2.

29

________________________________________________

2.1 .............................................................................................

30

2.2 .........................................................

31

2.3 .....................................................

51

2.4 .......................................................

56

2.5 ....................................

69

2.6 ...........................

79

2.7 .....................................................................

86

2.8 .................................................................... 93?

2.9 z .........................

94?

2.10 ...................

95

2.11 ,
LTI ........................ 113
2.12 ..................................................................... 124?
2.13 ..................................................................................

129

:
2.8 2.9 -
.
:
- z-transformacija
- ( )

30

2.1. ( )
,

. ,
, ,

.

. .
(transfer
function),
.
, ,

,
.
-
.
, . ,
,

.
, ,
.
,
,
.

,
.
. ,

, ,
,
.

.
.
.
.

 2. 31

2.2.
1. -.
-
2.2.1.
.

.

. , ,
, .
.

F (t , y, y' , y' ' ,..., y ( n) ) 0

(2.2.1)

t , y (t )
y' , y' ' ,..., y ( n) . (2.2.1)
.
F .
t .
x ,
.
(2.2.1)
. :

y'2 y 2 y 1, ( y' ' ) 2 3ty 0, yy'2t 1 .

,
, (
).
.
(
) .

,
.


.

.

32

.
.

ao (t ) y ( n) (t ) a1 (t ) y ( n 1) (t ) ... an 1 (t ) y' (t ) an (t ) y(t ) g (t ), (t I )

(2.2.2)
ao , a1, ..., an 1, an

g I

. ao (t ) 0 t I . I I R ( R - ).
(2.2.2) t , I

y (t ) ( ).
(Cauchy) . t0 I , C1, C2 , ..., Cn .
(2.2.2)

y(t0 ) C1,

y' (t0 ) C2 ,

y ( n 1) (t0 ) Cn

t 0 I y ( k ) (t0 )
t 0 y (k ) .
(2.2.2.) .
g 0 (2.2.2) .
g 0 (2.2.2) .

ao (t ) y ( n) (t ) a1 (t ) y ( n 1) (t ) ... an 1 (t ) y' (t ) an (t ) y(t ) 0

(2.2.3)

(2.2.2).
(2.2.2) n y (ao 0) ,
(2.2.2) n .
ao , a1, ..., an 1, an
(2.2.2). ao , a1, ..., an 1, an
.
, 2.4,
.

 2. 33

g ,
, (input) ,
(output) .
w : I C (2.2.2) :

ao (t )w( n) (t ) a1 (t )w( n 1) (t ) ... an 1 (t )w' (t ) an (t )w(t ) g (t ), (t I )

ao , a1, ..., an 1, an

g , f t w(t ) (2.2.2).
(2.2.2) X o
. X o
(2.2.2).
1. X o I
(2.2.3) .
: X o w : w(t ) 0
t I (2.2.3).
.
v, w X o , .
v w X o , ..
. v w (2.2.3)
:

ao (v w) ( n) a1 (v w) ( n 1) ... an 1 (v w)' an (v w)
ao (v ( n) w( n) ) a1 (v ( n 1) w( n 1) ) ... an 1 (v' w' ) an (v w)

(ao v ( n) a1v ( n 1) ... an 1v' an v)

(ao w( n) a1w( n 1) ... an 1w' an w) 0
, v X o , w X o ; v w X o (
).
2. X g
(2.2.2) I X o (2.2.3).
y p
(2.2.2), .. y p X g , :

34

X g y p X o {y p w : w X o} .

(2.2.4)

(2.2.2)
(.. X o
(2.2.2).
: y X o

ao y ( n) a1 y ( n 1) ... an 1 y'an y g .

(2.2.5)

ao y (pn) a1 y (pn 1) ... an 1 yp an y p g .

(2.2.6)

(2.2.5) (2.2.6)

ao ( y y p )(n) a1 ( y y p )(n 1) ... an 1 ( y y p )'an ( y y p ) 0 ,

w y y p X o ,
(2.2.2)
(2.2.3). y X g y w y p

w X o ;
X g yp Xo .

(2.2.7)

, w X o y w y p :
ao ( w y p ) ( n) a1 ( w y p ) ( n 1) ... an 1 ( w y p )' an ( w y p ) g
(ao w( n) a1w( n 1) ... an 1w' an w) (ao y (pn) a1 y (pn 1) ... an 1 yp an y p g ) 0

w X o ,

y p X g . w X o w y p X g , .. y p X o X g ,
(2.2.7) X g y p X o ( ).
(2.2.2) (
) :
-

, ..
. X g .

, ..
.

.
.

 2. 35

Teorema 3. :
(i) e I R ao , a1, ..., an 1, an , g
I (ao (t ) 0, t I ) ;
(ii) t o I ;
(iii) C1 , C2 , C3 ,...,Cn .
:
w : I C C n

ao (t )w(n) (t ) a1 (t )w(n 1) (t ) ... an 1 (t )w' (t ) an (t )w(t ) g (t ), (t I )

w(t0 ) C1,

w' (t0 ) C2 , ..., w( n 1) (t0 ) Cn

(2.2.7)

(2.2.2)
to I ,

C1,..., Cn R .
3. (2.2.2)
I g
. y1 , y2 (2.2.2) I ' I I .
y1 (t ) y2 (t ) t I ' y1( k ) (t ) y2( k ) (t ) t I '
k 0,1,2,..., n 1 . y1( k ) (to ) y2( k ) (to ) (k 0,1,..., n 1) to I ' .
3 () y1 (t ) y2 (t ) , t I .
to I
w n 1 . w( n) (to )
,

ao (t0 )w( n) (to ) a1 (to )w( n 1) (to ) ... an (to )w(to ) g (to ), (t I )
w( n) (to ) , .. w( n) (to ) w(to ),..., w( n 1) (to )

g (to ) .

36
2.2.2.

I R ao , a1 g I
ao (t ) 0 t I .

ao y a1 y g

(2.2.8)

y .
(2.2.8) ao p

a1
g
r

ao
ao

y py r

(2.2.9)

(2.2.8) (2.2.9) , , (2.2.9).

X o

y py 0

(2.2.10)

I . y (2.2.10) I

y(to ) 0 3 ()
(2.2.10) y(t ) 0 t I .
(2.2.10) . y Xo

to I . (2.2.10)
y'
p
y

(2.2.11)

P(t ) p( )d

(2.2.12)

to

(2.2.11)

(ln y)' P' ,

C R ln y(t ) P(t ) C .

ln y(to ) P(to ) C C ,

ln y(t ) P(t ) ln y(to ) ,

 2. 37

y(t ) y(to )e P(t ) , t I ,

(2.2.13)

w(t ) e P (t ) e

p ( ) d
to

(2.2.14)

(2.2.13),
(2.2.10). (2.2.14) y
(2.2.10) :

y(t ) y(to )w(t ) ;

X o {Cw : C R}

(2.2.15)

(2.2.10).
X o w , X o . (2.2.15) y Cw,
C y Cw
(2.2.10). y (2.2.10)
C y Cw .
. y
(2.2.9) y(to ) yo . r (2.2.9)
I , (r 0) , y yoe P , .. e P y
( e P y yo ) . r 0 C (t ) e P(t ) y(t ) t

C (to ) yo . C .
y(t ) e P(t )C (t )

(2.2.16)

y ' P' e P C e P C '

py e PC ' y ' py e PC ' .
y py r

e P C ' r C ' e P r.
, C (to ) yo ,
t

C (t ) yo e P ( ) r ( )d .
to

(2.2.17)

38
, (2.2.17) (2.2.16) :
t

y (t ) e P (t ) yo e P (t ) e P ( ) r ( )d ,

(2.2.18)

to
t

P(t ) p( )d .
to

p 0 (2.2.18)
t

y (t ) yo r ( )d

(2.2.19)

to

y r .

t

y p (t ) e P (t ) e P ( ) r ( )d

(2.2.20)

to

(2.2.10) y p 0 r 0 .
(2.2.20) (2.2.9), y
(2.2.9) :

y(t ) e P(t ) yo y p (t ) yo w(t ) y p (t ) yh (t ) y p (t )

yh (t ) yo w(t ) yoe P(t ) (2.2.10),
2.

(2.2.9) y(to ) yo ,

y(t ) p(t ) y(t ) r (t ) , y(to ) yo

1).
t

P(t ) p( )d
to
t

y p (t ) e P (t ) e P ( ) r ( )d
to

2).

y(t ) e P(t ) yo y p (t ) yh (t ) y p (t ) .

(2.2.9)

 2. 39

2.2.1.

1
y y 4t
t

y(1) 5 .

:
,
( (2.2.9)) ,

1
p(t ) , r (t ) 4t
t

1) :
t

to

1
P(t ) p( )d d ln( ) [ln t ln(1)] ln t

to

1
y p (t ) e P (t ) e P ( ) r ( )d eln t e ln 4d t ( 4d )
t

t ( 4d t (4 ) t (4t 4)
2) :

y(t ) e P(t ) yo y p (t ) 5t t (4t 4) 4t 2 t

450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0

.2.2.1. y(t ) 4t 2 t

10

40
2.2.2.

y' a(t ) y

(1)

y(0) y0
. ,
(2.2.18),
.
, (2.2.9) y(t ) p(t ) y(t ) r (t )
p(t ) r (t ) :

p(t ) a(t ), r (t ) 0 , t R

(2)

, , (2.2.18) :

y(t ) yoe P(t ) ,

P(t )

p( )d

(3)

t0 0

, a(t ) k , t R , k ,
( p(t ) a(t ) k , i P(t ) kt ):

y(t ) yoekt .

(4)

a(t ) 0.02(1 e0.1t ), t R , :

p(t ) a(t ) 0.02(1 e0.1t ), t R

t

(5)

P(t ) p( )d 0.02(1 e 0.1 )d

t

0.02( 10e 0.1 ) [0.02(t 10e 0.1t ) 0.02(10)]

0

0.02t 0.2e

0.1t

0.2

(3)

y(t ) yoe P(t ) yoe0.02t 0.2e

0.1t

0.2

(6)

() y (t ) , (1)
a(t ) / (6). .2.2.2.
(6).

 2. 41

.2.2.2. ( )

y' (t ) 0.02(1 e0.1t ) y(t )

( ) .
1. x 3x 2t ,

x(0) 2 *)

2. y 0.4 y 3, y(0) 5

2x 2
t ,
t

x(1) 4

4. x 2 x t 2 ,

x(0) 1

3. x

w e2t , w(0) 3
5. w
6. x x 2et t 2 , x(0) 1
7. ty '2 y t 3et ,

y(1) 0

8. ty' y 3,

y(1) 0

9. ty' y t 1,

y(2) 1

________________________
*)
( y dy / dt ) ( y' dy / dt y' dy / dx ).

42

2.2.3.
.
,

y y 0

( R)

, y ' y
.

ao (t ) y(t ) a1(t ) y(t ) a2 (t ) y(t ) g (t ), a0 0,

(2.2.21)

2.2.2.
I R
ao , a1 g

ao (t ) 0 t I . ao (t ) (2.2.21)

y py qy r
p

(2.2.22)

a1
a
g
,q 2,r .
ao
ao
ao

y py qy 0

(2.2.23)

(2.2.23), 2
X o .
w (2.2.23)
I ; to I w(to ) 0 .
3 v X o ,

v(to ) 0,

v' (to )

1
w(to )

(2.2.24)

w i v . ,

i w v 0 . w(to ) v(t0 ) 0 .
(2.2.24) w(to ) 0 0 .
(2.2.24) v 0 , v 0 0 . w i v
X o .

 2. 43

y (2.2.23)

y C1w C2v

(2.2.25)

C1 i C2 ,

X o {C1w C2v : C1, C2 R} ,

(2.2.26)

(2.2.25) (2.2.23).
v
w .
t

P(t ) p( )d

(2.2.27)

t0

y X o (2.2.23) I .

(2.2.23) y py qy 0 w w pw qw 0
y

( yw wy) p( yw u' y) 0 .

(2.2.28)

(2.2.28)
, ..

W (t; w, y) w(t ) y' (t ) w' (t ) y(t )

(2.2.29)

W ' pW 0

(2.2.30)

W w i y . (2.2.30)

W (t; w, y) e P(t )W (to ; w, y) .

(2.2.31)

(2.2.31) (2.2.23)
I .

I .
w I w(to ) 0 ,
I ' I to w(t ) 0
t I' .
(2.2.29) w

y '

w'
W
y
w
w

(2.2.32)

44
I ' . (2.2.32) 2.2.2. exp( P)

t w' ( )
t
t
w(t )
d eln w( ) w( )
.
exp
w(to )
t w( )
t0
to
o

W
.
w
w(t )
w(t ) w(to ) W ( ; w, y )
y (t )
y (to )

d .
w(to )
w(to ) t w( )
w( )
t

(2.2.31) :

y (t ) w(t )

t P ( )

y (to )
e
w(t ) 2
d W (to ; w, y ); (t I ' )

w(to )
t o w ( )

(2.2.33)

(2.2.33) y X o . y v
( (2.2.24)):

W (to ; w, v) w(to )v' (to ) w' (to )v(to ) 1

v(t ) w(t )
to

e P ( )
d ; (t I ' )
w2 ( )

(2.2.34)

v w . (2.2.34)
2.2.33)

y(t ) w(t )C1 v(t )C2 ,

(2.2.35)

t I '

C1

y (to )
C2 W (to ; w, y) w(to ) y' (to ) w' (to ) y(to ) .
w(to )

y wC1 vC2 (2.2.23)

I ' , I , .. (2.2.35)
t I . (2.2.25).
(2.2.26) X o
w i v
. X o .

 2. 45

y p (2.2.22) I

y(t ) y p wC1 vC2

(2.2.36)

(2.2.22), .. (2.2.22) I
(2.2.36) C1 i C2 .
1. y (2.2.23) y py qy 0
z

y'
y ' yz y y' z yz' ( z 2 z ' ) y , (2.2.23)
y

z ' z 2 pz q 0

y' Py 2 Qy R

(2.2.37)

P, Q i R t . (2.2.37)
(Riccati, 1707-1775)
(. ).

(2.2.37)

y1 Cy 2

: C R ,

y3 Cy 4

y1, y2 , y3 i y4 t
.
2.
(2.2.23) n ti .
X o

y ( n) a1 y ( n 1) ... an y 0

(2.2.38)

I n , .. n w1, w2 ,..., wn (2.2.38) :

1. w1, w2 ,..., wn ;
2. y X o n C1, C2 ,...,Cn

y C1w1 C2 w2 ... Cn wn .
(2.2.39)

46
(2.2.39) (2.2.38).

y ( n) a1 y ( n 1) ... an y r

y y p C1w1 C2 w2 ... Cn wn
y p , C1, C2 ,...,Cn .
2.2.4.

ao y ( n) (t ) a1 y ( n 1) (t ) ... an 1 y' (t ) an y(t ) g (t ), (t 0)

(2.2.41)

ao , a1, ..., an 1, an (a0 0) g .

na (2.2.41)
y (t ) n 1
t 0 , ..

y(t0 ) C1,

y' (t0 ) C2 , ... , y ( n 1) (t0 ) Cn

(2.2.42)

C1, C2 , ..., Cn .
(2.2.42) (2.2.41)
. (2.2.41)
(2.2.42) (Cauchy) .

ao y' (t ) a1 y(t ) g (t ), (t 0)

(2.2.43)

ao , a1 (a0 0) g .
na (2.2.41)

y(t0 ) C1

(2.2.44)

(2.2.43)
2.2.2.
.
.

 2. 47

. (2.2.43)

y(t ) py(t ) r (t ) , y(to ) yo

p

(1)

a1
g (t )
.
const , r r (t )
a0
a0

1). P(t ) p const

t

to

to

t0

P(t ) p( )d d t

(t to )

(2)

y(t ) py(t ) 0

(3)

yh (t ) e P(t ) yo e (t to ) yo ,
t0 0 yh (t ) e

(4)

yo .

(1)
t

y p (t ) e P (t ) e P ( ) r ( )d e (t t o ) e ( t o ) r ( )d
to

t t o t o

to
t

r ( )d e

to

(5)

r ( )d

to

2). (1)

y (t ) yh (t ) y p (t ) e

(t t o )

yo e

r ( )d .

(6)

to

, r (t )
(6).
(4)

yh (t ) e t yo

(3) ( y'h (t ) et yo ) :

et yo pet yo 0 .
p 0 p (1),
yh . 0 yh , 0 yh .

48

ao y' ' (t ) a1 y' (t ) a2 y(t ) g (t ), (t 0)

(2.2.45)

ao , a1 i a2 , (a0 0) g .
a (2.2.45)
t t0 0 , ..

y(0) C1,

y' (0) C2

(2.2.46)

(2.2.45) 2.2.3.
.
y p (2.2.45)

y(t ) y p wC1 vC2

(2.2.47)

(2.2.45), .. (2.2.45)
(2.2.47) C1 i C2 . w v

ao y' ' (t ) a1 y' (t ) a2 y(t ) 0, (t 0) .

(2.2.47)

(2.2.47) ao 0

y' ' (t ) by' (t ) cy(t ) 0,

b

(2.2.48)

a1
a
c 2 .
ao
ao

(2.2.48)
e pt (e pt )' pe pt , (e pt )" p 2e pt ,
(2.2.48) :

p 2e pt bpept ce pt 0
, e pt , :

p 2 bp c 0

(2.2.49)

D( p) p 2 bp c
(2.2.45), (2.2.49) .
p1 i p2 ,

w e

v e p 2 t
(2.2.48),

p1t

 2. 49

yh (t ) C1w C2v C1e p1t C2e p2t

(2.2.50)

C1 i C2 .
(2.2.45)

y(t ) yh (t ) y p (t ) C1e p1t C2e p2t y p (t ) .

(2.2.50)

( ) y p
.
g (t ) , .
t k e

kt

, k C , .

, ,

.

.


.

.
2.4.

50

 2. 51

2.3.
2.3.1.

. f (t ) t

f (t T ) f (t ) , t

(2.3.1)

,
.
t , ..
(2.3.1)
.
,

f (t ) ,

2 ,
, ,
(Dirihle), f (t ) .
f (t )
.

. ,
,
f (t ) 2

f t

1 , ,
a0 ak cos kt bk, sin kt ,
2
k 1
k 1

(2.3.2)

ak, (k 0,1,2,...) bk, k 1,2,...

ak,
bk,

f t cos kt dt

f t sin kt dt

(2.3.3)

, f (t ) 2 ,
, 2d .
a a . ,
x t / d y f t , 2d ,

52

g
x , ,

F x f

2 , (2.3.2)

d 1
f x a0 ak cos kx bk sin kx
2
k 1
k 1

(2.3.4)

a0 , a k bk k 1,2,... (2.1.3).
,

x t / d ,

d
x 2d

f t f

1
k
k
f t a0 ak cos t bk sin
t
2
d
d
k 1
k 1

(2.3.5)

ak

1
k
f t cos
tdt

d d
d
d

(2.3.6)

bk

1
d

k
f t sin d tdt

f(t) 0 d.
-d 0 (
)
2d . ,
f(t) 0 d.

(2.3.5)

1
k

f t a0 ak2 bk2 sin

t k
2
d

k 1

(2.3.7)

k arctgak / bk .

,

cos

k
e j k / d t e j k / d t
t
d
2

(2.3.8)

 2. 53

sin

k
e j k / d t e j k / d t
t
d
2j

(2.3.9)

(2.3.5), 1/ -

f t

a jbk j k / d t ak jbk j k / d t
1
a0 k
e

e
2
2
2
k 1
k 1

(2.3.10)

c0

1
a0 ,
2

ck

ak jbk
,
2

c k

ak jbk
,
2

k 0

(2.3.11)

f t

c e

j k / d t

(2.3.12)

ck

1
f t e j k / d t dt , k 0,1,2,...
2d d

(2.3.13)

,
.

.
(2.3.7),
,
.
, , ,
,
.

.

54
2.3.2.

.

,
.
.

, .
eo , .
(2.3.13) t x,
(2.3.12).

f t

1
2d f x e j k / d x dxe j k / d t
k
d

(2.3.14)

,
c k c k , k k / d .
(2.3.14) k 1 k 1 / d ,

/ d .
(2.3.14)

f t

1
1
2 f x e jk x dxe jk t 2
k
d

F jk , d e j t
k

(2.3.15)

F jk , d

f t e

j k t

dt

(2.3.16)

d ,

, (2.3.15)

f t

1
2

F j e

jt

d ,

(2.3.17)

(2.3.16)

F j

f t e

jt

dt .

(2.3.18)

(2.3.18) ,
(2.3.17) (2.3.18) , f(t)

 2. 55

f t dt

(2.3.19)

,
.
(2.3.19)
.
(2.3.17) (2.3.18) ,

F j F f t
f t F

(2.3.20)

F j ,

F F 1 , e,
.



.
e

.

.
,
,

.
,
f(t)
, t=0, ..
f t 0 t<0. .

F j

f t e jt dt lim

f t e

jt

dt

(2.3.21)

f(t) (2.3.17).
F j (2.3.21) .

56

2.4.
2.4.1.

, ,
. ,


(2.1.19).
,

| f t e

| dt

e t ,

(2.4.1)

.
(2.3.17) (2.3.21)

f t e t

1
2

jt
t jt
f t e e dte d
0

(2.4.2)

f t

1
2

j t
j t

f
t
e
dt
d

e


0

(2.4.3)

s j

(2.4.4)

, ,
(2.4.3).

ds jd

(2.4.5)

(2.4.3)

f t

j
st
1
st
f t e dt e ds, t 0

2j j 0

(2.4.6)

F s L f t

f t e
0

st

dt, a

(2.4.7)

 2. 57

1
f t L F s
F s e st ds, t 0
2j j
1

(2.4.8)

(2.4.7) (2.4.8)
:

L
1

-
-
-

- f t

F s
f t - F s .

(2.4.7) .
f (t ) Re(s) ,
e t . ,
f (t ) F (s)
.
, a , (2.4.7)
.
, ,
s , (2.4.7) ,
F (s)
f (t ) . .
1) ()
. b t 0
.2.4.1., f t bSt

0, t 0
S t
1, t 0

F s bS t e st dt
0

(2.4.9)

b st
e
s

b
, 0
s

, bS t

(2.4.10)

b
s

s , ..

58

s .
bS (t )

bS (t )

.2.4.1. ()
t 0 b

to

to

.2.4.2.
t t o

t 0 . ,
t 0 , .. t

b,

t 0 .

lim f (t ) f (0 )

t 0

lim f (t ) f (0 )

t 0

(2.4.11)

2)
t t 0
.
.
t t 0

t t0 0 t t0

(2.4.12)

t t0 dt 1.

, ,
,
. t t 0

t t0 lim d t t0 ,
0

 2. 59

d t t0 ,

ht t0 ht t0

(2.4.13)

ht t0 ht t0

t t 0 t t 0 .

t t 0 -

L t t0 t t0 e st dt.
0

t t0 0 t t0 ,

e st0
. t 0 0 ,
(2.1.33)

0,
L t t0 st
0

,
e

t0 0

(2.4.14)

t0 0

t 0 0

L[ t ] 1 .
3)
f (t ) atS (t ) .2.4.3.

. :

1
a

F s L[atS (t )] ate st dt at e st e st dt
s

0 s 0
0

1
a

a 2 e st 2 ,
s

0 s

(2.4.15)

, :

L[

1
a
t n 1S (t )] n ,
(n 1)!
s

(2.4.16)

60

Ae at S (t t1 )
A

atS (t )

Ae at1

t=t1

.2.4.4. ,

.2.4.3.

t tf
4)
AS t sin at

BS t cosbt
S t sin at

e jat e jat
S t
2j

(2.4.17)

e jbt e jbt
S t cos bt
S t
2
L AS t sin at

Aa
,
s a2
Re s 0
Bs
L BS t cos bt 2
.
s b2
2

(2.4.18)

L AS t e t sin at

Aa

s 2 a 2
, Re s .
Bs
t
L BS t e cos bt
.
s 2 b 2

(2.4.19)

5)
Ae at S t

A a s t
A

L Ae at S t A a a s t dt
e

, Re s a (2.4.20)

sa
0 s a
0

 2. 61

Aeat S t t1

t t1 ,

L Ae at S t t1 A e a s t S t t1 dt
0

A e
t1

a s t

dt

Ae

Re s a.

st1 at1

e
sa

(2.4.21)

,
,
.
S (t )
.
. ,
a (

Re s a ), s - -

.
, S (t ) a
, .

. ,

, t 0 . ,

,
.

, ,
,
.

,
.

62

2.4.2.

1)

.
L, ..

Laf t aF s

L f1 t f 2 t F1 s F2 s,

(2.4.22)

a , F1 s F2 s f1 t

f 2 t , .

2)
f t f t ,
(.2.4.5).

L f t

f t e

st

dt.

(2.4.23)

t , d dt (2.4.23),

L f t

f y e

d e

ys
s
f e d f d

(2.4.24)

f (t )

f (t )

.2.4.5. ()
f t 0 t (.. f 0, 0 ), ,
F s f t .

 2. 63

L f t e s F s

(2.4.25)

e s ,
, .
3)
,

e t .

L e t f t e t f t e st dt f t e s t dt.
0

(2.4.26)

L e t f t f t e t dt F

(2.4.27)

L et f t F s

(2.4.28)

4)
f t

f t f1 t f 2 d

(2.4.29)

f1 t f 2 t .

F s e st f1 t f 2 ddt

(2.4.30)

F s e st f1 t f 2 S (t )ddt

(2.4.31)

S t . f1 t

f1 t , .. f1 t 0

64

t , (2.4.30)
t .

F s

f 2 f1 t e st S t dtd ,

(2.4.32)

S t 0 t ,

F s

f 2 f1 t e st dtd

(2.4.33)

t ,

F s f 2 f1 e dyd f 2 e st f1 e s d d =
0
0
0
0

F1 s f 2 e s d F1s F2 s

(2.4.34)

: F1 s L f1 t F2 s L f 2 t ,

F1 s F2 s L f1 t f 2 d
0

(2.4.35)

F1 s F2 s L f 2 f1 t d
0

(2.4.36)

F1 s F2 s L f1 t f 2 t L f 2 t f1 t ,

(2.4.37)

.
5)

df t st
df t
L

e dt

dt 0 dt

(2.4.38)

 2. 65

,
f t t 0. 1. (2.4.59)

df t
st
L
f 0 f 0 f 0 s f t e dt sF s f 0 , (2.4.39)
dt
0

: i F s , ii f t t 0

iii lim e st f t 0.
t 0

, ,
n -
n
d n f t
n

s
F
s

s n k f k 1 0 ,
n
dt
k 1

(2.4.40)

F s , f t n 1
t 0

lim e st f n k t 0,

k 1,2,3,..., n.

(2.4.41)

6)

, u e st dv f t dt.

F s f t e
0

st

dt e st f d s e st f d dt sL f d ,

0
0
0

(2.4.42)

t
F s
L f t dt
.
s
0

(2.4.43)

df (t )
[ f (0 ) f (0 )] (t ) f1 (t ) , (t ) dt
(2.4.12), f1 (t ) ,
t 0.
1

66

t t t
F s
L ... f t dt n n , n 0,1, 2, ...
s
0 0 0

(2.4.44)

n=2 :

t t
F s
L f (t )dtdt 2
s
0 0

(2.4.45)

7)
f t F s , , ,

dF s

ds

dF s d

f t e st dt,
ds
ds 0

(2.4.46)

dF s
tf t e st dt,
ds
0

(2.4.47)

L tf t

dF s
.
ds

(2.4.48)

L t n f t 1n

dn
dsn

F s .

(2.4.49)

8)

f t f1 t K t ,

(2.4.50)

, , (t ) f1 t ,

 2. 67

t 0.

sF s K f t se
0

st

dt Ks lim f t se st f t se st dt Ks , (2.4.51)
0

.
se st

sF s K Ks lim f t e st
0

d st
e ,
dt

df t st
df t st
dt e dt Ks f 0 dt e dt.
0

lim

(2.4.52)
,

lim {sF s K } f 0

slim

df1 (t )
,
dt

df t st
e dt f (0 ).
dt

lim sF s f 0 K .
s

(2.4.53)

f t
, .. t 0 ,

lim sF s f 0,
s

(2.4.54)

.
9)
(2.4.50).
lim sF s lim f t
s 0

df t st
lim sF s lim f t se st dt lim f 0
e dt lim f t .
s 0
s 0
s 0
dt
t
0
0

(2.4.55)

sF s

68

s .

f t /
. .
sF s s 0, ,
(2.4.55)

lim f t lim sF s sF s s 0 ,

s 0

(2.4.56)

 2. 69

2.5.

,
,
s, ..
s ,

F s

N s bm s m bm 1s m 1 ... b1s b0
n
.
Ds
s an 1s n 1 ... a1s a0

(2.5.1)

,

n m. ,

. D(s) N (s)
F (s).
, , F (s), ,
, / .

F (s) , .. D(s),

Ds s n an 1s n 1 ... a1s a0 0

(2.5.2)

1). :
s1 , s 2 ,..., s n Ds 0 ,
(2.5.1)

F s

N s
Ps

,
Ds s s1 s s2 ...s sn

(2.5.3)

F s

Kk
Kn
K1
K2
N s

...
...
,
Ds s s1 s s2
s sk
s sn

(2.5.4)

K k k 1,2,..., n ( F s
s1, s2 ,......,sn ), .

70
s sk
s s k , (2.5.2)

N s
K k s sk
, k 1,2,....,n
Ds s s

(2.5.4)

K k .
Ds

, (2.5.3) ( s sk
(2.5.5)

N s Ds ). ,

Ds

. , (2.5.5)

N s
K k lim s sk
,
s sk
Ds

k 1,2,.....,n.

(2.5.6)

s sk , (0/0) N s

s sk . ,

dN s
d
N s s sk
s sk N s
ds =
lim
K k lim ds
dDs
dDs
s sk
s sk
ds
ds
N sk

, k 1,2,........,n.
D' sk

(2.5.7)

K k , (2.5.4)

N sk 1
.
k 1 D' sk s sk
n

F s

(2.5.8)

f t L1F s
(2.5.8),

( (2.4.20)). (2.4.20)

n
n N sk 1
N sk s k t

e , t 0.
f s L1

k 1 D' sk s sk k 1 D' sk

(2.5.9)

 2. 71

2). :
f t

F s ,

Ds 0 s1 s2 s1 ,
s3 , s 4 ,..., s n .

F s

N s

s s1 (s s1 )s s3 ...s sn

K3
Kn
K1
K1

...
.

s s1 s s1 s s3
s sn
(2.5.10)

s1 a j s1 a j .

, .. K1 a jb K1 a jb
F s

F s

n
K
a jb
a jb
2as a 2b n K k

s a j s a j k 3 s sk s a 2 2 k
3 s sk

(2.5.11)
Kk k 3,4,....,n (2.5.7).
K1 ,
.

K1 a jb

N s
D' s s a j

(2.5.12)

, a Re K1 b Im K1. (2.5.7),
(2.5.9) (2.5.11)

n N sk s t
sa

1
f t 2aL1

2
b
L

e k .

2
2
2
2
s a
s a k 3 D' sk

(2.5.13)

(38), f t

f t 2ae at cost 2be at sin t

Ns

D' s e s k t , t 0.
k
k 3

(2.5.14)

, ,

72

f t 2 a 2 b 2 e at cost

N s

D' sk e s k t , t 0

k 3

(2.5.15)

b
a

arctg .

3). :
F s

s s1. s4 , s5 ,....,sn .
F s ,

F s

N s
N s

3
Ds s s1 s s4 ...s sn

K11

( s s1 )3

K12

s s1 2

n
K13
N sk 1

.
s s1 k 4 D' sk s sk

(2.5.16)

K11 , K12 , K13 ,

s s1
3

n
s s1 3 N s K11 s s1 K12 s s1 2 K13 s s1 3 N sk 1 .
Ds
k 4 D' sk s sk

(2.5.17)
s s1

N s
K11 s s1 3
Ds s s

(2.5.18)

K 12 (2.5.17)

s s1 .

d
N s
K12 s s1 3
Ds s s
ds
1

(2.5.19)

, s s1
(2.5.17) s ,

K13

1 d2
3 N s
2 s s1

2 ds
Ds
s s1

(2.5.20)

 2. 73

K em m 1,2,......, p s s r , p

K rm

1 d m 1
p N s
m 1 s s1

m 1! ds
Ds
s sr

(2.5.21)

K11 , K12 K13 , f t

1
1

1 n N sk s k t
1
1
f t K11L1

K
L

K
L
e

12
13

3
2
s s1
s s1
s s1 k 4 D' sk
(2.5.22)
,

f t

n
N sk s k t
K11 2 s1t
t e K12te s1t K13e s1t
e , t 0 (2.5.23)
2
k 4 D' sk

. ,
Ds 0 ,
, / .

.
4).
,

(2.4.8), . F s
s
. , , RR
(. 2.5.1), F s .

F s

(2.5.24)

Rk

k 1 , ,
(2.4.8)

f t

1
F s e st ds,

2j C

t 0

(2.5.25)

C .2.5.1, (2.4.8)
(2.5.25) . ,

74
j

1
1
1
F s e st ds
F s e st ds
F s e st ds

2j C
2j j
2j L

(2.5.26)

L C .2.5.1.
,
,

,
, .
F s e st
C :

f t Res a F s e st .
i

s - ramnina

.2.5.1.

2.5.1.
:

F ( s)

A
.
s ( s 1)
2

s 1

lim [(s 1)

e st ] Ae t ,

s ( s 1)
s 0
A
lim[(s 2 2
e st ] A(t 1) ,
s 0
s ( s 1)
s 1

f (t ) A(t 1 et ), t 0.

(2.5.27)

 2. 75

5).
,
(
/ )

. F1 s F2 s f1 t f 2 t .

F s L f1 t f 2 t

f1 t f 2 t e

st

dt

(2.5.28)

1
f 2 t
F2 s e pt dp,

2j j

(2.5.29)

F s

f1 t e st

1
F2 s e pt dpdt .

2j j

(2.5.30)

F s

1
F2 p f1 t e s p t dtdp

2j j
0

(2.5.31)

L f1 t f 2 t

1
F2 p F1 s p dp.
2j j

(2.5.32)

Re p , F2 p F1 s p
F2 p ,
F1 s p p.
(2.5.28), (2.5.29) f 2 (t ) ,
f1 (t ) ,

L f1 t f 2 t
,

1
F1 p F2 s p dp.
2j j

(2.5.33)

(2.5.32),
Re p , f1 ( p) f 2 (s p)
.

76

6).
,

.

E e 2 (t )dt

(2.5.34)

e(t ) .
,
(2.5.28)

f1 t f 2 t dt {L f1t f 2 t }s 0 ,

(2.5.35)

, s 0 (2.5.32)

f1 t f 2 t dt

1
F2 p F1 p dp
2j j

(2.5.36)

1
f1 t f 2 t dt
F1 p F2 p dp.
2j j

(2.5.37)

, f1 (t ) f 2 (t ) f (t ), (2.5.36) (2.3.37)

f 2 t dt

1
F s F s ds ,
2j j

F (s) L[ f (t )] , .

. ..
F (s) F (s) .
,

s - , .

 2. 77

2.6.
2.6.1.
,
2.4.,
. , ,
.
( ) (), ,
.
.2.6.1.
:
1.

2.

(-),

3.

()
.

( L ) ( L )

.2.6.1.


. , .
f (t ) ,
:
I :

L[ f ' (t )] sF (s) f (0 )

II : L[ f ' ' (t )] s 2 F (s) sf (0 ) f ' (0 )

III : L[' ' ' (t )] s 3 F (s) sf ' ' (0 ) sf ' (0 ) f (0 )
............................................................................................................

78
n - :

L[ f n (t )] s n f (s) s ( n 1) f (0 ) ............. sf ( n 2) (0 ) f (n 1) (0 )
f (0 ) , 0
f (t ) t 0 .

2.6.1

y(t ) 3 y (t ) 2 y(t ) e t

(2.6.1)

y(0 ) y (0 ) 0 .

:
1:( s )

s 2 y ( s) 3sy ( s) 2 y ( s)
( L

1
s 1

e t

(2.6.2)

1
)
s 1

2: ( )

( s 2 3s 2) y ( s)
y( s)

1
s 1

1
1
2
s 1 s 3s 2

(2.6.3)

3:
y (s )
. () :

s 2 3s 2 0
3 9 8 3 1

2
2
s2 1 ,
s3 2
s1, 2

( (2.6.3)) :

s1 1 , s2 1, s3 2

 2. 79

s1 s2 1
(III )

y( s)

K11
( s s1 )

y(s) -

K3
K12

s s1 s s2

(2.6.4)

K11 ( s s1 ) 2 y ( s ) / s s1 ( s s1 ) 2

1
( s s1 ) ( s s2 )
2

/ s 1

1
1

1
s 2 1 2

K12 [

d
d 1
1
{( s s1 ) 2 y( s)}]s s1
/ s 1 1
/ s 1
ds
ds s 2
( s 2)

K3 ( s 2) y ( s) / s 2

1
( s 1)

/ s 2

1
(1)2

: ( (2.6.4))

y(s)

1
1
1

s
2
s 1 s 2
( s 1)

t a:

1
L1
t e t
2
( s 1)
1 t
L1
e
s 1
1 2t
L1
e
s 2
(5) :

y(t ) te t et e2t

(2.6.5)

80
2.6.2.
a

y a1 y a0 y 0

(2.6.6)
.

a 0 a1 , y (o ) y (o ) .
(2.6.6) y(t ) ?
:
1:
.

[s 2 y(s) sy (0 ) y(0 )] a1[sy (s) y(0 )] a0 y(s) 0

(2.6.7)

2:
.

(s 2 a1s a0 ) y(s) (s a1 ) y(0 ) y(0 ) 0

.

(s 2 a1s a0 ) y(s) (s a1 ) y(0 ) y(0 ) 0

:

y( s)

s a1
s a1s a0
2

y (0 )

1
s a1s a0
2

y (0 )

y(s) Lo (s) y(0 ) L(s) y (0 )

(2.6.8)

(2.6.9)

L0 ( s)

N 0 ( s)
s a1
N ( s)
1
L( s )
2
2
D( s) s a1s a0
D( s) s a1s a0

(2.6.10)

D(s) s 2 a1 s a0
3:
): D(s) 2

D(s) s 2 a1s a0 (s s1 ) (s s2 )

(2.6.11)

L(s) L0 ( s)
:

L0 ( s)

A1
A2

,
s s1 s s2

A1

N 0 ( s1 )
,
D' ( s1 )

A2

N 0 ( s2 )
D' ( s2 )

(2.6.12)

 2. 81

Ls ( s)

N (s )
B1
B2

, B1 0 1 ,
s s1 s s2
D' ( s1 )

B2

N 0 ( s2 )
D' ( s2 )

(2.6.13)

s- :

A
B1
A2
B2 .

y( s) 1
y
(
0
)

y (0 )
s s1 s s2
s s1 s s2

(2.6.14)

y(t ) [ A1e s1t A2e s 2 t ] y(0 ) [ B1e s1t B2 e s 2 t ] y (0 )

[ A1 y(0 ) B1 y (0 )]e s1t [ A2 y(0 ) B2 y (0 )]e s 2 t

(2.6.15)

_______________
): D(s) :

D( s) ( s s1 ) 2

(2.6.16)

L(s) L0 ( s)
:

L0 ( s)

A1
A2

,
s s1 ( s s1 ) 2

(2.6.17)

Ls ( s)

B1
B2

,
s s1 ( s s2 ) 2

(2.6.18)

Ai Bi
[7]:

d N ( s)

A1 o ( s s1 ) 2
1,
s s1
ds D( s)
N ( s)

A2 o ( s s1 ) 2
s1 a1
D( s )
s s1

d N ( s)

B1 o ( s s1 ) 2
0,
s s1
ds D( s)
N ( s)

B2 o ( s s1 ) 2
1
D
(
s
)

s s1

82
:

y( s)

y(0 ) ( s1 a1 ) y(0 ) y (0 )

s s1
( s s2 ) 2

(2.6.19)

( ).

:

y(t ) y(0 )e s1t [(s1 a1 ) y(0 ) y (0 )]te s1t

):

(2.6.20)

D(s) :
D(s) (s s1 ) (s s2 ), s1,2 j1

s1 s2
:

D(s) (s 1 ) 2 12 s 2 21s (12 12 )

(2.6.21)

ao 12 12 ,

a1 21

(2.6.22)

(3)

y(s)

s 2 1
(s 1 )

12

y (0 )

1
(s 1 )

12

y (0 )

s 1

1
y (0 )
2
2
2
2
( s 1 ) 1 1 ( s 1 ) 1
1
1

y (0 )
1 ( s 1 ) 2 12

(2.6.23)

(2.6.23)
( 2.1) :

1 1t
y(t ) e 1t cos1t 1 sin 1t y(0 )
e y (0 ) sin 1t

1
1

(2.6.24)

, ,

y(t ) e 1t y(0 ) cos1t y (0 ) 1 y(0 ) sin 1t

1

(2.6.25)

 2. 83

, (2.6.8)
D(s), y(s), . e (2.6.9), (2.6.10), (2.6.11)
y (s) . y (s) ,
,
, . .
(modes)
, , .
,
n- :
n

d i y (t )

i 0

dt i

ai

(2.6.26)

d i y (t )
dti t 0

i 0,1,2,..., n 1 .

(2.6.26) :
i

n
n
d v 1
y ( s) ai s i ai s i v v 1 y (t ) |t 0 0
dt
i 0
i 0 v 1

(2.6.8):

y(s)

i 0

v 1

ai s i v

d v 1
dt v 1

ai s

y (t ) |t 0

N (s)
D( s )

(2.6.27)

i 0

N (s) D(s) s
N (s) . sk (k 1,2,..., n) y (s)
n

ai s i 0

(2.6.28)

i 0

an (s s1 )(s s2 ) ... (s sn ) 0

(2.6.29)

sk y (s)
y (s) , ..

84
(2.5.4).
:
n

y (t ) K k e s k t t 0 .
k 1

sk y (s) s

(2.6.26).
Re sk 0 ( s ) ,
Re sk 0 ( s )

y (t ) , Re sk 0 .
, (2.6.28) (2.6.29) (characteristic equation), sk y (s) (eigenvalues) .

.

2.6.3
(Bishop, ch 2, page 47)

:

d2y
dt

dy
3 y 2r (t )
dt

(1)

y (0) 1,

dy
(0),
dt

r (t ) 1, t 0 .
(1) :

[s 2Y (s) sy (0)] 4[sY (s) y(0)] 3 y(s) 2R(s)

(2)

, :

( s 2 4s 3)Y (s) (s 4) y(0) 2R(s) .

R( s )

1
y(0) 1, (2) :
s

(2)

 2. 85

( s 2 4s 3)Y ( s) ( s 4) 1 2

1
s

Y ( s)

s4
s 4s 3
2

2
s( s 4s 3)
2

q(s) s 2 4s 3 (s 1) (s 3) 0
.
(3) :

3/ 2
1/ 2 1
1/ 3 2 / 3
Y ( s)

s Y1 ( s) Y2 ( s) Y3 ( s)
( s 1) ( s 3) ( s 1) ( s 3)
, , :

1
1
3

2
y (t ) e t e 3t 1e t e 3t ,
2
3
2

3
:

lim y (t )

2
3

(3)

86

2.7.
2.7.1.
, ( LTI - linear time
invariant systems)
n

d i y (t )

i 0

dt i

ai

d j u (t )

j 0

dt j

bj

(2.7.1)

, n=2 m=1, (2.7.1)

a0 y(t ) a1 y (t ) a2 y(t ) b0u(t ) b1u (t )

(2.7.2)

, (2.7.1) :
n

i 0

j 0

y ( s) a1 s i u ( s) b j s j

(2.7.3)

, n=2 m=1, , (2.7.2), )

a2 s 2 y( s) a1sy ( s) a0 y( s) b1su ( s) b0u ( s)

(2.7.4)

(a2 s 2 a1s a0 ) y( s) b(b1s b0 )u ( s)

(2.7.3) :
m

y(s)

u (s)

bjs j
j 0
n

ai s

b0 b1s b2 s 2 ...... bm s m
a0 a1s a2 s ...... an s
2

G(s)

N (s)
D( s )

(2.7.5)

i 0

N(s) D(s) , .
L[ y(t )] y(s)
L[u(t )] u(s) .
.
G(s), ( )
, .

u (t ) , u (s) :

y ( s ) G( s ) u ( s )

(2.7.6)

 2. 87

2.7.2.
f1 (t ) f 2 (t ) ,
f1 (t ) * f 2 (t ) , :
t

f1 (t ) * f 2 (t ) f1 ( ) f 2 (t )d

(2.7.7)

t ,

- .

, f1 (t ) f 2 (t ) (L )
, .:

L[ f1 (t ) * f 2 (t )] F1 (s) F2 (s)

(2.7.8)

, (2.7.6), .. y(s) G(s) u(s) , (2.7.8),

(2.7.6) :
t

y(t ) L1[G( s) u ( s)] g (t )u ( )d

0

(2.7.9)

, g (t ) G(s) .
.
G(s)
:
G(s) L[ g (t )]
(2.7.10)
(t ) u (t )
G(s) , (2.7.6),
:

y(s) G(s) L[ (t )]

L[ (t ) 1 ,

y ( s ) G( s ) ,

(2.7.11)

y(t ) g (t )

(2.7.12)

(2.7.10)

(t ) .
( ).

88

:

u(t ) U 0e t sin(t )

(2.7.13)

y (t ) G( j ) u0e t sin[t ( j )]

(2.7.14)

G( j )
, ( j) arg G( j)
e t .
2.7.3.

.

G( s)

m n

m n :

N ( s) N1 ( s)

k0 k1s ...... km n s m n
D( s ) D( s )

(2.7.15)

N1 ( s) n-1
s. , ( ).
(conditions of realisability) ,
(2.7.2) e

N (s) D(s) , m n
(condition of properness).
(improper) . G(s) s .
(proper)
G(s) K0 s .
K 0 0 (strictly proper).

 2. 89

2.7.4. (dead time)

(time delay), (dead
time), u (t ) , (2.7.1) :
n

d i y (t )

i 0

dt i

ai

d j u (t Td )

j 0

dt j

bj

(2.7.18)

(transcendental) :

G( s)

N ( s) sTd
e
D( s )

(2.7.19)

2.7.5.
(. - stability analysis)
G(s) :

G( s)

( s s z1 ) ( s s z 2 ) ... ( s s z m )
N ( s)
K0
D( s )
( s s p1 ) ( s s p 2 ) ... ( s s p n )

(2.7.20)

ai , b j , i 1,.....n, j 1,.....m . s pi s z j
G(s) , ,
.
s s z j s s p i .
s
.2.7.1.

. 2.7.1
s

90
, .
(u(t ) 0) (2.7.1)
y (t ) ,
:
n

ai

i 0

d i y (t )
0
dti

(2.7.21)

(2.6.26) . y (t ) e st (2.7.21).

G(s) , D(s) 0 , D(s) N (s) . sk s p i -

. 2.6. (.. y(t ) 0)

, s p i
.
s s z j

| G( s z j ) | 0 . y(s)
s z j .
(2.7.20)

ue

sz j t

zjt

s z j z j . u e

| G( z j ) | 0 (2.7.14)

yss (t ) 0 .
s z j , s z j s*z j

ue

sz j t

s *z j t

zjt

2e

zjt

cost 2e

sin(t

).

(2.7.14) yss (t ) 0 .
zjt

s z j e

 2. 91

2.7.1.
, , .2.7.2.
k1 1, k2 2, d 2, m1 1 m2 4 ,
u (t ) f (t ) .

k2

y1 y2
k1
m1
m2
f (t ) u (t )

.2.7.2. ,
()

u(t ) f (t ) ( m2 ), y2 (t ) , :
G( s)

y2 ( s)
s2 1
4
u ( s) s 0.5s 3 1.75s 2 0.5s 0.5

s z1, 2 j .
:

u (s) f (s)

1
1
2
( s sz1 )( s sz2 ) s 1

L1{u ( s )} L1{

1
} sin t
s 1
2

, y2 (t )
.2.7.3. y2 , m1 ( .2.7.3

y1 ). m2
s z1, 2 .

92

.2.7.3. u(t ) f (t ) sin t ,

y1 - m1 , y2 - m2

 2. 93

2.8
( !)

94

2.9
( !)

z -

 2. 95

2.10
2.10.1.

.
, ,
. za
hemiski procesi koi sporo se odvivaat, , ,.
.
1).
:

a1 y (t ) ao (t ) bou(t )

(2.10.1)

/:

G( s)

bo
Y ( s)
k

U ( s) a1s ao s p

(2. 10.2)

bo
-
a1
a
p o -
a1

() [Vukic],
:

G( s)

bo
Y ( s)
K

U ( s) a1s ao Ts 1

(2. 10.3)

bo
- ,
ao
.

a1 1
- [s].

ao p

.
!

96

2.10.2.

. , ,
,
.
,
.
, ,
m , k c .2.10.1.
R , L C , RLC
. 2.10.2.

f e kx

fi mx

ft cx

f (t )

. 2.10.1. ,

P
U

U R Ri (t )

UL L

i (t )
dt

U C (t )

C
i (t )

.2.10.2. RLC

1
i (t )dt
C

 2. 97

3 .2.10.1 2.10.2 ,
.
.
.2.10.1 f (t )
, fi (t ) mx(t ) , ft (t ) cx(t ) f e (t ) kx(t )
.

,
.2.10.1.:

fi (t ) ft (t ) fe (t ) f (t )

(2.10.1)

,
(2.10.1), m x
:

d 2x
dx
c kx f (t ) .
2
dt
dt

(2.10.2)

m , c - , k -
x .
.2.10.2 U (t )
( ), U R (t ) Ri(t )
, U L (t ) L i(t )
dt

, L , U C (t )

1
i(t )dt
C

,
, 1 / C .

, U (t )
.
:

U L (t ) UC (t ) U R (t ) U (t )

(2.10.3)

(2.10.3)
:

98

di(t )
Ri(t ) U C (t ) U (t )
dt

(2.10.4)

1
U c (t ) i( )d
C0

dU C (t ) 1
i(t )
dt
C

(2.10.5)

i(t ) C

dU C (t )
dt

(2.10.6)

(2.10.6)

d 2U C (t )
i(t )
.
C
dt
dt 2

(2.10.7)

(2.10.6)
(2.10.7) (2.10.4)
:

LC

d 2U C (t )
dt

RC

U C (t )
U C (t ) U (t )
dt

(2.10.8)

U (t ) -
, U C (t )
.
1)
( )
,
,
. (2.10.2)
, m , :

d 2 x c dx k
1

x f (t )
2
m dt m
m
dt

(2.10.9)

.
, ,
. f (t )
. 0,
.
f (t ) . .

 2. 99

(
). . .
.

:

x Ae t

(2.10.10)

(2.10.9), f (t ) 0 ,

2 Ae t

c
k
Ae t Ae t 0
m
m

(2.10.11)

Ae :

c
k
0
m
m

(2.10.12)

.
(characteristic roots) (eigenvalues) .

:

2 2n n2 0

2
1
2 0 ,
T
T

(2.10.13)

T 2 2 2 T 1 0

(2.10.14)

(2.10.12) (2.10.13) (2.10.14)

:

n2

k
c
k
, 2n , n
,
m
m
m

1 c n c 1 c T c

2n m
2 k 2T k 2 m

m
,
k
(2.10.15)

n , -
- .

100
(210.12) :
2

1,2

c
k
c

2m
2m m

(2.10.16)

x(t ) C1e 1t C2 e 2t

(2.10.17)

C1 C2
.
.
; m, c k
. , .,
:
) , ;
b) ;
c) , .

1 , 2

, :

c
k

2m
m

1 0, 2 0, 1 2

(2.10.18)

. (overdamped) .
() :

c
c
k
c
k
c
c

, 2
,
2m
2m
m
2m
m
2m
2m

k ,
m

(2.10.19)

(2.10.17), :
2

x(t ) C1e
b)

1 , 2

c
k

2m
m

c
c k

)t
2m 2m m

C2 e

c
c k

)t
2m 2m m

(2.10.20)

1 j p , 2 1* j p , 0 (2.10.21)

 2. 101

1, 2

c
k
c
k c

j p
j

,
2m
m
2m
m 2m

(2.10.22)

c
k c

0, p

2m
m 2m

(2.10.23)

() :

x(t ) C1e 1t C2 e 2t C1e

et (C1e

j pt

C2 e

j pt

( j p )t

C2 e

x(t ) e

) et [ A cos( p t ) B sin( p t )]

(2.10.23)

( j p )t

k c
c
j

t
t
2 m [C e m 2 m
1

(2.10.24)

(2.10.24) :
2

C2 e

k c

t
m 2m

].

(2.10.25)

x(t ) e

c
t
2 m [ A cos(

k
c
k
c
( ) 2 t ) B sin(
( ) 2 t )]
m 2m
m 2m

(2.10.26)

(2.10.26)
:

k c
p

m 2m
c)

1 , 2

(2.10.27)

c
k

2m
m

1 0, 2 0, 1 2

(2.10.28)

(overdamped) . .
, .. :

1, 2 j 0

c
2m

(2.10.29)

x(t ) (C1 C2t )et

(2.10.30)

102
t

, e 0
C2t . .2.10.3
.

, (critical
demping constant) (2.10.28) :

ccr 2 k m

(2.10.31)

,
. ,
(2.10.15)

1 m c 1 c

,
2 k m 2 k m

k m ccr / 2 (2.10.31),

c
,
ccr

(2.10.32)

c ccr :
c ckr .

. 2.10.3.

(2.10.33)

 2. 103

, , c=0, =0,
. , , (2.10.27)
c 0 :

k
m

(2.10.34)

,
n :

d 2x
dx
2 n
n2 x f t
2
dt
dt

(2.10.35)

(2.10.35)
. (2.10.35) , -
(),

. , ,
.2.10.2, (2.10.8):

d 2U C (t )
dt

R
1
U C (t )
U C (t ) f (t ),
L
LC

f (t )

1
U (t )
LC

(2.10.36)

,
-- ()
3, :

d 2 c d k

f (t )
dt 2 I dt I

(2.10.37)

c, k I ,
, .

(2.10.35) (2.10.13), ..:

2 2 n n2 0

(2.10.38)

1,2 n jn 1 2 n ( j 1 2 )

(2.10.39)

1,2 j p

(2.10.40)

104

(2.10.41)

p n 1 2

(2.10.42)

, , ,
, , .
.2.10.4 n.
.
, .
:

cos( ) cos

(2.10.43)

cos

(2.10.44)

.2.10.5.
2.10.1

1, 2 j

n
1

cos

p n 1 2

2
-

.2.10.4.

, p , , n

 2. 105

0
0 1

cos

0 1

n const

1
1

1
0 1

0 1

0
.2.10.5.
2.10.1.

.2.10.6

0 1

0 1

(underdamped)

o
( )

(overdamped)

( )

106

a)

.2.10.6.
2.10.1.: ) 1.1, ( 1) - -

0.1, ( 1) -
, 0 - . b) 0 , 0.1, (0 1) - , 1 - , 2.0, ( 1)
,

(overdamped) .

2) - RLC
RLC
.2.10.2. U U o const
P

0 , t 0
U (t ) U o S (t )
U o , t 0

(2.10.45)

.2.10.2
(2.10.8) , (2.10.45),

LC

d 2U C (t )
dt

RC

U C (t )
U C (t ) U o S (t ) .
dt

(2.10.46)

-
, ,
(2.10.46)

UCss UC (t ) Uo .

(2.10.47)

 2. 107

LC

d 2U C (t )
dt

RC

U C (t )
U C (t ) 0
dt

(2.10.48)

, , (2.10.48) :

uch (t ) Ae t

(2.10.49)

(2.10.48),

LC2 Ae t RCAe t Ae t 0 Ae t ( LC2 RC 1) 0 . (2.10.50)

Ae

0 , :
LC2 RC 1 0

(2.10.51)

,
LC :

R
1

0
L
LC

(2.10.52)

(2.10.52) :

1, 2

R
1
R

2L
LC
2L

(2.10.53)

uch (t ) C1e 1t C2 e 2t

(2.10.54)

C1 C2
.

(2.10.47) (2.10.54), ..

UC (t ) UCss UCh x(t ) U o C1e1t C2e2t .

(2.10.55)

C1 C2

. , t 0
UC (0) 0 , U C (0)
(2.10.55) :

i(0)
0,
C

108

U C (t ) U o C1e1t C2e2t
U C (t ) C11e1t C2 2e2t

(2.10.56)

t 0 :

U C (0) U o C1 C2
.
U (0) C C
C

1 1

(2.10.57)

2 2

(2.10.57), U o

1 , 2 ,

C1 , C2 :

2
1 2
1
C 2 U o
1 2
C1 U o

(2.10.58)

(2.10.52)

2 2 n n2 0

(2.10.59)

1
R LC
1 R
,

2L
2n L
LC

(2.10.60)

(2.10.59),
:

1, 2

2 n 4 2n2 4n2
2

n n 2 1

(2.10.61)

, ,
:
2

1
R
) 0 1 (
)

LC
2L

1,2 j p n jn 1 2

(2.10.62)

 2. 109

R
2
, p n 1
n
2L

1 R

LC 2 L

(2.10.63)

p , , -

.
2

1
R
b) 1 (
) (2.10.62)

LC
2L
, :

1,2 '

R
,
2L

R2
1

2
LC
4L

'

(2.10.64)

1
R
c) Ao e 1 (
) (2.10.62)

LC
2L
, :

1, 2

(2.10.65)

(2.9.73) (2.9.76)
:

U C (t ) U o C1e1t C2e2t U o U o

2
1
e1t U o
e2t
1 2
1 2

, :

uc (t ) U o [1

2 e 1t 1e 2t
]
1 2

(2.10.66)

, ,
, ;
R, L, C .
,
,
, .
, ,
(2.10.66) (2.10.62), :
U C (t ) U o [1

j p j pt j p j pt
2e1t 1e2t
] U o [1
e

e
] (2.10.67)
1 2
2 j p
2 j p

110

(2.10.:

j p j pt j p j pt
j p j p t j p j p t
e

e
et (
e

e
)
2 j p
2 j p
2 j p
2 j p
et (

1 j t
j t
e p e p
2 j p
2

et (

e
p

j p t

e
2j

j pt

1 j t
j t
e p e p )
2 j p
2

j p t

e
2

j p t

) et (

sin p t cos p t )
p

:
n

sin p t cos p t
sin p t cos p t
sin p t cos p t
2
p
n 1
1 2

[
sin p t cos p t ]
1 2

Asin p t B cos p t ,
A

(1)

, B 1

(2)

Asin p t B cos p t C sin( p t ) C sin( p t ) cos C cos( p t ) sin

(3)

1 2

A C cos , B C sin

B
tg
A

artg

2
B
, C A B2
A

, (2) (4) :
2

C A B2

artg

2
1
1 2

B
artg (
A

2 1 2
1

1 2
1 2

) artg (

1 2

1 2

1 2

sin p t cos p t

1
1 2

sin( p t )

(4)

 2. 111

, (2.10.67)

U C (t ) U o [1 e t (

sin p t cos p t )]
p

U o 1 ent
sin 1 2 nt cos 1 2 nt

1 2

(2.10.68)

U C (t ) U o [1

1
1

e nt sin( p t )]

ent
U o 1
sin
2

1 n t

(2.10.69)

arctg (

1 2

).

U o 1
.2.10.7.

. 2.10.7.
zeta .

112

b) 1 (2.10.62)
(2.10.64). [Vukic]:

uc (t ) ucss uch (t ) U o [1 C1e (

23

1 2 )nt

C2 e (

1 2 )nt

] (2.10.70)

.2.10.8.

. 2.10.8.

1 , ( zeta ) .

(2.10.62)

, (2.10.65), ..

1, 2

uc (t ) ucss uch (t ) U o [1 C1e nt C2te nt ]

.2.10.8.

(2.10.71)

 2. 113

2.11 ,
LTI
2.11.1
.

p( s ) s 3 2s 5
.
MATLAB-, -

.
>> p = [ 1 0 -2 -5]
p =
1
0
-2

-5

.
:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

conv
deconv
poly
roots
polyval
polyder
polifit

8.
9.

polivalm
residue

()

1).
roots ..
.
, roots
:
>> p = [ 1 0 -2 -5]
>> r = roots(p)
r =
2.0946
-1.0473 + 1.1359i
-1.0473 - 1.1359i

114

2.11.1.: Najdi gi korenite na polinomot:

s 6 9s 5 31.25s 4 61.25s 3 67.75s 2 14.75s 15

Matlab re{enie:
>> p2=[1 9 31.25 61.25 67.75 14.75 15];
>> r = roots(p2)
r=
-4.0000
-3.0000
-1.0000 + 2.0000i
-1.0000 - 2.0000i
0.0000 + 0.5000i
0.0000 - 0.5000i
, -. roots poly.
.
>> r =[2.0946, -1.0473 + 1.1359i, -1.0473 - 1.1359i];
>> p1 = poly(r)
p1 =
1.0000

-0.0000

-2.0000

-5.0000

2.11.2.
>> r2 = [ -4.0, -3.0, -1.0 + 2.0i, -1.0 - 2.0i, 0.0 + 0.5i, 0.0 - 0.5000i];
>> p2 = poly(r2)
p2 =
1.0000 9.0000 31.2500 61.2500 67.7500 14.7500 15.0000
roots poly (
) . poly

roots
[9]
>> A = [ -5.0 -52.06; 0.092
>> p3 = poly(A)
>> r3 = roots(p3)
p3 =
1.0000

5.4330

6.9545

-0.433];

 2. 115

r3 =
-3.3683
-2.0647

2)

polyval
. o

p( x) x 3 2 x 5 x = 5 :
>> p = [1 0 -2 -5];
>> polyval(p,5)
ans =
110
:
>> x = [ 0.1 0.5 1 2 3 4 5];
>> v = polyval(p,x)
v =
-5.1990
-5.8750
51.0000 110.0000

-6.0000

-1.0000

16.0000

x.
3) () ( )
. conv deconv.
:

a(s) s 2 2s 3 i b(s) 4s 2 5s 6
>> a = [ 1 2 3]; b = [ 4 5 6];
>> c = conv(a,b)
c =
4

13

28

27

18

- c
a b.
>> [q,r] = deconv(c,a)
q =
4

r =
0

116

- r .

q.

4)

()

H s

Bs bm s m bm1s m1 ... b1s b0

.
As an s n an1s n1 ... a1s a0

(1)

m n ,

H (s) (proper) ,
m n H (s) (improper)

.
p1, p2 , ..., pn
A(s ) :

As an s p1 s p2 ...s pn ,

(2)

H (s) :
H s

Bs
Bs

,
As a n s p1 s p2 ...s pn

(3)

H (s)

residue
.

p1 , p2 , ... , pn ,

H s

H (s)

Kk
Kn
K1
K2

...
...
,
s p1 s p2
s pk
s pn

K k ()
residue:
[k,p]=residue(b,a)

(4)

 2. 117

: k [ K1, K 2 , ..., K n ]
p [ p1, p2 , ..., pn ] .
2.11.3:

H ( s)

s2
s 4s 2 3s
3

>> b = [1 2];
>> a = [1 4 3 0];
>> [k,p] = residue(b,a)
k=
-0.1667
-0.5000
0.6667
p=
-3
-1
0

1
2
1
0.1667 0.5000 0.6667
H ( s)

6 2 3
s (3) s (1)
s0
s 3 s 1 s

H ( s)

s 2 2s 1
s 3 3s 2 4s 2

>> b = [1 -2 1];
>> a = [1 3 4 2];
>> [k,p = residue(b,a)
k=
-1.5000 + 2.0000i
-1.5000 - 2.0000i
4.0000
p=
-1.0000 + 1.0000i
-1.0000 - 1.0000i
-1.0000

H (s)

1.5 j 2 1.5 j 2
4

s 1 j
s 1 j
s 1

m n H (s)

118

H ( s)

B( s)
A( s)

H s

Kp
K p 1
Kn
K1
K2

...

...
.....
,
2
p
s p1 ( s p1 )
s p p 1
s pn
( s pk )

(5)

2.11.4:

H ( s)

5s 1
s 3s 2
3

>> b = [5 -1];
>> a = [1 0 -3 -2];
>> [k,p] = residue(b,a)
k=
1.0000
-1.0000
2.0000
p=
2.0000
-1.0000
-1.0000

H ( s)

1
1
2

s 2 s 1 ( s 1) 2

H ( s)

B( s)
A( s)

B(s)

A(s), (m n).
,

H (s) :
H ( s ) Q( s )

R( s )
A( s)

Q(s ) m n R(s)
n . R(s) / A(s)
.

e residue :

 2. 119

[k,p,q]=residue(b,a). k [ K1, K2 , ..., Kn ] ,

() p [ p1, p2 , ..., pn ]
q [q1 , q2 , ... , qnm ] .
2.11.5.:

H (s)

s 3 2s 4
s 2 4s 2

>> b = [1 0 2 -4];
>> a = [1 4 -2];
>> [k,p,q] = residue(b,a)
k=
20.6145
-0.6145
p=
-4.4495
0.4495
q=
1 -4

H ( s) s 4

20.6145
0.6145

s 4.4495 s 0.4495

k [ K1, K 2 , ..., K n ] ,
p [ p1, p2 , ..., pn ] q [q1, q2 , ..., qn m ]
[b,a] = residue(k,p,q)

H ( s)

B( s)
.
A( s)

2.11.6. :
>> k = [20.6145 -0.6145];
>> p = [ -4.4495 0.4495];
>> q = [ 1 -4];
>> [b,a] = residue(k,p,q)
b=
1.0 0.0 2.0 -4.0
a=
1.0 4.0 -2.0

H ( s)

s 3 2s 4
s 2 4s 2

120

2.11.2

LTI :
laplace, tf, ss , pole, zero, o: s z

1) laplace
laplace
.
.
2.11.7:
:

x e2t , x a sin(t ), x a sin(t ) b cos(t )

__________________
% Laplace_1.m
clear; pack; clc
syms x t
x = exp(-2*t);
X = laplace(x)
:
X=
1/(s+2)
(syms )
___________________
% Laplace_2.m
clear; pack; clc
syms x t a w
x = a*sin(w*t);
X = laplace(x)
X=
a*w/(s^2+w^2)
__________________
% Laplace_3.m
clear; pack; clc
syms x t a b w
x = a*sin(w*t)+b*cos(w*t);
X = laplace(x)
X=
a*w/(s^2+w^2)+b*s/(s^2+w^2)

 2. 121

LTI (Linear Time Invariant) :

2) tf
:
:
G=tf(num,den)
: num
G(s) ;
den
G(s)
2.11.8.
G( s)

2s 3
s 4s 1
2

>> G=tf([2 3],[1 4 1])

:
Transfer function:
2s+3
------------s^2 + 4 s + 1
2.11.9
G ( s )
:

5s
s 2
2

>> num=[5 0]; den=[1 0 2];

>> G=tf(num,den)
:
Transfer function:
5s
------s^2 + 2
:
:
G=tf(num,den,)
: num
G(z ) ;
den
G(z )

122
2.11.10
G ( z )
:

1
z 0.2 z 0.2
2

>> G=tf([1],[1 -0.2 0.2], 2)

:
Transfer function:
1
----------------z^2 - 0.2 z + 0.2
Sampling time: 2
2.11.11.
G ( z )

z2

z

:
>> num = [1 2]; den = [1 0]; Ts=1;
>> G = tf(num, den,Ts)
:
Transfer function:
z+2
----z
Sampling time: 1
3) s z

: s=tf(s); G=(bm*s^m++b1*s+b0)/(an*s^n++a1*s+a0);
2.11.12
G( s)
>> s=tf('s');
>> G=(2*s+3)/(s^2+4*s+1)
:
Transfer function:
2s+3
------------s^2 + 4 s + 1

2s 3
s 4s 1
2

 2. 123

: z=tf(s, Ts); G=(bm*z^m++b1*z+b0)/(an*z^n++a1*z+a0);
2.11.13.
G ( s)
:
>> z=tf('z',1);
>> G=(z+1)/(z^2-0.2*z+0.2)

z 1
z 0.2 z 0.2
2

:
Transfer function:
z+1
----------------z^2 - 0.2 z + 0.2
4) ss
ss state-space ( )
LTI .
:
sys = ss(A,B,C,D)
(a continuous-time state-space (ss) model) SYS A,B,C,D.
SYS ss . D=0
.
sys = ss ss .
:
:

G=ss(A,B,C,D)
A, B, C, D :

x Ax Bu
y Cx Du

2.11.14: :

x1 1 2 x1 0
x 0 1 x 1u
2
2
x
y 1 0 1
x2
Matlab :
>> A=[-1 2; 0 -1]; B=[0; 1]; C=[1 0]; D=[0];
>> G=ss(A,B,C,D)
:

124

a=
x1 x2
x1 -1 2
x2 0 -1
b=
u1
x1 0
x2 1
c=
x1 x2
y1 1 0
5) pole zero
Slu`at za odreduvawe na polovite i nulite na sistemot.
:
p=pole(G); z=zero(G);
: G e LTI ( tf ss)
p z , .
2.11.15
:

G(s)

2s 3
s 4s 1
2

; : p1,2 2 3 ; : z1

:
>> s=tf('s');
>> G=(2*s+3)/(s^2+4*s+1);
>> p=pole(G)
>> z=zero(G)
:
p=
-3.7321
-0.2679
z=
-1.5000

2.12
( !)

3
1.5
2

 2. 125

1
1
2
3

4
5

8
9

10

n-

cf (t )
f1 (t ) f 2 (t )
f (t )

sF ( s) f (0 )

f (t )

s 2 F (s) sf (0 ) f ' (0 )

f (t )

s 3 F (s) sf ' ' (0 ) sf ' (0 ) f (0 )

f ( n) (t )

12

s n f ( s) s ( n 1) f (0 ) ...

f (t )dt

1
F (s)
s

f (at), a 0

1 s
F( )
a a

1 t
f( )
a a

F (as), (a 0)

f (t b); b 0

e bs F (s)

e at f (t )

F ( s a)

e at f (t )

F ( s a)

tf (t )

dF ( s )
ds
n ( n)
(1) F ( s)

t n f (t )

cF ( s)
F1 ( s) F2 ( s)

... sf ( n 2) (0 ) f ( n 1) (0 )

11

2.1.
L
4

f (t )
t

F ( )d
s

f1 ( ) f 2 (t )d

F1 (s) F2 (s)

13

14

lim sF ( s)

f (0)

f ()

s 0

lim sF ( s)

126

1
1
2

2.2.

f (t ), f (t ) 0 t 0

F (s)

3
1

(t )

1
s
1

S (t )
3

t2

te at

t 2 e at

t n e at

10

1 e at
1
a

13
14
15

s n 1
1
sa
1

e at

12

s3
1

tn
n!

11

s2
2

(e at 1 at)
(1 at)e at

sin ot
cosot

t sin ot

( s a) 2
1
( s a)3

n!
( s a ) n 1
a
s( s a)
a

s 2 ( s a)
s
( s a) 2

o
s o2
2

s
s o2
2

2o s
( s o2 ) 2
2

 2. 127

16

s 2 o2

t cosot

17

( s 2 o2 ) 2

e at sin ot

18

( s a) 2 o2
sa

e at cosot

19

te at sin ot

20

te

at

21

( s a) 2 o2
2o ( s a)
[(s a) 2 o2 ]2
( s a) 2 o2

cosot

( s a) 2 o2

sht

22

s 2
2

cht

s 2
2

2.3.

( t 0 )

1
1

1
Ts 1
1
s (Ts 1)
s 1
s (Ts 1)
1

1
T
1
1 e at , a
T
1
T
1 Ce at , a , C
T
T

2
3
4

s (Ts 1)
2

s 1
s (Ts 1)
2

22 s 2 1s 1
s 2 (Ts 1)

ae at , a

T (e at 1) t , a

1
T

1
, C T
T
1
t, a ,
T

C (1 e at ) t , a
C1 C2 e at

C1 1 T , C2

22 1T T 2
T

128

1
(Ts 1)

1
s (Ts 1)

1 (1 at)e at , a

1
(T1s 1)(T2 s 1)
10

s
(T1s 1)(T2 s 1)
11

1
s(T1s 1)(T2 s 1)

C (e a1t e a 2 t ), a1
C

C1

T 2 s 2 2Ts 1

, 0 1

s 1
, 0 1
T s 2Ts 1

Ce

1
s(T 2 s 2 2Ts 1)

1
1
, C2
T1 (T2 T1 )
T2 (T1 T2 )

1 2
sin t , ,
T
T
1

T 2

(1 2 )T 2 2

s 1
, 0 1
s(T s 2Ts 1)

1 2
,
T

, arctg

1 Ce t sin(t ),

, 0 1

1
1
, a2
T1
T2

Ce t sin(t ),

2 2

14

1
1
, a2
T1
T2

T1
T2
, C2
T2 T1
T1 T2

13

1
T1 T2

1 C1e a1t C2 e a 2 t , a1
C1

1
T

1
1
, a2
T1
T2

C1e a1t C2 e a 2 t , a1

12

1
T

a 2te at , a

1 2
1

, C
, arctg
T
T

1 Ce t sin(t ),

2 2

(1 2 )T
2

T 2

1 2
,
T

, arctg

T 2
T 2

 2. 129

2.13
1.

Stoji, M.: Kontinualni sistemi automatskog upravljanja, Nauna knjiga,

Beograd, 1980.

2.

Vuki Z., Kuljaa Lj.: Automatsko upravljanje - analiza linearnih sustava,

Kigen d.o.o. Zagreb. 2005.

3.

Dorf, R.C., Bishop, R.H.: Modern Control Systems, Ninth Edition, Prentice Hall
Inernational, 2001.

4.

Nise, N.S.: Control Systems Engineering, Third Edition, John Wiley&Sons,

Inc.New York, 2000.

5.

Dimirovski, G.: Sistemi na avtomatsko upravuvawe, Sveska 3 Sostojbena linearna teorija na upravuvani dinami ,
-
, , 1998.

6.

Kurepa, S.:Matematika analiza drugi dio, funkcije jedne varijable, Tehnika

knjiga, Zagreb, 1971.

7.

Jonatan How: Feedback Control Systems, MIT Open Course Ware - Aeronautics
and Astronautics, Fall, 2001. http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Aeronautics-andAstronautics/16-31Fall- 2001/LectureNotes/index.htm

8.

Dahleh, M. and all: Lectures on Dynamic Systems and Control, MIT Open
Course Ware - Aeronautics and Astronautics, Fall, 2003.
http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Aeronautics-and-Astronautics/

9.

Christian Schmid: Course on Dynamics of multidisplicinary and Controlled

Systems, http://virtual.cvut.cz/dynlabmodules/syscontrol/nod13.html

130