. The cult of Armazi was erected on the high hill nearby Mtskheta; it was in the form of a man made of copper, wearing a gold cuirass, with a gold helmet and gold shoulder-pieces, his eyes were made of precious gems and held a sword. Its name day was celebrated in late summer; they would decorate streets of Mtskheta with colorful fabrics and flowers; numerous people, including the royal family took part in the celebration. Not only oxen were sacrificed to Armazi but babies as well. In association with Armazi were the gods Ga and Gatsi, their cults were erected next to Armazi, and the idol of Zadeni on the mountain on the opposite side of Armazi. These cults personified different elements of Nature. 9. Ancient Georgian Towns The culture of Georgian tribes and of their national entities (Diaochi, Colchis, Kartli) was independent and highly developed. Georgian culture was not insulated from the world outside as it had close cultural and economic links with oriental countries (Asia Minor) on one hand, and with the ancient world (Greek, Rome) on the other, which was why eastern and western cultures found a synthesis here. Ancient Georgia abounded with cities with well-developed urban life, districts of artisans and traders, fine architectural monuments, strongholds, royal palaces and temples. The most flourishing cities of Eastern Georgia were Mtskheta, Urbnisi, Uplistsikhe, Kaspi, Odzrkhe (not far from Abastumani) and

Cytaia (Kutaisi); Vani (ancient name not known), Dablagomi (ancient name not known), Tsikhegoji (called Archeopolis or the old town by the Greeks, its remains have been discovered in Nokalakevi 17 km. away from Senaki) were in Western Georgia. The data on these cities are given in the writings of the old Greek and Roman annalists (including Strabo) and their ruins have been discovered in archeological excavations of Mtskheta, Vani, Dablagomi, Nokalakevi and Urbnisi. Uplistsikhe (the castle of Uplos) is carved out of a long low ridge of rock, which overlooks the wide valley of the Mtkvari. Here, cut out of the natural caves of the ancient mountain, is a great hall of ancient theater. Excavations of different districts of Mtskheta (Bagineti, Armaztsikhe, Samtavro) discovered the acropolis (the center, the citadel royal palace Armaztsikhe) and the ruins of the palace and the temple, as well as the residence of the Pitiakhshis of Kartli (Armaziskhevi) equipped with a bath and all amenities (cold and hot water reservoirs, with air heating equipment under the floor, mosaic floor and clay tubes). Similar baths were found at Dzalisa (Mtskheta region) as well as in western Georgia; a brilliant piece of engineering a royal tomb - was discovered at Mtskheta. Acropolis of Vani is a model of an ancient Western Georgian developed town. The excavations here discovered the remains of cult and secular edifices ruins of a round monastery with a seven-step chancel and streets paved with stones and towers. Among numerous items, a bronze statue of Nike, the goddess of victory, has also been discovered. Excavations discovered remains (temples, dwellings, stronghold and so on) of Tsikhe-Goji the center of Lazica (Egrisi). (Archeopolis) - a typical town of ancient Western Georgia. Other brilliant pieces of ancient Georgian art artifacts of iron and bronze, implements and weapons, refined jewelry and domestic utensils - have also been discovered. 10. Development of Feudal Relations in Georgia In Georgia, feudal relations emerged as early as in the first centuries, while in the IV they became dominant and endured for long periods. Feudalism was an advanced phenomenon in comparison with primitive and early class society; it meant progress. Feudalism was facilitated by the development of production equipment, political strengthening of Georgia and its appearance on the international scene as well as its involvement in the world trade and economic relations. Improvement of agricultural iron implements meant cultivation of land and development of production equipment, which was further facilitated by setting up irrigation systems throughout Georgia. These improvements encouraged advanced farming such as the development of husbandry and viticulture. Advanced farming required workers to focus on the result of the production. Slaves and communal workers (Metemes) were not like this. Slaves were given their sustenance only, while Metemes grew enough crops to feed themselves and their families too.

Armaziskhevi (Mtskheta) Necklace with an unguentarium II B.C.Cultivation of large masses of lands encouraged landownership, the basis for feudal relations. Landowners exploited poor workers, who were separated from the community and left without any land of their own. Landowners gave them a piece of land and required a part of their crops in return i.e. they levied taxes on them. Workers of this kind, those having land and implements in their use only (and not in ownership), subordinated to landowners and set up a class of the exploited workers, known as peasants (glekhi) in Georgia of the early feudal society and as bondsmen (kma-glekhi) during developed feudalism. The word glekhi derives from the root glakhaki meaning indigent beggar. The dominant feudal class - upper and minor landowners exploiting peasants in early Feudal Georgia was called Aznauri (freemen), their upper class was known as Aznauris and tsarchinebulis. In ancient Persian Aznauri meant advanced, prominent, while the suffix uri is Georgian and means possession; tsarchinebuli means of noble birth. Along with poor farmers, isolated from the community, among taxed peasants were ex-slaves provided with land and implements by landowners. A few warriors, who managed to take possession of large landed property, expanded their farms and became rich through the loot and advancement in their career, and thus constituted a part of feudalaznauris. Being a warrior meant having political power and was a sort of privilege, a prerogative of the upper class. Joining troops meant being able to buy armor, a sword, a horse and horses harness, which did not come cheap and was a prerogative of the well-to-do only. Thus, equestrians and troops were aznauris.

In the first centuries, feudalism meant division of people into feudal-aznauris and peasants; the process finally ended in the IV century, however, it still retained certain traits of tribal society, which was why the period is known as early feudal era (IV-X centuries).