Water

Jason Barnes. Richard Jones. Charlotte Laus.

in Christchurch and the Canterbury region.

Water in Christchurch and the Canterbury Region.

Introductions.

The very essence of life, and consequently, the foundational variable around which humanitys development is centred. It is no wonder that the success of an efficient and healthy city is reliant on its co-operation with the dynamics of the water network within the citys natural landscape. Christchurch is home to a complex and unique water network involving rainfall, rivers, groundwater and wetlands. The mountain ranges to the west support abundant annual rainfall which flows through a series of rivers across the plains and ultimately to the Pacific Ocean. The city is fortunate to be able to rely solely on the aquifers situated beneath the ground for fresh drinking water. Much of this groundwater surfaces into spring-fed rivers that meander through the city fabric and are used as natural extensions to the drainage system.

The Avon River in Christchurch City

This diagram illustrates the water cycle of the Canterbury region. Firstly, water falls to the ground through rainfall concentrated on the high mountains, (The Southern Alps). This water flows down the mountains and across the Canterbury Plains in rivers, (mainly the Waimakariri and Rakaia Rivers) leading eventually to the Pacific Ocean. Across the plains, a large proportion of the water from the rivers is lost and permeates through the gravels and into large aquifers underground. These aquifers increase in thickness going towards the ocean before splitting up into separate thinner aquifers closer to Christchurch. On the western side of Christchurch, springs also form where the aquifers have been forced upwards because of the impermeable volcanic rock of Banks Peninsula. These springs feed many small rivers that meander through the central city. The aquifers do not stop at the coast but rather continue underground for approximately 40km before eventually merging with seawater on the continental shelf.

Water in Christchurch and the Canterbury Region.

Introductions.

Aims
With the event of the recent earthquakes, the opportunity is given to re-evaluate the citys relationship to the lifeblood of the city. What is the situation of Christchurchs natural water system and is the city cooperating with it or opposing it? We intend to explore this relationship. From our findings we hope to establish potential parameters from which a future city design can emerge that might ensure safety and durability for future architecture and the community of Christchurch.

Scope
Categories - Our investigation will focus on the water network through three main categories. Rainfall, surface water (rivers) and Groundwater will be analysed to find individual patterns within and also to establish their relationship to the city. Scale - The water network of Christchurch City is linked to and dependent on the wider Canterbury region. Our research and analysis will focus on both of these scales. Regional analysis will focus on establishing trends in data and their influence on the City as a whole while the City will be analysed on a smaller scale with a closer relationship to the suburbs and the existing building footprint. Measurement - Each category will be measured with respect to direction and magnitude to form a similar base on which to compare each variable.

Christchurch

Source of Flow for Canterbury Rivers

Glacier Mountain water Mountain sourced Hill sourced Low Elevation water Lake sourced Spring fed

Rainfall in North Canterbury.

Monthly averages for previous 5 years. Very high rainfall.

Very low rainfall.

>490mm
average rainfall.

<35mm
average rainfall.

Month with highest rainfall in Christchurch.

January

February

March

April

May

June

40% of rainfall in Christchurch area >70mm 7% of rainfall in Christchurch area >110mm

Rainfall in North Canterbury.

Monthly averages for previous 5 years.

Month with lowest rainfall in Christchurch.

July

August

September

October

November

December 98% of rainfall in Christchurch area <51mm 84% of rainfall in Christchurch area <35mm

Rainfall in North Canterbury.

Averages for previous 5 years.
Mt Bryne has the highest average annual rainfall of

Rainfall in Christchurch suburbs.

Averages for previous 5 years. The lowest average rainfall is in Christchurchs Western suburbs with

435mm.

<40mm anually.

Belfast

Marshland

Papanui

Mairehau St Albans Shirley

Burwood New Brighton

Burnside Avonhead

Merivale

Threlkelds Road has the lowest average annual rainfall of

47mm.
Hornby Wigram Middleton

Cathedral Square Linwood Bromley Sydenham

Cashmere

Ferrymead Sumner

Lyttelton

The highest average rainfall is in Christchurchs South-eastern suburbs with

60-70mm anually.

Rainfall in North Canterbury.

Annual averages for previous 5 years.

134mm

Rainfall increases as the elevation increases over the Canterbury region. From the Mountianous areas, through Christchurch and to the sea, rainfall shows a direct linear relationship to the height of the land below.

66mm

Cantebury Plains. 8 m a ve se eve 800m above sea level. 44mm

Christhurch City.

Rainfall (mm) Elevation (m)

Sea level vel

Land Elevation

Temperature/Wet Days/Rainfall

20

Relative Humidity

25

86

The Christchurch area has a dry, temperate climate.

80

Average Temperature ( C)
15

Whilst there is a large variation in rain across the canterbury region, due to variation in topograpy, the Christchurch area itself has relatively low rainfall compared with the rest of New Zealand. The Christchurch area on average has 669mm of rain annually where Auckland and Wellington see almost double this with 1243mm and 1251mm repectively. Whilst Christchurchs rainfall is lower than what might be expected, humidity levels reflect the citys surrounding water, ranging from 73% around November to 84% in mid winter.

10

Wet Days (>0.1mm) Relative Humidity (%)

Rainfall (cm)
5 70

Average rainfall of 6.69cm

66

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Christchurch Climate

Old South Branch.

The Otukaikino is a spring fed river, once called the Old South Branch of the Waimakariri River, which was separated from the main branch during the course of major works in the 1930's. The river is situated north of the city in a rural setting.

Styx River.
The Styx River flows into the Waimakariri River close to its mouth via Brooklands Lagoon. The river emanates from springs near the airport and weaves through rural land and some of the northern suburbs of the city.

Avon River.

The Avon River is spring fed and flows along a meandering course through the centre of the city of Christchurch, from its source in the outer western suburb of Avonhead through to the estuary. The city relies heavily on the Avon as an outlet for the cities drainage system.

Heathcote River.
The Heathcote River is fed from springs near Templetons Road. It meanders around the suburbs at the base of the Port Hills from west to south-east where it drains into the Avon Heathcote Estuary.

River Flow Rate in Christchurch.

Four main artery rivers/ catchment areas.

The average flow rate of the four main city rivers increases as it makes its way eastwards and when catchment branches intercept with the main flow of water. The path of the flow of water is not a direct path however, nor is the increase in flow rate a linear progression through the city.
Old South Branch Styx Avon

The Avon and Heathcote are clearly of much higher magnitude in flow rate as they get closer to the Estuary in which they discharge. The most significant increase occurs after the rivers pass through the city, where the drain outlet frequency is greatest. There is therefore a relationship between the higher density of drains in these catchments and increased flow rate.

Heathcote

12,500

10,000

Flow Rate (L/s)

7500

5000

2500

0 0 10 50 100

Distance along river (km)

River Flow Rate in Christchurch.

Four main artery rivers/ catchment areas.

Length indicates flow rate at that point.

Direction indicates direction of river flow at that point.

Built vs. Waterways in Christchurch.

Three main categories of interaction.

Rigid grid which ignores waterways.

Intermediate grid which follows waterway directions.

Flexible grid which follows and sets back from waterways.

Christchurch City is very reliant on its water ways. The organisation of the built city however, only reflects this in varying parts. Whilst the city centres North orientated grid plan may have been logical for building and infrastructure at the time, as the city has denisified its ignorance to the natural water ways could become an issue for efficiency of drainage of surface water and man-made waterways under the city. By respecting and appreciating the natural waterways, an efficient, aesthetically rich and unique city emerges.

The initial central city plan was organized in a rational north orientated grid. There is a conflict of directionality between the grid and natural waterways. The direction of the grid system is minimal in variance.

Outside the central city there are a number of rational grids that are angled to fit within the boundaries of the waterways. There is consideration to the overall direction of the waterway paths. The directions of these grid systems are moderate in variance.

On the fringes of Christchurchs urban areas, cooperation between the building footprint and the waterways is clear. The curvature of the waterways informs a soft grid of which the directions have significant variance and no clear orientation.

north

River Flow Direction

In Canterbury and main catchment rivers in Christchurch.

north

average 48o

difference of 78

City rivers
Magnitude and Direction.

north

average 126

Canterbury rivers
Magnitude and Direction.

The rigid central city grid is in stark contrast in direction with the mean directions of flow.

The intermediate grids show a considerable relationship to the directions of both river scales.

The flexible grids show no definitive relationship with the directions of either scale. They are fairly consistent across all angles. there appears be a minor influence of the rigid grid.

Drainage outlets in Christchurch.

Catagorised in Christchurchs five main catchement boundaires.

The Avon and Heathcote catchments have a significantly higher density of drain outlets. This is because of the lower proportion of permeable surfaces within these boundaries due to urbanisation.

36.4 51.8 Area (km)

Old South Branch.

78.2

11.0

92.0

Styx River. Avon River.

95 451 4320 193 Number of drain outlets.

1759

Estuary. Heathcote River.

3 9 Outlets/km

55

18

19

Surface Water and Liquefaction

in Christchurch.
100 90

Liquefaction vs. Drainage

in Catchments.
OSB

80

OSB

70 29.9% 68.2%

Styx

Area (km2)

60

50

Avon

40

39.9

30
15.1 24.0 10 6.1 Avon Heathcote 15.4 21.6% 38.8 39.6 Estuary 3.4 Styx OSB 96.4%

Heathcote

20

Estuary

100%

unaffected slight liquefaction moderate liquefaction severe liquefaction drain outlets drain outlets per km2
20 10

There is a clear relationship between the paths of rivers and the severity of liquefaction. As shown above, nearly all the severe liquefaction occurred within close proximity to the Avon and Heathcote rivers. This is due to the top soil having a high water content around these areas. There is a also a distinct correlation between the density of drains outlets and the extent of liquefaction within each catchment.

30

40

50

Aquifiers in Christchurch.
Location Water Content

Three most significant, and closest to the surface under Christchurch.

The values above the diagram show the amount of water underground as if a bore would have been taken into the ground at each point. The value is a percentage of total water at each point which includes all three aquifers. It is clear to see that the percentages get lower heading East towards the coast. The values below the graph show the volume of water across each geographic area. They show that the average water content is around 40% but this is biased by the thicker aquifers to the West of the city.
New Brighton Riccarton Christchurch Cathedral

Christchurch Airport

Belfast

57.1%

51.5%

29.4%

36.9%

33.8%

0m

Aquifer 1

Aquifer 2

-150m

Aquifer 3

Christchurch City Area. Total Water Volume: 88.2km3. 40.8% Water Content by Volume.

Built-Up Christchurch Area. Total Water Volume: 29.2km3. 37.3% Water Content by Volume.

Central City Area. Total Water Volume: 1.17km3. 31.3% Water Content by Volume.

The aquifers underneath the Canterbury region have been formed over hundreds of thousands of years due to glacial and inter-glacial periods affecting the sea level and therefore the location of the coastline. The movement of the coastline east and west has caused different layers of sediment underground. The composition and permeability of a layer that allows water to flow, causes an aquifier to form. Aquifers are very important for water supply in Canterbury. Approximately 300 million m3 are extracted from the groundwater system annually and this supply is used for agriculture (85%), industry (3%) and domestic supply (12%). All drinking water in Christchurch is obtained from the aquifers. Thankfully, this valuable resource has shown no signs of depletion in over 40 years of monitoring.

Aquifiers in Christchurch.
Three most significant, as a total thickness.

The aquifers decrease in thickness towards the South-East. This also reflects the direction of water flow through these underground layers as they generally flow toward the sea in a South-Easterly direction. Water is recharged into the aquifers through seepage sourced from rainfall and rivers across Canterbury. Water entering the aquifers follows a path downwards and westward due to gravity. As the aquifers approach Banks Peninsula, some of the water is forced up and reaches the surface in the form of springs to the west of Christchurch. Other aquifers underneath Christchurch flow out past the coast underneath the sea floor before merging with sea water around 40km from the coastline.
75m

Total Thickness (m) Christchurch Airport Belfast Riccarton Christchurch Cathedral New Brighton

74 65 48 36 28

50m

Total Aquifer Thickness

25m

Water Table in Christchurch.

Depth below city and height above ground.

The area where Christchurch is built was historically the site of marshy swamp land. When Europeans established in the area, they set out a grid on the land and paid little attention to the location of rivers and swamps. As the town developed and expanded, these rivers and swamps were drained or channelled to suit the layout of the grid pattern. The water table shown is measured using a piezometer. This instrument is placed into the ground until it reaches water and then the pressure of this water is measured. The measurement corresponds to the height the water would reach if there was no resistance to its movement from the layers of soil above. The water table gets closer to the surface nearer to the coast. The water table intersects with the ground plane at around Hagley Park and then reaches a peak of 4m above ground level in the CBD area. This corresponds to the sites historic swamp therefore, although the swamp has been drained, the ground where it was located still maintains a high level of water content. This is an area of 122.8 Km2 and corresponds to 27.8% of Christchurch City.

Below Ground Level

Above Ground Level

-15m -20m

-10m

-5m

Waimakariri River

River Bank
Water Tab le
A

+4m

River

Water table interaction with river.

The northern edge of the Christchurch City area borders the Waimakariri River, the main artery of water flow from the Southern Alps. The water table shows a distinct ridge along this boundary near the river. This occurs because the water table rises with respect to ground level around rivers and then drops off further away from the river.
Ground level.
A A

Water table level.

Water Table in Christchurch.

interaction with surface conditions.

1-2m above ground level

Minor Liquefaction

3-4m above ground level

Moderate Liquefaction

Severe Liquefaction

Water Table above ground.

Liquefaction in Christchurch.

Water Table above Ground Level and Liquefaction Map These maps show the location and severity of liquefaction in the recent earthquakes and its relationship to the water table. It is clear to see the similarity in location and this is understandable because a high water table indicates that the water below the surface is at a high pressure. When an earthquake occurs, the pressure underground increases as particles are forced together and the void space (where water is often situated) between them is reduced. This pressure forces the water upwards and liquefaction occurs. The table to the below shows the statistics generated from these maps. They clearly reinforce the relationship between water table and liquefaction with 89% of Severe and 84% of Moderate liquefaction occuring within the area where the water table is above the ground level.

Liquefaction. Total area (km) Liquefaction within area where water table is above ground level.

Minor 46.6 67%

Moderate 40.8 84%

Severe 6.9 89%

Total 94.3 74.7%

Trampoline Effect occurring Christchurch Earthquake.

A Phenomena due to the specific ground conditions of Christchurch. Shock wave experienced at Ground Level Liquefaction occurs at Ground Level Weaker Layer (Sand / Silt) Stronger Layer (Gravels) Strongest Layers (Rock / Gravel) Direction Layer is Moving

+
Oscillation of each layer away from the normal position over time during an - 0s earthquake.

1s

2s

- 0s

1s

2s

- 0s

1s

2s

- 0s

1s

2s

-0s

1s

2s

Stage One
Earthquake occurs and sends waves through the ground moving the layers in the ground upwards.

Stage Two
Both layers expand upwards making the ground level rise.

Stage Three
Both layers are influenced by gravity and start to drop towards their original positions.

Stage Four
Strong layer experiences another wave from the earthquake and starts to rise again. Weak layer is still on its way down.

Stage Five
Strong and Weak layers collide with huge impact causing shock waves and large forces to be felt at the surface. Particles in both layers are forced together and any water in between is forced upwards in the form of liquefaction.

The trampoline effect takes place during an earthquake and is a relatively recently discovered phenomenon. It takes place when ground with multiple underground layers of different densities is being acted on by extreme pressure and forces. Christchurch contains a multitude of different soil, gravel and aquifer layers which is makes it a perfect candidate for this phenomenon. The trampoline effect contributed to the extremely high ground accelerations that were measured during the recent earthquakes. Ground accelerations of up to 2.2 G (2.2 times the normal force of gravity) were measured around the city and this can be directly linked to the performance of buildings during the event. The layers under the city separated during the earthquake and became out of sync with each other. As they collided, their original forces from the earthquake were amplified causing far greater impact on the buildings at the surface. These forces were catastrophic for many of the buildings leading to their collapse. An added side-effect of the trampoline effect can be Liquefaction. The water table in Christchurch is very close to the grounds surface and comes above this level in some parts. When the layers collide during the earthquake, they are squeezed together causing the pressure in each layer to rise drastically. These forces cause the water in the ground to rise upwards taking light-weight ground with it. Because of the large acceleration the ground that rises with the water also acts as a liquid and when it rises above ground level, it is visible as liquefaction.

Summaries.
Rainfall.
The existing city is in a location of reasonably low rainfall relative to the wider Canterbury area. There is a clear connection between magnitude of rainfall and elevation. The low gradient of the Canterbury plains ensures this area has consistent rainfall.

Surface Water.
The Avon and Heathcote rivers are dominant in terms of both river flow and storm water drainage dependency. The highest drainage density is within the Avon and Heathcote catchments. The overall directions of the main rivers differ between the wider Canterbury area and the main rivers of Christchurch City. City Rivers average 48 degrees from north while wider Canterbury Rivers average 126 degrees from north. A difference of 78 degrees between these two scales. Intermediate grids show the closest connection to the average river flow directions on both a City and Regional scale. There is a strong link between liquefaction after the February earthquake and the path of the Avon and Heathcote rivers. These two catchment areas also show a far higher drainage density and reliance on man-made drainage to control water.

Sub-Ground Water.
There is a notable relationship between the height of the water table and the effect of liquefaction from the February earthquake. Overall magnitude of Aquifer thickness is greater to the west with thinner aquifers closer to the coast. River flow directions across the wider Canterbury area have a south-easterly direction of 126 degrees and this is consistent with the aquifer flow direction and also the rainfall gradient.