S u n u p y Final Report ,

Contract FH-11-7290
January 1970

BUS, TRUCK, TRACTOR/TRAlLER BRAKING SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

Ray W. Murphy Rudolf Limpert Leonard Segel

Highway Safety Research Institute The university of Michigan Ann Arbor

for National Highway Traffic Safety Administration U.S. Department of Transportation

The opinions, finding, and conclusions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

1 . Report No.

2. Government Accession No.

3. Recipient's Catalog No.

I
4 . Title and Subtitle

5 . Report Date

BUS, TRUCK, TRACTOR-TRAILER BRAKING SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

7 . Author(s)

March 1971
6 . Performing Organization Code

1 8. Performing Organnation Report No.

PF-lOla
10. Work Unit No.

R.W. Murphy, R. Limpert, L, Segel

9. Performing Organization Name and Address

Highway Safety Research Institute University of Michigan Huron Parkway & Baxter Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105
1 2 . Sponroring Agency Name and Address

1 1 . Contract or Grant No.

FH-11-7290
13. Type of Report and Period Covered

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration U.S. Department of Transportation Washington, D.C. 20591
15. Supplelnentary Notes

Summary Final Report 7/69 - 3/71

14. Sponsoring Agency Code

16. Abstract

The objectives of this study were to determine the range of braking performance currently exhibited by buses, trucks, and tractor-trailers and to establish the maximum braking performance capabilities of these vehicles based upon full utilization of the technology related to brake system design. Both vehicle testing and ana,lyticaltechniques, including dynamic modeling and simulation, were used to accomplish these objectives. Performance measures were defined which serve to quantify the degree to which a. given vehicle-braking system possesses those qualities necessary for adequate braking performance. Using these measures, a braking performance standard is recommended based upon a comparative analysis of (1) current braking performance, (2) the maximum performance achievable by full exploitation of existing technology, and (3) performance a,s constrained by a host of associated factors.

17. Key

Words

18. Dlstribution Statement

brake performance, brakes, brake systems, trucks, buses, tractortrailers

19. Security Claasif.(of t h ~ ,report)

Availability is unlimited. Document may be released to the Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific Information, Springfield, Virginia; 3 2 1 5 1 . f o r sale to the n u .
21. No. of Pages

20. Security Class~f.(of page) this

22. Price

Unclassified

Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-69)

Unclassified

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors wish t o acknowledge t h a t many i n d i v i d u a l s and organizations made outstanding c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h i s program, not only by supplying vehic l e s and t e c h n i c a l d a t a , b u t a l s o by providing t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e .

TABLE O CONTENTS F

Page LIST O TABLES F LIST OF FIGURES ABSTRACT 1.0. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Statement of t h e Problem 1 . 2 . Objectives

2.0. S M A Y OF TASKS U MR 2.1. 2.2. 2.3. 2.. 3.0. RESULTS L i t e r a t u r e Review Vehicle-Brake System Performance T e s t s A n a l y t i c a l Program Recommenda.tions f o r a S a f e t y Standard

3.1.

3.2.

3.3. 3.4.

T e s t R e s u l t s , Baseline Vehicles 3.1.1. Brake e f f e c t i v e n e s s t e s t s 3.1.2. Brake f a i l u r e t e s t s 3.1.3. Fade and recovery t e s t s 3.1.4. Brake r a t i n g t e s t s 3.1.3. Brake response time t e s t s 3.1.6. System f a i l u r e s Test R e s u l t s , Vehicles Equipped With Advanced Systems Truck equipped with d i s c brakes 3.2.1. 3.2.2. T r a , c t o r - t r a i l e r s equipped w i t h advanced sys terns Test Surfaces and Tire-Road I n t e r f a c e T e s t s Analyt ica.1 Results 3.4.1. Braking performance 3 . 4 . 2 . Proportioning schemes

4.0.

RECOMMENDATIONS

4.1.
2

4.3.

Performance Measures Maximum Achievable Performance Recommendations f o r a, Standard

LIST OF TABLES

Table
1. E f f e c t i v e n e s s T e s t Summary-Baseline

Page Vehicles

2. Summary of Performance of Trucks and Buses Under F a i l u r e

Conditions

3. Summary of Performance of T r a c t o r - T r a i l e r s Under F a i l u r e

Conditions

4.

Summary o f Fade T e s t R e s u l t s and Buses

3. Summary of Brake R a t i n g T e s t Results-Trucks

6.

Summary of Brake Ra.ting T e s t R e s u l t s - T r a c t o r - T r a i l e r

A i r Brake Response Time T e s t s - T r a c t o r - T r a i l e r Combinations

7 . Summary of

8. 9.
10.

E f f e c t i v e n e s s T e s t Surmary-Jisc

Brake Truck

T e s t Summary, Performance of Vehicles Equipped With Advanced Systems on Dry Tra.ck T e s t Summary, Performance o f Vehicles Equipped With Advanced Systems on Low C o e f f i c i e n t S u r f a c e

1 . Summary of Brake Response Times 1

Skid Numbers and p e a k / s l i d i n g Tire-Road C o e f f i c i e n t s f o r T e s t Surface

13. Performa.nce Measures

lit.
O v e r a l l Bra.king E f f i c i e ~ c i e sf o r Advanced Systems Tested

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

Page

1. Interrelationship of project tasks and subtasks.

2 Maximum deceleration capability, baseline vehicles. .

5
8
18
28
29

3. Effectiveness test results, disk brake truck.

4. Braking performance diagram for 2-S1 tractor-trailer.

5. Braking efficiency for 2-S1 tractor-trailer.

6. Maximum deceleration performance ranges, baseline and advanced systems.

37

7 . Improvement in maximum deceleration performance with advanced systems.

38
41

8. Deceleration-pedal force gain for disk brake truck and HSRI

recommended limits.

1.0

INTRODUCTION

This r e p o r t p r e s e n t s f i n d i n g s , conclusions, and recommendations derived by t h e Highway S a f e t y Research I n s t i t u t e (HSRI) of The U n i v e r s i t y of Michiga,n i n a r e s e a r c h program f o r t h e National Highway T r a f f i c S a f e t y Administration (NHTSA) n t i t l e d , "BUS, Truck, T r a c t o r - T r a i l e r Braking System Performance e Study. " The broad o b j e c t i v e s of t h i s program a r e t h e formulation of techniques and t h e production of d a t a designed t o a i d N T A i n f u l f i l l i n g i t s mandate t c HS i s s u e reasonable and d e s i r a b l e s a f e t y standards.

1.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The complex r e l a t i o n s h i p between c u r r e n t braking c a p a b i l i t i e s of commerc i a l v e h i c l e s and t h e frequency of a c c i d e n t s w i t h t h e s e v e h i c l e s due t o d e f i c i e n c i e s i n braking performance i s n e i t h e r completely understood nor s t a t i s t i c a l l y documented. There i s , n e v e r t h e l e s s , ample i n t u i t i v e b a s i s t o hypothe s i z e t h a t such a r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s a.nd, f u r t h e r , t h a t t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n s p e c i f i c v e h i c l e braking performance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which, during e i t h e r t h e normal d r i v i n g process o r emergency s i t u a t i o n s , cause t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r l o s s of c o n t r o l t o r i s e above a t h r e s h o l d beyond which even t h e s k i l l and experience of t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l d r i v e r a r e of l i t t l e a v a i l . It i s known t h a t t h e braking performance of buses, t r u c k s , a,nd t r a c t o r - t r a , i l e r s va,ries s i g n i f i ca.ntly over a. wide range, and i s , on t h e avera.ge, l e s s than tha,t f o r passenger c a , r s , and c e r t a i n l y l e s s than t h e ma,ximum performance a.chieva.ble. Thus i t can be argaed t h a t t h i s performance d i f f e r e n t i a l , i f g r e a t enough, can c o n s t i t u t e a s i g n i f i c a n t s a f e t y haza,rd s i n c e a l l v e h i c l e types a r e subjected t o t h e same t r a f f i c and p h y s i c a l environments. The performance demands of t h e s e environments a.nd t h e i n t e g r a , t i o n of v e h i c l e types w i t h i n tile environments i n d i c a t e a need f o r uniform a.nd higher bra.king performance l e v e l s t o be achieved by commercia,l v e h i c l e s . The study described h e r e i n addresses t h i s need by f c c u s i n g on t h e establishment of braking system performance r e q u i r e ments f o r buses, t r u c k s , and t r a c t o r - t r a i l e r s ,

1.2

OBJECTIVES The s p e c i f i c o b j e c t i v e s of t h i s study a r e t h r e e f o l d : .To determine, by mea,ns of v e h i c l e t e s t i n g , t h e range of braking performance c u r r e n t l y e x h i b i t e d by buses, t r u c k s , and t r a c t o r trailers. .To e s t a b l i s h t h e maximum braking performance c a p a b i l i t i e s of t h e s e v e h i c l e s based on f u l l u t i l i z a t i o n of t h e technology

r e l a t e d t o brake system design.

.To recommend a r a t i o n a l braking performance standard based upon a comparative a n a l y s i s of ( 1 ) c u r r e n t braking performance, ( 2 ) t h e maximum performance achievable by f u l l e x p l o i t a t i o n of e x i s t ing technology, and (3) performance a s constrained by a h o s t of associated factors.

2.0

S M A Y O TASKS U ME F

I n order t o meet t h e o b j e c t i v e s of t h i s program, four major e ~ p e r i r n e n t a ~ l a.nd analytica.1 t a s k s were c a r r i e d out.

2.1

LITERATURE REVIEW

The f o r e i g n and domestic l i t e r a t u r e was surveyed with t h e o b j e c t i v e of f i n d i n g information p e r t i n e n t t o accurate analyses of braking systems, experimental t e s t procedures, and mea.ns of measuring and evaluating t h e braking performance of buses, t r u c k s , and t r a c t o r - t r a i l e r s . Factors considered i m p o r t a n t i n t h e review were brake system design, braking performance, brake usage, brake t e s t i n g , brake f a i l u r e , and performance standards.

2.2

VEHICLE-BRAKE SYSTEM PERFORMANCE TESTS

I n order t o determine t h e braking performance c a p a b i l i t i e s of v e h i c l e s equipped with standard braking systems, t h r e e i n t e g r a l t r u c k s , t h r e e buses, and four t r a , c t o r - t r a i l e r combinations were subjected t o a s e r i e s of e f f e c t i v e n e s s , fade and recovery, and brake r a t i n g t e s t s . So t h a t t h e improvement i n performance through use of more e f f e c t i v e brakes and advanced braking systems could be determined, t h r e e a d d i t i o n a l v e h i c l e s were t e s t e d , namely: n 1. A i n t e g r a l t r u c k equipped with d i s k bra,kes a.nd a f u l l power hydraulic brake a c t u a t i o n system.
2. A t r a c t o r - t r a i l e r equipped with proportioning valves, ada,ptive braking system,* and t r a i l e r bra.ke s~ynchronizationdevice.

3. P. t r a c t o r - t r a , i l e r equipped with a. wheel a n t i l o c k system.**

The d i s k brake t r u c k was subjected t o e f f e c t i v e n e s s , fade and recovery, and brake r a t i n g t e s t s , while t h e two t r a c t o r - t r a i l e r v e h i c l e s were t e s t e d p r i m a r i l y f o r e f f e c t i v e n e s s and minimum stopping c a p a b i l i t y .

*Designation used throughout t h i s r e p o r t f o r t h e system developed by BendixWestinghouse. **Designation used throughout t h i s r e p o r t f o r t h e system developed by Eaton, Yale, and Towne.

2.3 ANALYTICAL PROGRAM

The analytical study was directed toward establishing mathematical and computation procedures for predicting braking performance based upon vehicle and braking system design factors. Analysis of the performance of several of the test vehicles demonstrated the feasibility of making accurate predictions of brake effectiveness, braking efficiency, pedal force gain, and thermal response. Dynamic modeling and simulation were employed to determine the extent to which vehicle braking performance can be improved with increased effectiveness, refinements in brake torque distribution, and load and deceleration sensitive proportioning systems.

2.4

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR A SAFETY STANDARD

Based upon the results of the three aforementioned tasks, performance requirements are suggested which would effectively upgrade the braking performance of these vehicles to a level approaching that of passenger cars. Procedures and tests for ensuring compliance with the requirements are also suggested. The interrelation of the tasks and important subtasks is shown in block . diagram form in Figure 1

3.0

RESULTS

3.1 TEST RESULTS, BASELINE VEHICLES

The t e s t r e s u l t s f o r t h e t e n baseline vehicles ( v e h i c l e s equipped with standard braking systems) a r e summarized i n t h i s section. For s p e c i f i c d e t a i l s on vehicle s p e c i f i c a t i o n s and t h e r e s u l t s of each i n d i v i d u a l t e s t , t h e reader i s r e f e r r e d t o t h e F i n a l Report volume.

3.1.1

Brake Effectiveness Tests

The vehicles were t e s t e d f o r brake effectiveness, i n t h e loaded and empty condition t o t h e point of wheel lockup i f t h e brakes had s u f f i c i e n t torque capacity. I f t h e behicle remained s t a b l e beyond t h e point of f i r s t wheel lockup, pedal f o r c e was increased t o l o c k up a s many wheels a s possible. Results f o r a l l t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s t e s t s a r e summarized i n Table 1, and a graphi c a l summary of t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n c a p a b i l i t i e s of t h e b a s e l i n e vehicles i s given i n Figure 2, The average maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n achieved (without wheel lock occurring) with t h e t e s t e d t r u c k s i s 15.5 f t / s e c 2 i n t h e empty condition and 17.0 f t / s e c 2 i n t h e loaded condition. I f wheel locking i s permitted, t h e f i g u r e s become 19.2 and 17.7 f t / s e c 2 , respectively. These r e s u l t s show t h a t brake torque capacity has been proportioned t o give b e s t performance f o r t h e loaded condition. For t h e t e s t buses, the average maximum deceleration, wheels unlocked, i s

18.5 f t / s e c 2 empty and 19.9 ft,/sec2 loaded, with t h e performance of t h e empty buses i n c r e a s i n g t o 2'1.7 f t / s e c 2 , when some wheels a r e locked. It should be
noted t h a t i t was impossible t o lock wheels on any of t h e buses when f u l l y loaded. For t h e t r a c t o r - t r a i l e r s t e s t e d , t h e average maximum deceleration, wheels unlocked, i s 15.0 f t / s e c 2 empty and 16.5 f t / s e c 2 loaded, with t h e performance empty i n c r e a s i n g t o 19.4 f t / s e c 2 when wheels a r e locked. Although t h e trucks e x h i b i t a wide range i n performance, t h e loaded buses e x h i b i t uniform performance. A r a t h e r remarkable v a r i a t i o n i n performance i s noted f o r t h e t r a c t o r - t r a i l e r combinations, notwithstanding t h e f a c t t h a t t h e same t r a c t o r was used i n two of t h e combinations (2-S1 and 2-52) and t h e same t r a i l e r was used i n two combinations (2-S2 and 3 - ~ 2 ) . Overall, t h e t e n vehicles achieved an average maximum deceleration, wheels unlocked, of 16.5 f t / s e c 2 , empty, and 17.7 f t / s e c 2 , loaded, and 19.4 f t / s e c P ,

TABLE 1 EFFECTIVENESS TEST SUMMARY-BASELINE Minimum Stopping Distance, f t Empty Loaded Some N o Some N o Wheels Wheels Wheels Wheels Locked Locked Locked Locked
2 38

VEHICLES ry'iximm D e c e l e r a t i o n , f t / s e c 2 Empty Loaded N o Some N o Some Wheels Wheels Wheels Wheels Locked Locked Locked Locked 20.0 13.0 13.2 28.0 13.7 23 . O 12.6 25.0

Nm o Vehicles vo mph

.
J

Light Truck Medium Truck Heady Truck School Bus I n t e r c i t y BUS C i t y Bus Tractor -Trailer 2-s1 Tractor-Trailer 2-s2 Tractor- T r a i l e r 3- s 2 Tractor- Double Trailer

60 60 60
40

322

316
108
290

150 282 248 84 221 72

219 307 263

191

---

--

262

17.8
22.0 21.5 24.0

15.5
20.0

15.5

119
202

6o
40

93
291 428

89
292 222

-------- --299

l g .O
16.3 20.5

--

19.5
20.3

----

60 60 60

258 220 247 294

15.5
15.0

17.0 20.0

15.2 20.0 14.0

-16.1

366

3 76
309

14.0
15. 0

16. o
18.8

60

395

---

16.6

--

empty, and 18.1 f t / s e c 2 loaded, i f some wheels a r e permitted t o l o c k during t h e stop. The measured range of performance i s g r e a t e s t f o r t h e t r u c k s (12.6 t o 28.0 f t / s e c 2 ) and l e a s t f o r t h e t r a c t o r - t r a i l e r s (14.0 t o 20.0 f t / s e c 2 ) . Bus performance ranged from 16.3 t o 24.0 f t / s e c 2 .

It should be noted t h a t seven out of t h e t e n v e h i c l e s , when t e s t e d i n t h e loaded c o n d i t i o n , did not have s u f f i c i e n t torque c a p a c i t y t o l o c k up any wheels on t h e s u r f a c e used i n t h i s t e s t program. It should a l s o be pointed out t h a t seven of t h e t e n v e h i c l e s , when empty, could not exceed t h e performance of t h e loaded v e h i c l e without l o c k i n g up some wheels, which locking causes e i t h e r l o s s of s t e e r i n g c o n t r o l or may l e a d t o l a t e r a l i n s t a b i l i t y .

3.1.2

Brake F a i l u r e T e s t s

The brake f a i l u r e modes s e l e c t e d f o r t e s t depended upon t h e design of t h e brake system, I n t h e l i g h t t r u c k , t h r e e f a i l u r e modes were p o s s i b l e : f r o n t h y d r a u l i c l i n e f a i l u r e , r e a r h y d r a u l i c l i n e f a i l u r e , and power boost f a i l u r e . The medium t r u c k was n o t designed with s e p a r a t e f r o n t and r e a r brake systems, and t h u s t h i s v e h i c l e was t e s t e d only with t h e power boost f a i l u r e . The heavy t r u c k and t h e c i t y bus, each equipped with a i r brakes, d i d n o t cont a i n an emergency system except f o r t h e mechanical hand brake a t t a c h e d t o t h e d r i v e s h a f t . The school and i n t e r c i t y buses had, however, s e p a r a t e emergency brake systems, which, when a c t u a t e d under f a i l u r e of t h e s e r v i c e brake system, supplied a i r p r e s s u r e t o t h e r e a r brakes. A opening of t h e r e a r door of t h e n c i t y bus a l s o a c t u a t e d t h e r e a r brakes through t h e normal s e r v i c e system. A summary of t e s t r e s u l t s obtained with t h e t r u c k s and buses i n each of t h e f a i l u r e modes t e s t e d i s given i n Table 2. D e c e l e r a t i o n performance was measured on t r a c t o r - t r a i l e r combinations i n t e s t s conducted a t 20 mph i n which brake f a i l u r e was simulated by opening t h e t r a i l e r emergency a i r l i n e a t t h e t r a c t o r p r o t e c t i o n valve. It was not cons i d e r e d p r a c t i c a l t o conduct t h e s e t e s t s from 60 mph because of t h e s t r o n g p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t damage t o t h e suspension and brake supporting s t r u c t u r e would r e s u l t from such a severe brake a p p l i c a t i o n a t high speed. Two of t h e t r a c t o r s were equipped with s p r i n g brakes. These brakes were a l s o t e s t e d from 23 mph. R e s u l t s obtained f o r t h e combinations i n t h e empty and loaded c o n d i t i o n s a r e given i n Table 3.

3.1.3

Fade and Recovery T e s t s

Table 4 summarizes t h e f i n d i n g s obtained i n t h e fade and recovery t e s t s conducted on t h e b a s e l i n e v e h i c l e s . The f a d e t e s t procedure s p e c i f i e d t h a t a l l v e h i c l e s be d e c e l e r a t e d from t e s t speed a t 15 f t / s e c 2 ( o r t h e maximum dec e l e r a t i o n a s determined from t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s t e s t i f t h e v e h i c l e could not

S M A Y OF PEW'ORMANCE O TRUCKS AND BUSES UNDER FAILURE CONDITIONS U MR F Vehicles Trucks Light Type o f F a i l m e Brakes Used

Vo, mph

Max. Decel., f t / s e c 2
Empty Loaded

Min. Stopping D i s t . ,
Empty

f t ~oaded

Medium Heavy
P

Front Brakes Rear Brakes Power Boost Power Boost S e r v i c e Brakes

Rear Brakes Only F r o n t Brakes Only S e r v i c e Brakes S e r v i c e Brakes Hand Brake

Buses School Intercity City

--

S e r v i c e Brakes S e r v i c e Brakes

knergenc y Emergency Hand Brake Rear Brakes

* I n d i c a t e s lock-up of one o r more wheels.

S Y A Y O PERFOMNCE O TRACTOR-TRAILERS U D B FAILURE CONDITIONS UMR F F NE Loading Condition Maximum Decel., ft/sec2 Minimum Stopping Dist., f t

Vehicles

Type of F a i l u r e

Brakes Used

vo 9 mph

Wheel Lockup

2-Sl

Opening T r a i l e r Emergency A i r Line Opening T r a i l e r Emergency A i r Line

Trailer Trailer

20 20

Empty Loaded

6.5
7.5 9 5
12.0

94
85

Both T r a i l e r Wheels None

2-S2

Opening T r a i l e r Emergency A i r Line Opening T r a i l e r Emergency A i r Line

Trailer Trailer

20 20

Empty Loaded

70 45

A l l T r a i l e r Wheels

L e f t Tandem, R i g h t Rear

P P

3-S2

Opening T r a i l e r Emergency A i r Line Opening T r a i l e r Emergency A i r Line S e r v i c e Sys tern S e r v i c e System

Trailer Trailer T r a c t o r S p r i n g Brakes T r a c t o r S p r i n g Brakes

20 20 20 20

Empty Loaded Empty Loaded

7.0 9.0

102 100

A l l T r a i l e r Wheels

L e f t Tandem, R i g h t Tandem
A l l T r a c t o r Drive Wheels

8.0
6.2

83
110

None Right F r o n t and L e f t Rear O F u l l T r a i l e r n None Both Rear T r a c t o r Wheels None

2-S1-2

Opening T r a i l e r Emergency A i r Line Opening T r a i l e r Emergency A i r Line S e r v i c e System S e r v i c e System

Trailer Trailer T r a c t o r S p r i n g Brakes T r a c t o r S p r i n g Brakes

20

Empty Loaded Empty Loaded

13.3

48

20
20 20

7.8 5 .4
3.2

91
100

155

TABLE

S M A Y O F D TEST RESULTS U MR F A E Test Decel., ft/sec2 15 12 Numb e r of Snubs Achieved 12 Velocity ~nitial/Final, sec Average AtPel, sec 5-9 Average Atlm2> sec Highest L i n i n g Temp. O F 520 335 405

Vehicles Trucks Light Medium Heavy Buses School Intercity

I-J

H o t t e s t Brake

3
5

14
15

60110 60/10 60110

4011~ 60/10
40110

55
125 213

7-5
5.2

L e f t Rear R i g h t Rear L e f t Tandem

9
9
10

5.9
6.3 3.4

29

445

15
15

85
48

600
315

rc

City Tractor-Trailers 2-Sl 2-S2 3- ~ 2 2- S l - 2

Left Front L e f t Drive Right Front

15 15
14.5 12.0

10 10 10 10

5o/lo
45/10 50/10 50/10

5.6 4-3
5-3 7.0

222 lo5

157
144

390 380 405

460

L e f t Rear T r a c t o r L e f t Rear T r a c t o r Right Rear T r a c t o r L e f t Rear T r a c t o r

At2-l
Atl-2

i s t h e time from i n i t i a l brake p e d a l a p p l i c a t i o n a t i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y t o b r a k e p e d a l r e l e a s e a t lower snub v e l o c i t y . i s t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n time from lower snub v e l o c i t y back t o i n i t i a l t e s t v e l o c i t y .

a c h i e v e 15 f t / s e c 2 ) t o 1 0 mph and a c c e l e r a t e d a s r a p i d l y a s p o s s i b l e back t o t e s t speed, t h e snubs c o n t i n u i n g u n t i l t h e s p e c i f i e d d e c e l e r a t i o n l e v e l could no l o n g e r be maintained. The r e c o v e r y t e s t a s s p e c i f i e d i n SAE 5786 was conducted immediately a f t e r t h e f a d e t e s t . I n conducting t h e f a d e t e s t on t h e c i t y bus and t h e t r a c t o r - t r a i l e r s , i t soon became obvious t h a t t h e s p e c i f i e d procedure would n o t f a d e t h e b r a k e s even a f t e r t e n snubs. The t e s t s were t e r m i n a t e d a t t h i s p o i n t . The t e s t proc e d u r e a l s o proved i m p r a c t i c a l i n t h a t it was n o t p o s s i b l e t o m a i n t a i n t h e r e q u i r e d 15 f t / s e c 2 d e c e l e r a t i o n on t h e 3-S2 t r a c t o r - t r a i l e r combination o r on t h e doubles combination because of i n c i p i e n t wheel lockup.

3.1.4

Brake R a t i n g T e s t s

The procedure s p e c i f i e d f o r t h i s t e s t , r e q u i r e d t h a t t h e t e s t v e h i c l e be towed on a f l a t s u r f a c e a t a c o n s t a n t v e l o c i t y w i t h b r a k e s a p p l i e d a t a l i n e p r e s s u r e e q u i v a l e n t t o t h a t r e q u i r e d t o m a i n t a i n c o n s t a n t v e h i c l e v e l o c i t y on a 7% descending grade. The v e h i c l e was t o be towed w i t h l i n e p r e s s u r e h e l d c o n s t a n t u n t i l t h e towbar f o r c e a s measured by a l o a d c e l l i n t h e towbar dec r e a s e d ( d u e t o f a d e ) by 15%. The towing f o r c e over t h e d u r a t i o n of t h e t e s t was averaged, t h e r o l l i n g r e s i s t a n c e s u b t r a c t e d , and t h e average b r a k i n g f o r c e c a l c u l a t e d , from which t h e energy a b s o r p t i o n r a t e of t h e brake (horsepower) and t h e t o t a l energy absorbed were determined. Two measures were formulated f o r r a t i n g t h e brakes. The f i r s t measure i s based on horsepower and l i n i n g a r e a g i v i n g some i n d i c a t i o n of t h e r a t e of ecergy a b s o r p t i o n , t h e second i s based upon t o t a l energy absorbed and t h e weight of t h e v e h i c l e . A summary of t e s t d a t a f o r t h e t r u c k s and buses i s given i n Table 5 and f o r t r a c t o r s and t r a i l e r s i n Table 6.

3.1.5

Brake Response Time T e s t s

To measure t h e brake r e s p o n s e time of t h e t r a c t o r - t r a i l e r combinations p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s were f i t t e d t o t h e o u t p u t of t h e b r a k e - c o n t r o l ( t r e a d l e ) v a l v e , and a t each a x l e of t h e v e h i c l e on which brakes were mounted, except only one t r a n s d u c e r was mounted a t a tandem a x l e . R e s u l t s of t h e responset i m e t e s t s a r e summarized i n Table 7 b o t h f o r a p p l i c a t i o n and r e l e a s e . The brake a p p l i c a t i o n t i m e s shown i n Table 7 were measured from t h e i n s t a n t p r e s s u r e s t a r t e d t o r i s e a t t h e o u t p u t of t h e t r e a d l e v a l v e t o t h e i n s t a n t a t which t h e p r e s s u r e reached 60 p s i a t a given a x l e . * Rel?ase t i m e s were measured

"Thi

d e f i n i t i o n i s s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t from t h a t g i v e n i n SAE 5982, which s p e c i f i e s t h a t a p p l i c a t i o n time be meamred "from t h e s t a r t of p e d a l movement t o a p r e s s u r e b u i l d u p of 60 p s i . "

TABLE 5 S M A Y O BWKE FLAYING TEST RESULTS-TRUCKS U MR F Vehicle Weight, lb 10,732 25,500 39, coo Test Velocity, mph Test Duration, sec Average Brake Power,
hp

AND BUSES

Vehicles Trucks. Light Medium Heavy Buses School Intercity

P

Power/ L i n i n g Area, hp/ft2 28.7 20.8 24.4

~ n e r ~ ~ Maximum / Weight, Brake Temp., ft-lb/lb O F 563 156 470 2 75 425

Hottest Brake

45
22 23

165 85
90

66.5

85.8 146. 0

186
293

Left Front R i g h t Rear L e f t Tandem

24,500 35,940 32,145

25 23 24

120 195 240

log. 0
151.0 124.0

32.0 19.9 20.3

451
510

466 435
425

Left Front L e f t Drive Left Front

+-

City

from t h e i n s t a n t p r e s s u r e began t o drop a t t h e output of t h e t r e a d l e valve t o t h e i n s t a n t a t which t h e p r e s s u r e a t a given a x l e dropped t o 5 p s i . These measurements i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e average response time f o r t h e r e a r a x l e of t h e t r a c t o r (when t h e t r a c t o r s were t e s t e d i n combination with a s e m i t r a i l e r ) was 0.24 sec. Average response time f o r t h e a x l e on t h e s e m i t r a i l e r s was 0.28 sec. Release times were c o n s i d e r a b l y longer, averaging 0.55 sec f o r t h e r e a r a x l e on t h e t r a c t o r and 0.79 sec f o r t h e a x l e on t h e s e m i t r a i l e r s . Applicat i o n and r e l e a s e times were c o n s i d e r a b l y longer on t h e doubles combination due t o t h e l a r g e r volumes of a i r t h a t had t o be moved through t h e system.

3.1.6

System F a i l u r e s

Several v e h i c l e suspension and brake system f a i l u r e s occurred during t h e t e s t i n g of t h e b a s e l i n e v e h i c l e s . None of t h e s e f a i l u r e s was considered e x t r a o r d i n a r y s i n c e t h e v e h i c l e s and systems were subjected t o a s e r i e s of high l e v e l d e c e l e r a t i o n s t h a t generated s t r e s s e s and c y c l e s of s t r e s s not normally encountered i n s e r v i c e .

3.2

TEST RESULTS, VEHICLES EQUIPPED WITH ADVANCED SYSTEMS

3.2.1

Truck Equipped with Disc Brakes

The medium t r u c k equipped with Bendix d i s k brakes and f u l l power h y d r a u l i c a c t u a t i o n system was subjected t o t h e same s e r i e s of t e s t s a s t h e b a s e l i n e v e h i c l e s : e f f e c t i v e n e s s , brake f a i l u r e , f a d e and recovery, and brake r a t i n g . The r e s u l t s of t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s t e s t a r e given i n Figure 3. These d a t a p o i n t up two important f a c t o r s :
1, The v e h i c l e has a maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n c a p a b i l i t y ( w i t h no wheels locked on t h e given t e s t s u r f a c e ) of b e t t e r than 21 f t / s e c 2 , t h i s performance being b e t t e r than nine of t h e t e n b a s e l i n e v e h i c l e s and c o n s i d e r a b l y b e t t e r than both t h e medium or heavy truck.

2. The v e h i c l e has t h e c a p a b i l i t y of locking up a l l f o u r wheels i n t h e loaded c o n d i t i o n , demonstrating t h a t i t does have brake torque suff i c i e n t t o u t i l i z e the f r i c t i o n a l forces i n the tire-road interface t o a maximum e x t e n t . With s e p a r a t e l y powered f r o n t and r e a r brake systems, i t was p o s s i b l e t o f a i l e i t h e r system and maintain braking c a p a b i l i t y on one axle. Table 8 summarizes t h e minimum stopping d i s t a n c e s and maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n s achieved i n t h e brake e f f e c t i v e n e s s and brake f a i l u r e t e s t s . Loss of t h e r e a r brakes d e c r e a s e s t h e maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n c a p a b i l i t y of t h e empty v e h i c l e by 35% and

of t h e loaded v e h i c l e by 4376, while l o s s of t h e f r o n t brakes decreases t h e maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n c a p a b i l i t y by 47% and 43%, empty and loaded, r e s p e c t i v e l y . Two f a d e t e s t s were conducted on t h i s v e h i c l e , with t h e r e s u l t s demons t r a t i n g t h e s u p e r i o r f a d e r e s i s t a n c e of d i s k brakes. I n t h e f i r s t t e s t t h e pedal f o r c e r e q u i r e d t o maintain 15 f t / s e c 2 d e c e l e r a t i o n from 60-10 mph i n c r e a s e d from 47 l b on t h e f i r s t snub t o 65 l b on t h e 1 5 t h snub. I n t h e second t e s t t h e pedal f o r c e i n c r e a s e d from 47 l b on t h e f i r s t snub t o 84 l b on t h e 1 5 t h snub. I n both c a s e s t h e brake temperature, a s measured by thermocouples i n t h e l i n i n g pads, was i n excess of 1270F. To make a f a i r comparison with t h e r e s u l t s of t h e b a s e l i n e v e h i c l e s , i t should be noted t h a t f o r t h e two t e s t s t h e average snub d e c e l e r a t i o n time was 5.8 sec and 5.7 sec and t h e average time t o a c c e l e r a t e back t o t e s t speed was 76.4 sec and 81.8 sec. I n t h e hrake r a t i n g t e s t an average power i n p u t t o t h e brakes of 91.3 hp was maintained f o r 670 sec with l e s s than 2w0 decrease i n brake f o r c e a t a c o n s t a n t pedal p r e s s u r e . The t e s t was terminated a f t e r 670 sec because, by t h i s time, t h e temperatures of a l l t h e brakes exceeded 1200CF. I n comparison with t h e b a s e l i n e v e h i c l e s , t h i s v e h i c l e produced an energy and p a r e r r a t i n g of 1215 f t - l b of thermal energy absorbed p e r pound of v e h i c l e weight and 71.4 hp f o r square f o o t of l i n i n g , r e s p e c t i v e l y .

3.2.2 T r a c t o r - T r a i l e r s Equipped w i t h Advanced Systems

For t h e two t r a c t o r - t r a i l e r combinations equipped with advanced systems, changes i n some of t h e t e s t procedures were made because t h e t e s t o b j e c t i v e s were d i f f e r e n t from t h o s e of t h e o t h e r eleven v e h i c l e s . For example, i n t e s t i n g t h e While 6 x 4 t r a c t o r and t h e Fruehauf tandem a x l e p l a t f o r m t r a i l e r ( h e r e i n a f t s r r e f e r r e d t o a s Vehicle #12), f i v e d i f f e r e n t v e h i c l e and l o a d i n g c o n f i g u r a t i o n s were used, t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e t r a c t o r f r o n t and r e a r probrakes was v a r i e d , and t h e aforementioned brake c o n t r o l systems, i . e . , : p o r t i o n i n g v a l v e s , a d a p t i v e braking, and t r a i l e r brake synchronization, were employed i n v a r i o u s combinations. The purpose i n t e s t i n g Vehicle #12 was t o determine t h e b e s t braking performance which could be achieved u s i n g a standard t e s t v e h i c l e , equipped with commercially a v a i l a b l e brakes, and employing s t a t e o f - t h e - a r t brake c o n t r o l systems. The e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e t r a c t o r brakes was varied by changing t h e wedge a n g l e s and brake chambers on t h e f r o n t brakes, and t h e s l a c k a d j u s t e r l e n g t h s on t h e r e a r brakes. Five d i f f e r e n t vehicle and l o a d c o n f i g u r a t i o n s were t e s t e d using Vehicle #12, namely,
1. t r a c t o r - t r a i l e r , empty 2. t r a c t o r - t r a i l e r , loaded, high c e n t e r of g r a v i t y 3. t r a c t o r - t r a i l e r , loaded, low c e n t e r of g r a v i t y 4. t r a c t o r only, b o b t a i l c o n f i g u r a t i o n 5. t r a c t o r only, loaded t o g r o s s a x l e weight r a t i n g

P r i o r t o commencement of t e s t s with Vehicle #12, t h e following advanced brake c o n t r o l systems were i n s t a l l e d : *Proportioning valves f o r t h e t r a c t o r r e a r brakes and t r a i l e r brakes, supplied by Borg-Warner. *Adaptive braking system, with a sensor and c o n t r o l l e r mounted on each of t h e t e n wheels of the combination t o prevent wheel lockup during braking, supplied by Bendix-Westinghouse. T r a i l e r brake synchronization ( ~ y n c r o n )system, which e f f e c t i v e l y a p p l i e s t h e t r a i l e r brakes a s soon a s t h e t r e a d l e valve i s depressed, supplied by t h e Berg Manufacturing Company. During the course of t h e t e s t program conducted with Vehicle #12, t h e b a s i c a i r brake system of both t h e t r a c t o r and t r a i l e r was a l t e r e d by i n s t a l l a t i o n of a high c a p a c i t y brake c o n t r o l ( t r e a d l e ) valve, quick r e l e a s e valves on each t r a i l e r brake a c t u a t o r , l a r g e r capacity l i n e s t o t h e f r o n t t r a c t o r brakes, and replacement of connectors, f i t t i n g s , and t e e s which tended t o r e s t r i c t a i r flow. To evaluate t h e braking performance of Vehicle #12 under various condit i o n s of loading and brake e f f e c t i v e n e s s , a s modified by t h e various brake c o n t r o l systems and combinations of systems, 59 minimum-stopping-distance t e s t s * and f i v e e f f e c t i v e n e s s t e s t s were conducted. The l a s t v e h i c l e t e s t e d i n t h e program was a t r a c t o r - t r a i l e r combination, furnished by Eaton, Yale, and Towne. This vehicle ( h e r e i n a f t e r designated O Vehicle #14), a 4 x 2 Brockway C E t r a c t o r with an Arrow lowboy 35 f t t r a i l e r , was extensively modified f o r use i n development of t h e Eaton, Yale, and Towne wheel a n t i l o c k system, with which t h e vehicle was equipped. Three e f f e c t i v e ness t e s t s , f i v e minimum-stopping-distance t e s t s , and four brake response time t e s t s were conducted on Vehicle #14. Summaries of t h e t e s t r e s u l t s f o r Vehicles #12 and #14 a r e given i n Table 9 f o r stops on t h e dry surface and Table 1 0 f o r stops on t h e low c o e f f i c i e n t surface. I n Table 9 r e s u l t s from t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s t e s t s a r e a l s o included, along with r e s u l t s from t h e d i s k brake truck. ( A complete compilation of t h e d a t a from t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s and minimum stopping d i s t a n c e t e s t s a r e included i n t h e F i n a l Report volume. )
*In the minimum stopping d i s t a n c e t e s t t h e d r i v e r was i n s t r u c t e d t o apply maximum brake pedal f o r c e a s r a p i d l y a s p o s s i b l e t o s t o p t h e vehicle i n t h e s h o r t e s t d i s t a n c e from t e s t speed without locking up any wheels, Tests were conducted on both dry ( h i g h c o e f f i c i e n t ) and wet s l i p p e r y (low c o e f f i c i e n t ) surf aces.

TABLE 1 0
TES'I SUMMARY, PERFORMANCE O VEHICLE2 EQUIPPED WITH A V N E F D A CD SYSTEMS ON M W COEFFICIENT SURFACE (~ll Stopping Distances Corrected t o

60

mph I n i t i a l T e s t V e l o c i t y ) Maximum Deceleration, ft/sec2 Empty Loaded

Vehicles Vehicle #12 T r a c t o r - T r a i l e r Standard Brakes With Adaptive System ana Syncron Vehicle #12 T r a c t o r - T r a i l e r Most E f f e c t i v e Brakes with Antilock and Syncron Vehicle #12 T r a c t o r Standard Brakes With Proportioning With Adaptive System vehicle # l 2 Tractor Most E f f e c t i v e Brakes With Adaptive System Vehicle #14 T r a c t o r - T r a i l e r Standared Brakes With Antilock Vehicle #12 T r a c t o r With Antilock

Minimum Stopping Distance, f t Empty Loaded

476

550

874
1194
510

1048 513

939 689

5.2

516

7.5

8.2

655

For Vehicle standard braking decelerations as v e h i c l e was 19.6

#12 i n t h e empty c o n d i t i o n on t h e d r y s u r f a c e , using t h e system, wheels lockup on t h e l e a d i n g a x l e of t h e t r a i l e r a t low a s 17 f t / s e c 2 . Maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n c a p a b i l i t y of t h e ft/sec2.

When u s i n g proportioning valves, wheels s t a r t e d t o lockup on t h e l e a d i n g a x l e of t h e t r a i l e r a t d e c e l e r a t i o n s a s low a s 11.8 f t / s e c 2 . Lockup of wheels on any o t h e r a x l e s was prevented by use of t h e proportioning valves, but a t t h e expense of d e c r e a s i n g t h e maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n c a p a b i l i t y t o 15.7 f t / s e c 2 . It can be shown t h a t load t r a n s f e r w i t h i n t h e two e l l i p t i c s p r i n g suspensions, such a s e x i s t s on t h e t r a i l e r of t h i s combination, causes t h e l e a d i n g a x l e t o be more s e v e r e l y unloaded than t h e t r a i l i n g a x l e . Since one valve was used

t o proportion brakes f o r both a x l e s , t h e s e t t i n g of t h e valve had t o be based on t h e average load c a r r i e d by t h e suspension, which allowed premature lockup of t h e wheels on t h e leading axle. Using t h e adaptive system, t h e maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n achieved was 18.9 f t / s e c 2 , a d e c e l e r a t i o n t h a t i s 96% of t h e maximum value obtained with t h e unaugmented vehicle i n stops t h a t included wheel lockups. Notwithstanding t h e s e moderately high d e c e l e r a t i o n s with t h e empty v e h i c l e , s t a b i l i t y problems were not encountered when t h e adaptive system was used. When t h e adaptive system was o p e r a t i o n a l on t h e t r a c t o r with a proportioning valve used only on t h e t r a i l e r , wheel l o c k on t h e t r a i l e r leading a x l e was prevented up t o a d e c e l e r a t i o n of 18.1 f t / s e c 2 . For t h e empty combination, t h i s scheme proved t o be almost a s e f f e c t i v e i n preventing wheel lock a s t h e f u l l y adaptive ( a n t i l o c k ) system. A maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n of 19.5 f t / s e c 2 was achieved with lockup of t h r e e wheels on t h e t r a i l e r .

The e f f e c t i v e n e s s t e s t conducted with the loaded vehicle a f t e r i n s t a l l i n g t h e most e f f e c t i v e brakes s p e c i f i e d f o r t h e program i n d i c a t e d a maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n c a p a b i l i t y of 15.1 f t / s e c 2 with lockup occurring on some wheels.
The following conclusions can be drawn from an examination of t h e d a t a from t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s and minimum stopping d i s t a n c e t e s t s on Vehicle #12:
1. For t h e t r a c t o r - t r a i l e r combination, best performance ( a s measured both by stopping d i s t a n c e and maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n ) was obtained when t h e adaptive system was used with t h e t r a i l e r brake synchronization system. This f i n d i n g holds f o r both wet and dry s u r f a c e s , and f o r both the empty and loaded vehicle.

2.

Proportioning valves were not a s e f f e c t i v e on t h e t r a c t o r - t r a i l e r combination a s would have been t h e case i f braking e f f o r t on t h e tandem a x l e s of t h e t r a i l e r had been proportioned t o dynamic a x l e l e s s braking e f f o r t on t h e l e a d i n g a x l e , and more braking load, i . e . : e f f o r t on t h e t r a i l i n g axle. The dry surf ace braking performance of t h e single-element t r a c t o r , both loaded and i n t h e b o b t a i l configuration, was improved t o an equal degree by use of t h e proportioning valve or t h e adaptive system. On t h e low c o e f f i c i e n t surface, however, t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n performance of t h e empty t r a c t o r was s e v e r e l y degraded by t h e proportioning valve, which device s e t t h e brake-line p r e s s u r e r a t i o ( f r o n t t o r e a r ) a t 5 t o 1. I n t h e s e l a t t e r t e s t s , t h e l i n e pressure had t o be kept below 30 p s i t o prevent t h e f r o n t wheels from locking on t h e low c o e f f i c i e n t surface. Since t h e proportioning valve kept t h e pressures a t t h e r e a r brakes below 6 p s i , t h a t i s , a t o r near t h e pushout pressure, t h e r e a r brakes d i d l i t t l e or no work i n t h e s e stops, r e s l u t i n g i n low decelerat i o n s and long stopping d i s t a n c e s .

R e s u l t s from the e f f e c t i v e n e s s and minimum stopping d i s t a n c e t e s t s on Vehicle #14 i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h i s v e h i c l e was equipped with brakes capable of locking t h e wheels on a dry s u r f a c e a t r e l a t i v e l y low l e v e l s of pedal f o r c e . I n t h e loaded condition using t h e standard braking system t h e l e f t r e a r t r a c t o r wheel locked a t a d e c e l e r a t i o n of 14.0 f t / s e c 2 on t h e dry surface. For t h e same t e s t conducted with t h e a n t i l o c k system o p e r a t i o n a l , t h e vehicle achieved a maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n of 15.2 f t / s e c 2 . The empty combination was a b l e t o achieve 14.8 f t / s e c 2 with t h e a n t i l o c k system o p e r a t i o n a l , while t h e t r a c t o r n ( b o b t a i l c o n f i g u r a t i o n ) was a b l e t o achieve 19.0 f t / s e c 2 . O t h e low coeff i c i e n t s u r f a c e , use of t h e a n t i l o c k system improved braking performance considerably.
A summary of r e s u l t s from brake response time t e s t s f o r Vehicles #12 and

#14 i s given i n Table 11. Averaged r e s u l t s f o r t h e t h r e e b a s e l i n e t r a c t o r t r a i l e r combinations a r e included f o r comparison.

S U W R Y O BRAKE RESPONSE TIMES F

Vehicles Average Baseline Vehicles #12 Standard System # 12 with Syncron #14 Standard System #14 with Antilock

~ ~ ~ l i c a t i o n / ~ e l Time,e sec eas Tractor Trailer Rear Axle Rear Axle 0.24/0.55 0.27/0.30 0.27/0.30 0.23/0.36 0.23/0.44 0.28/0.79 0.40/0.70 0.30/0.40

0.36/0.64
0.27/0.60

It should be noted t h a t on Vehicle #12, use of proportioning valves and/or t h e adaptive system did not s i g n i f i c a n t l y change t h e response times of t h e standard system. Syncron however improves ( i . e . , decreases) t r a i l e r brake O Vehicle n a p p l i c a t i o n time by about 25% and r e l e a s e time by b e t t e r than 4%. #14, when t h e a n t i l o c k system i s used, l i t t l e change i s noted i n a p p l i c a t i o n response time, except on t h e r e a r a x l e where t h e response time i s decreased s i g n i f i c a n t l y , i . e . , from 0.36 t o 0.27 sec. L i t t l e change i s noted i n r e l e a s e times, except t h a t t h e r e a r a x l e brakes on t h e t r a c t o r a r e somewhat improved i n t h i s regard.

3.3 TEST SURFACES AND TIRE-ROAD INTERFACE TESTS

A l l v e h i c l e brake performance t e s t i n g reported herein was accomplished a t t h e Bendix Automotive Development Center, N w C a r l i s l e , Indiana, during e t h e time period September 1969 t o October 1970. Tests r e q u i r i n g a surface with a high c o e f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n were conducted on t h e high speed oval t r a c k and t h e approach road t o t h e skid pad, while those t e s t s r e q u i r i n g a surface with a low c o e f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n were conducted on a p o r t i o n of t h e skid pad i n which t h e a s p h a l t surface had been t r e a t e d with a s e a l a n t and wetted using a s p r i n k l e r truck. The skid number of t h e t e s t s u r f a c e s was measured twice during t h e program using a skid t r a i l e r equipped with AsTM-249 t i r e s , and checked each week during which t e s t s were conducted using an instrumented passenger c a r a l s o equipped n with t h e ASTM-249t i r e s . A i n v e s t i g a t i o n was a l s o made using s p e c i a l i n s t r u mentation I n t h e d i s k brake t r u c k t o determine t h e peak and s l i d i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r a t y p i c a l t r u c k t i r e . * Results a r e given i n Table 12.

TABLE 1 2
SKID NUMBERS 4x1 PEAK/SLIDING TIRE-ROAD COEFFICIENTS FOR TEST SURFACE

Surface Oval Track ( asphalt

Skid
No.

Tire-Road C o e f f i c i e n t f o r Typical Truck T i r e Peak Sliding

-dry)

87

0.75

0.60

Approach Road t o Skid Pad ( asphalt-dry ) Skid Pad ( sealed asphaltwet)

87

21-24

0.35

0.26

3.4 ANALYTICAL RESULTS

The purpose of t h e a n a l y t i c a l study was t o e s t a b l i s h mathematical procedures f o r p r e d i c t i n g v e h i c l e braking performance, s p e c i f i c a l l y : brake e f f e c t i v e n e s s ,

"Remington Premium Highway Universal, 10.00 x 20, tube type, load range F.

braking e f f i c i e n c y , pedal f o r c e gain, and thermal response. A n a l y t i c a l methods found i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e were evaluated and extended f o r use i n t h e study. The t e s t r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e loaded v e h i c l e s experienced considera b l e brake f a d e when being d e c e l e r a t e d from speeds of 60 mph. The t e s t d a t a a l s o showed t h a t wheel lockup occurred prematurely on a x l e s of a tandem-axle p a i r mounted on e i t h e r a t r a c t o r o r t r a i l e r . The a n a l y s i s developed t o pred i c t maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n c a p a b i l i t y n e c e s s a r i l y had t o i n c l u d e f a d e e f f e c t s a s w e l l a s dynamic load t r a n s f e r occurring on tandem-axle suspensions. Since t h i s a n a l y s i s r e s u l t e d i n a r a t h e r e x t e n s i v e s e t of a l g e b r a i c and d i f f e r e n t i a l equations, d i g i t a l , analog, and hybrid computer techniques were developed t o perform t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s .

3.4.1

Braking Performance

For eleven of t h e t h i r t e e n v e h i c l e s t e s t e d , braking performance diagrams were c o n s t r u c t e d , i n which by use of a n a l y t i c a l expressions, r e l a t i o n s h i p s between pedal f o r c e , brake l i n e p r e s s u r e , v e h i c l e d e c e l e r a t i o n c a p a b i l i t y ( l o a d e d and unloaded) and t i r e - r o a d f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t r e q u i r e d t o prevent wheel lockup on a given a x l e a r e depicted." Figure 4 shows t h e brake p e r f o r mance diagram f o r t h e 2-S1 combination t e s t e d , wherein t h e experimental p o i n t s a r e denoted by small c i r c l e s . Curves f o r braking e f f i c i e n c y f o r t h i s v e h i c l e a r e given i n Figure 5 . I n t h e s e diagrams good agreement i s shown between t h e o r e t i c a l and t e s t r e s u l t s which a r e g e n e r a l l y t y p i c a l of t h e r e s u l t s f o r t h e o t h e r v e h i c l e s t e s t e d . The major conclusion t h a t can be drawn from t h i s phase of t h e a n a l y t i c a l program i s t h a t a c c u r a t e p r e d i c t i o n s of braking performance can be made based upon v e h i c l e and brake system design d a t a f o r buses, t r u c k s , and t r a c t o r - t r a i l e r s . The r e l a t i o n s h i p between brake f o r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n and braking e f f i c i e n c y was a l s o considered i n a s s e s s i n g t h e braking performance of v e h i c l e s t e s t e d . It was demonstrated t h a t those v e h i c l e s which e x h i b i t e d t h e b e s t performance, a s measured by maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n achievable, were those whose brake f o r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n was a t o r near optimum, whereas those v e h i c l e s showing l e s s e r performance c a p a b i l i t i e s could have achieved b e t t e r performance with a d i f f e r e n t brake f o r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n . For example, t h e 2-S1 combination had a brake f o r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n given by

*Exceptions were t h e heavy t r u c k and t h e c i t y bus, f o r which diagrams could n o t be constructed because necessary design information was n o t a v a i l a b l e from t h e v e h i c l e manufacturers.

1F 1R 2R

First Tractor Axle Rear Tractor Axle Rear Trailer Axle Pedal Force (Ib)

0.6

0.8

1 .O

&Trailer

Wheels Locked

Figure

4.

Braking performance diagram f o r 2 - S 1 t r a c t o r - t r a i l e r

where

$, 1

= = =

brake f o r c e on f r o n t a x l e l t o t a l brake f o r c e brake f o r c e on r e a r a x l e / t o t a l brake f o r c e brake f o r c e on t r a i l e r a x l e / t o t a l brake f o r c e

4R
8,

The optimum brake f o r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r t h i s v e h i c l e was determined t o be 0.20 : 0.42 : 0 . 3 8 i n d i c a t i n g i n s u f f i c i e n t braking e f f o r t on t h e f r o n t a x l e and t o o much on t h e t r a i l e r a x l e . Test d a t a support t h i s a n a l y s i s i n t h a t one t r a c t o r r e a r wheel and one t r a i l e r wheel approached wheel s l i d e when t h e empty v e h i c l e d e c e l e r a t e d a t 17 f t / s e c 2 . Although b e t t e r performance can be achieved by modifying t h e brake f o r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n , a f i x e d d i s t r i b u t i o n should not be expected t o produce braking e f f i c i e n c i e s f o r combination v e h i c l e s much higher than 75%. Also included i n t h i s study a r e e f f o r t s t h a t have been d i r e c t e d towards developing techniques t o p r e d i c t brake thermal response. The a n a l y s i s was hindered by s e v e r a l f a c t o r s , namely: ( a ) t h e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n used i n t h e experimental program did not lend i t s e l f t o an a c c u r a t e c o r r e l a t i o n of c a l c u l a t i o n s and experimental r e s u l t s , ( b ) l i n i n g m a t e r i a l parameters such a s thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y , s p e c i f i c h e a t , and d e n s i t y , could not be measured and t h u s had t o be estimated, ( c ) t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e thermocouples i n s t a l l e d i n t h e brake l i n i n g was n o t known with s u f f i c i e n t accuracy, and ( d ) t h e convective h e a t t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t could be n e i t h e r a c c u r a t e l y computed nor a c c u r a t e l y determined from experiment. Notwithstanding t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s , c a l c u l a t i o n s were made t o p r e d i c t brake temperatures a s f u n c t i o n s of t i n e . F i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e methods were employed t o compute t h e temperatures a s a f u n c t i o n of time a t various p o i n t s i n t h e l i n i n g , T = f ( x , t ) , t h a t would ensue i n t h r e e of t h e t e s t procedures, namely, t h e f a d e t e s t , t h e recovery t e s t , and t h e brake r a t i n g t e s t . This procedure was d i c t a t e d by t h e n e c e s s i t y t o i n t r o d u c e t h e convective h e a t t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t , h, a s a v a r i a b l e dependent upon v e h i c l e speed. The thermal p r o p e r t i e s needed f o r t h e a n a l y s i s were obt a i n e d from published d a t a and a d i g i t a l computer program was w r i t t e n t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e numerical work involved. Although reasonably good agreement was obtained between t h e o r y and t e s t f o r one of t h e v e h i c l e s , agreement between t h e o r y and t e s t was l e s s s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r o t h e r v e h i c l e s , t h e r e being, i n It can be concluded from t h e s e g e n e r a l , d i s c r e p a n c i e s of t h e o r d e r of 2%. r e s u l t s t h a t i n order t o develop techniques f o r p r e d i c t i n g brake thermal r e s ponse based upon v e h i c l e and brake system design d a t a , f u r t h e r a n a l y t i c a l work supported by c a r e f u l l y instrumented t e s t s w i l l be r e q u i r e d .

3.4.2

Proportioning Schemes

Dynamic modeling and simulation were employed i n t h i s study t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of load and d e c e l e r a t i o n - s e n s i t i v e brake proportioning schemes i n improving braking performance over a wide range of loadings and t e s t surfaces. The dynamic simulation developed f o r t h i s study i s based on a model t h a t r e p r e s e n t s e i t h e r a two-axle t r u c k o r t r a c t o r , or a three-axle t r a c t o r - t r a i l e r combination. Motions a r e constrained t o t h e plane of symmetry ( v e r t i c a l p l a n e ) . S p e c i f i c a l l y t h e wheels can bounce and spin, t h e c h a s s i s can heave and p i t c h , and t h e vehicle can a c c e l e r a t e ( d e c e l e r a t e ) i n s t r a i g h t - l i n e motion. The braking system i s modeled i n a manner such t h a t v a r i a b l e time l a g s and delays i n torque response can be introduced. Any d e s i r e d brake f o r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n can be s p e c i f i e d , To determine t h e improvement i n performance t h a t could be expected f o r a t h r e e - a x l e t r a c t o r - t r a i l e r combination ( 2 - ~ 1 )using s t a t i c load- s e n s i t i v e prop o r t i o n i n g valves, a t y p i c a l two-axle t r a c t o r and 27 f t van t r a i l e r were used a s a b a s i s f o r t h e study. Brake torque f o r each a x l e was c a l c u l a t e d from t y p i c a l design information. I n t h i s preliminary i n v e s t i g a t i o n , no account was taken of t h e l o s s of brake e f f e c t i v e n e s s t h a t i s caused by fade during a s i n g l e stop. The following f i n d i n g s were obtained:

1. Without proportioning t h e loaded vehicle achieves a maximum decelerat i o n of 16.7 f t / s e c 2 before t h e t r a i l e r wheels lockup,
2. The empty v e h i c l e without proportioning achieves a maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n of 16.9 f t / s e c 2 before t h e t r a i l e r wheels lockup. The empty v e h i c l e with t h e brakes proportioned t o t h e s t a t i c loads on t h e a x l e s can achieve a maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n of 23.8 f t / s e c 2 without encountering wheel lockup, an improvement i n stopping c a p a b i l i t y of about 4M0.

3.

A second study was conducted t o determine i f a f e a s i l b e proportioning scheme could be developed which would d i s t r i b u t e t h e brake f o r c e s f o r maximum braking e f f i c i e n c y over a wide range of loadings and surface conditions. The 2-S1 combination v e h i c l e t e s t e d i n t h e program, namely, t h e Ford F-7000 t r a c t o r i n combination with the Trailmobile 35 f t van t r a i l e r , was s e l e c t e d a s t h e prototype f o r t h i s study. Parameter d a t a defining t h e v e h i c l e and brake system were determined and introduced i n t o t h e simulation. The e f f e c t s of brake r e s ponse time, fade, and pushout pressures were included. Preliminary runs were made t o check t h a t t h e simulation r e s u l t s matched t e s t r e s u l t s obtained f o r t h e v e h i c l e i n t h e empty and loaded condition.

Simulated braking runs were made f o r t h e b a s e l i n e and i d e a l l y proportioned v e h i c l e s f o r a v a r i e t y of l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n s and two t i r e - r o a d i n t e r f a c e cond i t i o n s : ppeak/usliding = 0.76/0.70 and 0.325/0.3. R e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t by means of t h i s i d e a l i z e d proportioning scheme i t i s p o s s i b l e t o achieve b e t t e r than 9 braking e f f i c i e n c y f o r a t r a c t o r - t r a i l e r on t h e 0.7 and 0.3 s u r f a c e s , % except f o r two c a s e s on t h e d r y s u r f a c e , namely, t h e f u l l y - l o a d e d v e h i c l e and t h e b o b t a i l , The study a l s o showed t h a t changing t h e height of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y from 16 i n . t o 48 ic. from t h e t r a i l e r deck had a n e g l i g i b l e e f f e c t on s t r a i g h t - l i n e braking performance.

4.0

RECOMMENDATIONS

I n order t o e v a l u a t e t h e f i n d i n g s obtained i n t h e experimental and a n a l y t i c a l phases of t h i s study, and t o formulate recommendations f o r improving t h e braking performance of commercial v e h i c l e s , i t appeared d e s i r a b l e t o c a t e g o r i z e braking performance i n t o a number of d i s t i n c t f a c e t s or qualities. The mechanics of t h e braking process suggest t h a t t h e r e a r e a t l e a s t f i v e f a c e t s 3f braking performance t h a t a r e deserving of c o n s i d e r a t i o n f c r commercial vehicles. These f a c e t s ( o r measures of braking performance) 11 11 11 11 s h a l l be r e f e r r e d t o a s " e f f e c t i v e n e s s , thermal c a p a c i t y , controllabilI t 11 e f f i c i e n c y , " and "response" and a r e defined below. ity,

Brake " e f f e c t i v e n e s s " i s a measure of t h e g a i n of a brake i n terms of t o r q u e output p e r u n i t i n p u t of l i n e p r e s s u r e a t t h e brake chamber. When t h e braking l e v e l i s low such t h a t t h e t i r e s a r e not being forced t o o p e r a t e near t h e i r adhesion o r f r i c t i o n l i m i t , t h e t o t a l braking f o r c e a c t i n g on a v e h i c l e i s l i n e a r l y r e l a t e d t o t h e t o t a l t o r q u e being generated by a l l of t h e brakes. Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , d e c e l e r a t i o n p e r u n i t value of brake l i n e p r e s s u r e serves a s an o v e r a l l measure of t h e braking e f f e c t i v e ness of t h e vehicle. For pneumatic systems c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a l i m i t value of l i n e p r e s s u r e , a f i n i t e value of e f f e c t i v e n e s s f o r a given brake means t h a t t h e r e i s an upper l i m i t t o t h e brake torque t h a t can be generated. I f t h i s maximum t o r q u e i s i n s u f f i c i e n t t o produce wheel lock, during t h e braking process, t h e maximum value of wheels-unlocked d e c e l e r a t i o n t h a t can be achieved by t h e v e h i c l e i s degraded. The thermal e f f i c i e n c y of a brake can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e a b i l i t y of t h e brake t o absorb heat generated i n a s i n g l e s t o p and t o conduct o r convect away heat generated i n a s e r i e s of stops. The combination of t h i s thermal e f f i c i e n c y (which i s mostly a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e brake drum) w i t h t h e l i n i n g p r o p e r t i e s determines t h e fade r e s i s t a n c e of t h e brake. With t h e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n used i n t h e t e s t s , thermal e f f i c i e n c y could not be measured d i r e c t l y , and so thermal c a p a c i t y o r r e s i s t a n c e t o fade i s measured i n terms of t h e l e v e l of braking e f f e c t i v e n e s s t h a t can be maintained during a s e r i e s of r a p i d l y repeated snubs ( a s s p e c i f i e d i n t h e f a d e t e s t procedure f o r t h i s program) o r t h e number of snubs which can be accomplished i n a given time i n t e r v a l (SAE ~ 8 8 0 ) ,o r t h e decrease i n tow b a r f o r c e i n a towing t e s t ( a s s p e c i f i e d i n t h i s program f o r t h e brake r a t i n g t e s t ) . The fade t e s t a s conducted was not s u c c e s s f u l f o r t h e l a r g e commercial v e h i c l e s t e s t e d i n t h i s program because brake fade could not be

induced. However, i f t h e requirements f o r t h e i n i t i a l and f i n a l snub v e l o c i t i e s a r e changed t o correspond with those of SAE 5786, t h a t i s , 40 mph t o 20 mph i n s t e a d of 60 o r 50 mph t o 1 0 rnph, fade can be induced and a measure of thermal c a p a c i t y could be obtained. One such performance measure i s t h e number of snubs t h a t can be produced a t a s p e c i f i e d l e v e l of d e c e l e r a t i o n with t h e time t o a c c e l e r a t e back t o t e s t speed between snubs not t o exceed a s p e c i f i e d pericd. From t h e p o i n t of view of s a f e t y , a thermal c a p a c i t y t e s t should be based upon t h e most severe duty cycle t h a t a vehicle might encounter i n general use. Brake c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y i s used here i n t h e sense of t h e d r i v e r being a b l e t o modulate brake force under a wide v a r i e t y of loading and road s u r f a c e conditions t o minimize stopping d i s t a n c e while preventing wheel l lockup. ~ ee c e r a t i o n l ~ e d a l f o r c e gain i s a performance measure t h a t can be used t o c h a r a c t e r i z e brake c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y . Braking e f f i c i e n c y i s a measure of t h e a b i l i t y of a vehicle t o u t i l i z e t h e f r i c t i o n forces a v a i l a b l e a t t h e t i r e - r o a d i n t e r f a c e . S t r i c t l y speaking, it i s defined a s t h e r a t i o of t h e maximum wheels-unlocked dec e l e r a t i o n c a p a b i l i t y of t h e v e h i c l e on a given surface t o t h e peak t i r e road f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t of t h a t surface. When braking e f f i c i e n c y i s determined experimentally, t h e surface on which t h e v e h i c l e i s t e s t e d must be measured t o determine t h e peak t i r e - r o a d f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t . A t t h e p r e s e n t time, adequate means do not e x i s t f o r making such a measurement with l a r g e t r u c k t i r e s . Therefore, a s an a l t e r n a t i v e , it i s proposed t h a t braking e f f i c i e n c y be determined by c a l c u l a t i n g t h i s measure, using vehicle and brake system design d a t a a s was accomplished f c r t h e t e s t v e h i c l e s i n t h i s program. Brake response time i s defined a s t h e time required f o r a brake t o reach a given l e v e l of e f f e c t i v e n e s s from t h e time t h a t t h e brake c o n t r o l ( p e d a l ) i s a c t i v a t e d . Measurements of response time i n an a c t u a l s t o p would t h e r e f o r e r e q u i r e torque sensors on each braked wheel. Consequently, a more common means f o r determining t h e response time of pneumatic brake systems i s t o measure t h e time from t h e i n s t a n t of pedal a p p l i c a t i o n ( r e s u l t i n g i n a f u l l , f a s t opening of t h e t r e a d l e valve) t o t h e i n s t a n t a given p r e s s u r e l e v e l i s reached i n t h e brake chamber. Measurements show t h a t t h e response times ty-pically e x h i b i t e d by a i r - b r a k e systems a r e s u f f i c i e n t t o influence t h e braking performance of commercial v e h i c l e s , a s measured e i t h e r by average d e c e l e r a t i o n o r stopping distance. Synchroniz a t i o n of brake timing i s important f o r preventing i n s t a b i l i t i e s i n a r t i c u l a t e d vehicles. Brake-release time i s s i g n i f i c a n t when t h e d r i v e r i s attempting t o modulate t h e brake f o r c e t o prevent wheel lockup. Theref o r e it i s apparent t h a t brake response i s a s i g n i f i c a n t measure of commercial vehicle brake system performance. The performance measures defined above a r e summarized i n Table 13.

TABLE 13
PERFORMANCE MEASURES

Q u a l i t y Measures
1. Effectiveness

Perf o r m n c e Measure Maximum Deceleration (wheels unlocked) Number of Snubs Achieved a t a Given Deceleration Braking E f f i c i e n c y

Symbol ax

Technique Effectiveness Test

2.

Thermal Capacity

Fade Test

3. E f f i c i e n c y

m ax/^
-a,/F

Calculation of Eff i c i e n c y and Road I n t e r f a c e T e s t

ire/

4. C o n t r o l l a b i l i t y
3. Brake Response

~eceleration/~edal Force Gain Application and Release Times ( a i r brake systems o n l y )

Effectiveness T e s t

'a,

T~

S t a t i c Response Time T e s t

4.2

MAXIMUM ACHIEVABLE PERFORMANCE

The maximum braking performance t h a t can be achieved by a vehicle on a given t e s t s u r f a c e i s l i m i t e d by f i v e f a c t o r s :

1. t h e f r i c t i o n a l f o r c e s a v a i l a b l e a t t h e t i r e - r o a d i n t e r f a c e ,
2.

t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e v e h i c l e ' s brakes, t h a t i s , t h e maximum torque c a p a c i t y of t h e brakes, t h e braking e f f i c i e n c y of t h e vehicle, t h a t i s , how w e l l t h e brake torque i s balanced a x l e t o a x l e such t h a t t h e t i r e l r o a d f r i c t i o n a l f'orces a r e b e s t u t i l i z e d , t h e a b i l i t y of t h e d r i v e r t o modulate t h e pedal f o r c e such t h a t maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n and minimum stopping d i s t a n c e a r e achieved without l o s s of d i r e c t i o n a l c o n t r o l and s t a b i l i t y , and t h e time response of t h e brake system t o an applied pedal force.

3.

4.

5.

Tire-road i n t e r f a c e t e s t s conducted f o r t h i s program i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t of t r u c k t i r e s , both peak and s l i d i n g , i s s i g n i f i -

c a n t l y l e s s t h a n t h a t of passenger c a r t i r e s . The e f f e c t i v e n e s s t e s t s p o i n t up considerable v a r i a t i o n i n t i r e - r o a d f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t among t h e various types of t r u c k t i r e s . For example, t h e l i g h t t r u c k was capable of locked wheel d e c e l e r a t i o n s of a s high a s 28 f t / s e c 2 , while t h e d i s k brake t r u c k was capable of only 22 f t / s e c 2 with t h e wheels locked. Since t e s t s with both t h e Michigan Department of S t a t e Highways' skid t r a i l e r and an instrumented c a r i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e t e s t t r a c k varied only s l i g h t l y over t h e e n t i r e period of t e s t i n g , t h e d i f f e r ence i n locked wheel d e c e l e r a t i o n must be a t t r i b u t e d t o d i f f e r e n c e i n t i r e t r a c t i o n . The importance of t h i s observation cannot be overemphasized s i n c e it i s p o i n t l e s s t o i n c r e a s e t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of brakes i f f r i c t i o n a l f o r c e s corresponding t o t h e increased brake torque c a p a b i l i t i e s cannot be produced a t t h e t i r e - r o a d i n t e r f a c e . The reader i s t h e r e f o r e cautioned t o judge t h e performance c a p a b i l i t i e s of t h e l a r g e r t r u c k s and t r a c t o r t r a i l e r s t e s t e d i n t h i s program i n l i g h t of t h e s e f i n d i n g s on t r u c k t i r e traction. The maximum wheels unlocked d e c e l e r a t i o n achievable, a s determined e i t h e r from an e f f e c t i v e n e s s t e s t o r a minimum stopping d i s t a n c e t e s t , i s a measure of not only t h e torque c a p a c i t y of t h e brakes, but a l s o of how w e l l t h e v e h i c l e u t i l i z e s t h e f r i c t i o n a v a i l a b l e a t t h e t i r e - r o a d interface. The maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n obtained on the dry s u r f a c e i s summarized i n Figure 6 f o r a l l of t h e vehicles t e s t e d . With performance depicted i n t h i s fashion, it i s immediately obvious t h a t t h e vehicles equipped with advanced brake and brake-control systems d i d not e x h i b i t braking performance t h a t was s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r than was achieved by t h e b a s e l i n e vehicles. I n f a c t it can be argued t h a t a t r u c k , bus, o r t r a c t o r t r a i l e r with brakes balanced f o r maximum braking performance can exceed t h e performance achieved on a dry s u r f a c e by advanced brake c o n t r o l systems. For example, t h e l i g h t t r u c k , a l l t h e buses, and t h e 2-S2 t r a c t o r - t r a i l e r combination, e x h i b i t e d perfornance on t h e d r y surfaces a s good a s Vehicle #12 and considerably b e t t e r than Vehicle #14. The d i s k brake t r u c k , hcwever, was outperformed only by t h e l i g h t t r u c k , and t h i s r e s u l t may stem from a d i f f e r e n c e i n t i r e t r a c t i o n . Figure 7 perhaps b e t t e r d e p i c t s t h e improvement i n performance t h a t can be expected by use of advanced brakec o n t r o l systems. Since wheel lockup i s viewed a s undesirable, only t h e maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n s obtained up t o t h e p o i n t of wheel lockup a r e presented i n t h i s figure. Considerable improvements i n performance a r e achieved f o r Vehicle #12 through use o f t h e adaptive braking system, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e t e s t conducted on t h e low c o e f f i c i e n t surface, and i n t h e t e s t s conducted w i t h t h e empty v e h i c l e on t h e dry surface. It should be noted t h a t t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e brakes on Vehicle #12 was i n s u f f i c i e n t t o l a c k up a l l t h e wheels on t h e dry s u r f a c e i n t h e loaded condition. Vehicle #14 d i d not perform a s w e l l a s Vehicle #12, e i t h e r on t h e d r y surface (even a f t e r making allowance f o r t h e s l i g h t l y l ~ w e r i r e - r o a d f r i c t t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e s u r f a c e upon which Vehicle #14 was t e s t e d ) o r t h e

Improvements in Performance Using Advanced Control Systems

Performance as Tested with Standard System

IL
2

LOW , Coefficient

11

Dry Surface

11
II

Low Coefficient

L V e h i c l e 12 Tractor-Trailer- - - J I V e h i c l e

12 Tractor

--] L V e h i d e 14 Tractor-Trailer _IL

Vehicle l d Tractor-

Figure 7. Improvement i n maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n performance w i t h advanced systems.

wet surface. The empty t r a c t o r ( b o b t a i l ) of Vehicle #14 produced a maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n of 19 f t / s e c 2 on t h e dry surface while t h e combination, empty o r loaded, produced 15 f t / s e c 2 Although t h e a n t i l o c k system d i d improve performance of t h e combination a s measured by t h e maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n achievable without wheel locking, t h e improved performance was considerably l e s s than t h a t which could have been achieved by b e t t e r u t i l i z a t i o n cf t h e forces i n the tire-road interface.

Using t h e e A q e r i m e n t a ld a t a a t hand, it i s impossible t o c a l c u l a t e e x a c t l y t h e braking e f f i c i e n c y of t h e t e s t e d v e h i c l e s s i n c e t h e peak values of t i r e - r o a d f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t , upon which e f f i c i e n c y c a l c u l a t i o n s must n e c e s s a r i l y be based, have been determined i n an approximate manner. However, using these approximate c o e f f i c i e n t s , t h e e f f i c i e n c y e x h i b i t e d by each vehicle and system t e s t e d i s t a b u l a t e d i n Table 14. Using e f f i c i e n c y a s t h e c r i t e r i o n , t h e d i s k brake t r u c k showed b e s t performance on t h e dry surface. The system which produced t h e best o v e r a l l e f f i c i e n c y measure was t h e adapti v e braking system i n s t a l l e d on Vehicle #12. Next b e s t was t h e a n t i l o c k The smallest performance gains were system i n s t a l l e d on Vehicle #14. achieved with t h e proportioning system. As pointed out e a r l i e r , minor adjustments i n t h e proportioning valves, p l u s design s t e p s t h a t prevent premature lockup of t h e wheels on t h e leading a x l e of t h e t r a i l e r would have markedly improved t h e performance obtained with t h e proportioning system. The simulation study described e a r l i e r has i n d i c a t e d t h e magnitude of performance improvements t h a t can be expected from use of proportioning systems.
TABLE 1 4

OVERALL B.NKING EFFICIENCIES FOR ADVANCED SYSTEMS TESTED Dry Surface Empty Loaded

Vehicles Disk Brake Truck #12 T r a c t o r - T r a i l e r

System

Low Coefficient Empty Loaded

-Standard Proportioning Adaptive Standard Proportioning Adaptive Standard Ant i l o c k Ant i l o c k

90
48 47 83
46
82

88

---81

-54

67 67
70 70

-96
47
47

#12 Tractor

43

70
80

30
80

82

75

#14 Tract or- T r a i l e r

-66
86

45 68

46 66

-72

#14 T r a c t o r

--

63

--

I f a v e h i c l e i s equipped with an adaptive o r wheel a n t i l o c k brake system, t h e d r i v e r does not have t o modulate t h e pedal f o r c e t o prevent wheel lock. However, f o r v e h i c l e s not so equipped, a r e c e n t study a t HSRI showed t h a t t h e d r i v e r ' s a b i l i t y i n modulating t h e brake-pedal f o r c e t o prevent wheel lockup i s d i r e c t l y dependent upon t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n - p e d a l f o r c e c h a r a c t , e r i s t i c of t h e vehicle." Of a l l t h e v e h i c l e s t e s t e d , t h e d i s k brake t r u c k achieved t h e g r e a t e s t maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n without lockup of wheels. Figure 8 shows t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n - p e d a l f o r c e g a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e d i s k brake t r u c k along with t h e recommended upper and lower l i m i t s derived from t h e HSRI study. It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t those baselirie vehic l e s i n which t h e d r i v e r was a b l e t o modulate t h e p e d a l p r e s s u r e such t h a t a high d e c e l e r a t i o n was p o s s i b l e without wheel lockup a l l had d e c e l e r a t i o n p e d a l f o r c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which were w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s suggested by t h e fISRI stud!. These v e h i c l e s included t h e l i g h t t r u c k , t h e t h r e e buses, and .the 2-22 t r a c t o r - t r a i l e r combination. It t h e r e f o r e appears reasonable t o conclude t.hat t h e s e l i m i t s may a l s o s e r v e a s a g u i d e l i n e i n s e l e c t i t ~ gt h e d e c e l e r a t i o n - p e d a l f o r c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r buses, t r u c k s , and t r a c t o r t,railers. Measurements of brake response time given i n Table 1 , show t h a t t,he 1 standard braking systems of' Vehicles #12 and #14 had a p p l i c a t i o n / r e l e a s e times t h a t were approximate1.y t h e same o r s l i g h t l y longer than those of t h e However when using S::ncron on Vehicle {l2 and baseline t r a c t o r - t r a i l e r s . the a n t i l o c k system on Vehicle 1/14) t h e response times of t h e t r a i l e r brakes were improved considerably.

1.

3 RECOMMENDATIONS

FOR A Sfl'ANllARI)

The above discussed f i n d i n g s , a s derived both from a n a l y s i s and t e s t , i n d i c a t e t h a t t h r e e major s t e p s w i l l have t o be taken t o s i g n i f i c a n t l y upgrade t h e maximum braking performance of comrne~cialvehicles. F i r s t . The b a s i c braking systems of t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e s e v e h i c l e s w i l l have t o be improved by use of more e f f e c t i v e brakes, b e t t e r balance, and f a s t e r system response or1 a i r braked vehicles. Second. The t r a c t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t i r e s used on t h e m a j o r i t y of medium and h e a ~ commercial v e h i c l e s w i l l have t o be improved so t h a t t h e advantage of improved brake e f f e c t i v e n e s s can be f u l l y u t i l i z e d a t t h e tire-road interface.

*E. G. Mortimer, - -. , --Requirement - et al Brake Force Study: Driver-Vehicle

Braking Performance -s-a Function of Brake System Design Variables, Cona t r a c t No. FH-11-6972, prepared f o r t h e National Highway Safety Bureau, U. S. Department of Transportation, by t h e Highway Safety Research IRs t i t u t e , The University of Michigan, A p r i l 10, 1970.

1.2

1.o..

-. -.

0 .w

0.8,-

2 0.6,a $

-.

-.

0.0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Pedal Force (Ibs)

F i g u r e 8. Decelera.tion-pedal f o r c e g a i n f o r d i s k brake t r u c k and HSRI recommended l i m i t s .

Third. Advanced brake c o n t r o l systems w i l l have t o be employed t o allow r a p i d brake a p p l i c a t i o n s without i n s t i g a t i n g v e h i c l e i n s t a b i l i t y whether t h e v e h i c l e be loaded o r empty, and operating on a dry o r s l i p p e r y surface.
A number of design a l t e r n a t i v e s e x i s t f o r achieving t h e s e o b j e c t i v e s :

1.

The e f f e c t i v e n e s s and fade r e s i s t a n c e of t h e braking systems on medium and heavy t r u c k s can be improved s i g n i f i c a n t l y by use of d i s k brakes, powered e i t h e r by a vacuum a s s i s t u n i t or a f u l l power hydraulic system. The e f f e c t i v e ~ e s sof t h e braking systems of t r a c t o r s can be i m proved by use of l a r g e brakes on t h e f r o n t a x l e of t r a c t o r s with tandem r e a r a x l e s ( a design configuration i n which f r o n t brakes a r e g e n e r a l l y a b s e n t ) and by use of l a r g e r brakes on t h e f r o n t axl e of two-axle t r a c t o r s . The braking e f f i c i e n c y of many t r u c k s and t r a c t o r - t r a i l e r can be inrproved by c a r e f u l d i s t r i b u t i o n of braking e f f o r t among t h e a x l e s of t h e vehicle. The brake response time of a i r braked systems can be improved s i g n i f i c a n t l y through use of l a r g e r hoses, i m p r ~ v e dconnectors and f i t t i n g s , quick r e l e a s e valves, r e l a y valves oc t r a c t o r s , and t r a i l e r brake synchronization. Braking performance can be i m p r ~ v e ds i g n i f i c a n t l y on t r u c k s , buses, and t r a c t s r - t r a i l e r s through use of t h e advanced brake c o n t r o l systems, which were evaluated by t e s t and/or simulation i n t h i s program. These systems, ranked i n order of p o t e n t i a l f o r improvi n g braking performance, a r e : a. b.
c.

2 .

3.

4.

5.

wheel a n t i l o c k system dynamic load s e n s i t i v e proportioning system s t a t i c load s e n s i t i v e proportioning system.

I n considering any of t h e above design a l t e r n a t i v e s , one must bear i n mind t h a t t h e commercial vehicle has evolved over t h e years a s a design compromise. The vehicle s t r u c t u r e , suspension, and brake system have been designed f o r a given l e v e l of average braking performance, with a c a p a b i l i t y of accepting a c e r t a i n amount of overload i n emergency s i t u a t i o n s . The pneumatic t i r e s a r e p a r t of t h i s design compromise, s i n c e t h e r e i s n ' t much p o i n t i n designing high t r a c t i v e c a p a b i l i t y i n t o t r u c k t i r e s , a t t h e expense of increased r o l l i n g r e s i s t a n c e and higher wear r a t e s , i f t h a t t r a c t i v e c a p a b i l i t y cannot be matched by brake torque c a p a b i l i t i e s a s cons t r a i n e d by brake s i z e and brake design p r a c t i c e . The aim of t h i s design

compromise has been t o produce v e h i c l e s which a r e s a f e and r e l i a b l e w i t h i n t h e i r performance range, and which a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by high payload/vehic l e weight r a t i o s and minimal o p e r a t i n g and maintenance c o s t s . To i n t r o duce a requirement f c r s e v e r e l y increased braking c a p a b i l i t y i n t o t h e comm e r c i a l f l e e t , a s i t has evolved, w i l l n e c e s s a r i l y r e q u i r e a r e e v a l u a t i m of t h e design of t h e e n t i r e system. The following p o i n t s a r e suggested f c r s e r i o u s consideration.

1.

More e f f e c t i v e brakes w i l l r e q u i r e s t r o n g e r suspensions and stronger adjacent vehicle structures. Large brakes on t h e f r o n t a x l e s of t r a c t o r s could r e q u i r e new f r o n t a x l e and s t e e r i n g system designs, and, i n many c a s e s , t h e use of power s t e e r i n g . With i n c r e a s e d d e c e l e r a t i c n c a p a b i l i t y , methods of cargo r e s t r a i n t w i l l have t o be reevaluated. O buses, passenger r e s t r a i n t sysn tems may have t o be u t i l i z e d . The r e l a t i v e l y high r a t i o of c e n t e r of g r a v i t y height above roadway t o t r u c k width, t h a t i s common t o s t r a i g h t t r u c k s , caused v e h i c l e s t a b i l i t y problems t o be encountered a t moderate d e c e l e r a t i o n s i n t h i s t e s t program. It i s expected t h a t t h e problem w i l l be worse a t higher d e c e l e r a t i o n s . This problem may be a l l e v i a t e d by use of a n t i l o c k systems. However, a t t h i s p o i n t i n time, t h e problem i s not c l e a r l y defined and r e q u i r e s much more study bef o r e a d e f i n i t e s o l u t i o n can be suggested. I f proportioning and/or a n t i l o c k systems a r e t o be widely used, cognizance should be taken of maintenance and r e l i a b i l i t y problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h each system. Load s e n s i t i v e proportioning systems r e q u i r e mechanical, pneumatic, o r o t h e r means of sensing changes i n load. Due t o wear, c o r r o s i o n , and other degrading f a c t o r s , t h e l e v e l of coulomb f r i c t i o n i n t h e suspension system may change, t h u s r e q u i r i n g p e r i o d i c i n s p e c t i o n and adjustment o f t h e linkage. Since a n t i l o c k systems f o r a i r braked v e h i c l e s a r e s t i l l i n t h e developmental s t a g e , r e l i a b i l i t y problems w i t h both mechanical and e l e c t r o n i c ccmponents were encountered i n t h e t e s t program. It i s mandatory t h a t a n t i l o c k systems have a high degree of r e l i a b i l i t y because of t h e human f a c t o r s irvolved. The t e s t program has pointed out t h a t r e g a r d l e s s of load o r s u r f a c e condition, t h e d r i v e r w i l l make r a p i d , h i g h - l e v e l brake a p p l i c a t i o n s i f he knows t h e a n t i l o c k system i s o p e r a t i o n a l , whereas he w i l l be extremely s e n s i t i v e t o load and s u r f a c e c o n d i t i o n s when applying t h e brakes without t h e a n t i l o c k system i n operation. Serious s t a b i l i t y problems a r e p o s s i b l e i f t h e d r i v e r a p p l i e s t h e brakes r a p i d l y t h i n k i n g t h a t t h e a n t i l o c k system i s o p e r a t i o n a l where, indeed, it

3.

4.

5.

i s not, due t o a component f a i l u r e . I n making s p e c i f i c recommendations f o r a standard, c a r e f u l considerat i o n has been given t o t h e n e c e s s i t y t o upgrade commercial vehicle braking performance a s quickly a s p o s s i b l e t o acceptable l e v e l s . Careful considerat i o n has a l s o been given t o t h o s e p o i n t s discussed i n t h e paragraph above. Taking i n t o account t h e system design problems which w i l l r e s u l t from i n creased performance requirements, and t h e s t a t e of development of advanced systems, it i s recommended t h a t r u l e s be promulgated which r e q u i r e upgrading t h e performance of t r u c k s , buses, and t r a c t o r - t r a i l e r s i n t h r e e d i s c r e t e s t e p s , separated by a p p r o p r i a t e periods of time.* As a f i r s t step, i t i s recommended t h a t t h e r u l e s r e q u i r e immediate a c t i o n t o upgrade braking performance t o a l e v e l achievable by c u r r e n t design p r a c t i c e , t h a t i s , the b e s t performance a l r e a d y demonstrated by b a s e l i n e vehicles t e s t e d . For t h e second s t e p , it i s recommended t h a t t h e r u l e s r e q u i r e performance t o be i m proved t o t h e l i m i t of t h e t i r e - r o a d i c t e r f a c e t r a c t i v e c a p a b i l i t i e s of t r u c k t i r e s now a v a i l a b l e with due regard t o r e a l i s t i c braking e f f i c i e n c i e s . The second s t e p may r e q u i r e use of load s e n s i t i v e proportioning systems on c e r t a i n vehicles, and t h e r e f o r e s u f f i c i e n t lead time should be allowed f o r f u r t h e r development and t e s t i n g of t h e s e devices. A f t e r an a p p r o p r i a t e time i n t e r v a l t o allow f o r development and t e s t i n g of a r e l i a b l e a n t i l o c k system, t h e development of t r u c k t i r e s with b e t t e r t r a c t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and t h e necessary design modifications of vehicle brake, suspension, and s t r u c t u r a l systems, it i s recommended a s a t h i r d s t e p t h a t performance equal t o or approaching t h a t of passenger c a r s be required along with use of an a n t i l o c k system t o i n s u r e vehicle s t a b i l i t y over a wide range of vehicle loadings and road s u r f a c e conditions. Summaries of t h e suggested performance requirements f o r each s t e p a r e given a s follows :

Maximum deceleratior. c a p a b i l i t y

- 16 ft/sec2**

Minimum braking e f f i c i e n c y - 65$ f o r s u r f a c e s having peak t r u c k t i r e - r o a d f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s between 0.2 and 0.8

*Recommendations f o r a s p e c i f i c time frame or schedule t o implement t h e s e s t e p s cannot be made s i n c e information on l e a d times f o r i n t r o d u c t i o n of design changes, development of new hardware and necessary manufacturing techniques i s not g e n e r a l l y a v a i l a b l e from vehicle, brake, and h a k e component manufacturer s. **It i s presumed t h a t t h i s d e c e l e r a t i o n would be measured on a s u r f a c e having a peak t r u c k t i r e - r o a d f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t of a t l e a s t 0.75.

-Thermal c a p a c i t y - same a s requirements of SAE 5786 fade and r e covery t e s t except t h a t 1 5 f t / s e c 2 d e c e l e r a t i o n i s required f o r fade snubs ' ~ e c e l e r a t i o n / ~ e d a o r c e gain fl Figure 8

HSRI recommendations a s givec i n

' A i r brake response time - a p p l i c a t i o n : 0.25 sec t r a c t o r , 0.35 t r a i l e r ; r e l e a s e : 0. SC t r a c t o r , 0.70 t r a i l e r ' S p e c i a l systems required

none

Step #2 'hhaimum d e c e l e r a t i o n c a p a b i l i t y 'Minimum braking e f f i c i e n c y

20 ft/sec2* surfaces a s i n Step #l

- 75% f o r

'Thermal capacity - t e s t upgraded t o correspond with heaviest duty c y c l e s experienced i n c l a s s of s e r v i c e ' A i r brake response time - a p p l i c a t i o n . C.25 sec t r a c t o r , 0.30 sec t r a i l e r ; r e l e a s e : 0. 30 t r a c t o r , 0 42 t r a i l e r .
' Special

systems required - s t a t i c load proportioning ( i f necessary)

2 Maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n c a p a b i l i t y - 24 f t / s e c with upgraded t i r e s such t h a t peak t i r e - r o a d surface c o e f f i c i e n t i s a t l e a s t 0.85

' Minimum

braking e f f i c i e n c y - 85$ f o r surfaces having peak t r u c k t i r e - r o a d f r i c t i ~ n o e f f i c i e n t between 0.2 and G. 9 c systems required

' Special

a n t i l o c k system

'Improved t i r e s a l s o required

Test procedures s i m i l a r t o those used i n t h e t e s t program a r e recommended f o r determining brake e f f e c t i v e n e s s , fade r e s i s t a n c e , d e c e l e r a t i o c /

*It i s presumed t h a t t h i s d e c e l e r a t i o n vould be measured on a surface having a peak t r u c k t i r e - r o a d f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t of a t l e a s t 0.75.

p e d a l force g a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and s t a t i c response time of a i r brake systems. I f stopping d i s t a n c e t e s t s a r e required, they should be made i n conjunction with t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s t e s t s t o ensure maximum unlocked wheel d e c e l e r a t i o n s a r e achieved. Compliance with braking e f f i c i e n c y requirements can be made by r e q u i r i n g d e s i g c c a l c u l a t i o n s s i m i l a r t o those ~ u t l i n e di n t h e F i n a l Report volume, and by v a l i d a t i n g t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s by e f f e c t i v e n e s s t e s t s on high c o e f f i c i e n t and low c o e f f i c i e n t surfaces. Testing of t r a c t o r - t r a i l e r combinat ions p r e s e n t s a s p e c i a l challenge. Because of brake balance problems, a t r a c t c r which may perform very w e l l with one t r a i l e r may perform poorly with another. Conversely, a t r a i l e r whose brakes were t e s t e d on a brake dygamometer and deemed adequate may perform w e l l with one t r a c t o r but perform poorly with another. Also a t r a c t o r could perform w e l l a s a loaded s t r a i g h t t r u c k , but poorly i n cornbinati.cn with a t r a i l e r . For t h i s reasan it i s recommended t h a t t r a c t o r s be c e r t i f i e d t o p u l l only t h o s e t r a i l e r s with which it has been demonstrated by design c a l c u l a t i o n and t e s t t h a t performance of t h e combination v e h i c l e i s adequate.