Balancing Work and Family: A Literature and Resource Review Author(s): Gary L. Hansen Source: Family Relations, Vol.

40, No. 3 (Jul., 1991), pp. 348-353 Published by: National Council on Family Relations Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/585023 . Accessed: 26/08/2011 16:55
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Balancing Workand Family:A Literature and Resource Review
Gary L. Hansen*
Increases in female laborforce participation and single parenthood have focused unprecedented attention on the pressures employed familymembers experience as they attemptto balance workand familyresponsibilities. The purpose of this article is to review both the issues involvedin balancingworkand familyand some of the resources which may practitioners. be most useful to family
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variety of well-documented family and labor force changes have resulted in unprecedented interest in the impact of work on family life. An area of special concern for professionals who work with families, as well as for familymembers themselves, is strategies or techniques for managing the stress and resolving the conflicts arising from the competing demands family members experience from those two areas of their lives. This review has two distinctpurposes. First, a brief overview of the issues pertinentto balancingwork and family is presented. Second, some of the major resources on the topic are reviewed.

Why an Issue?
The prominentplace given balancing work and family among current family issues is largelydue to two main factors: (a) the increasing numberof dual-earner families and (b) the increasing numberof single-parentfamilies. Increases in the number of dualearnerfamilieshave come about because mothof the influxof women, particularly ers, into the labor market (Piotrokowski, Rapoport,& Rapoport,1987). Halfa century ago, single women dominated the female labor market and the lifetime employment pattern of women roughly followed an "M" shape (Shank, 1988). Women worked before marriage and began to dropout of the labormarketwith either marriage or, particularly,parenthood. Those who returned to the labor marketdid so when theirchildrenreached school-age and left again in the later years of life. As recently as 1965, husbands were the sole breadwinnerswhile wives stayed home in over half of all Americanfamilies(Hayghe, 1990).

The magnitude of the change away fromthese historicalpatternscan be seen by looking at the employment rates of mothersof preschool-age children.Barely one out of every eight married women wttha child underage 6 was employed in 1950. By 1988, 56% of such women were working or looking for work (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1989). Even more remarkableis the increase in the rate for women with newborn children. It increased from 31% in 1976 to 51% in 1988 (Bureauof LaborStatistics, 1989). Increases in the number of singleparentfamilies have come about because of rising rates of nonmaritalfertilityand high levels of marital disruption. The combinationof these two factors has resulted in a situationwhere over 20% of all family households with children under age 18 are headed by a single parent, usually a mother(Hernandez& Myers, 1988).

Areas of Concern
The most well-documented pressures family members experience in balancing work and familyare overload and conflict due to multipleroles. They have too much to do and too littletime in which to do it (Lewis & Cooper, 1987). Despite indicationsthat becoming and being husbands and fathers have a greater effect on men than conventional wisdom suggests (Cohen, 1987), women, particularly

*Gary L. Hansen is an Associate Extension Professor, Department of Sociology, 500 Garrigus Building, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546-0215. Key Words: family, stress, work.

(Family Relations, 1991, 40, 348-353.)

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mothers of preschoolers, still experience the most work/familyproblems. This is demonstratedby research indicatingthat employed mothers with preschool children are in poorer mental health than other employed women (McLanahan & Adams, 1987). Compared to both employed fathers and mothers of older children, they also are more likely to reportspillover between work and family (Crouter, 1984), role-related tensions (Kelly & Voydanoff, 1985), and marital dissatisfaction (Staines, Pleck, Shepard, & O'Connor, 1978; White, Booth, & Edwards,1986). Menaghan and Parcel (1990) suggest that the form work-family conflict may take is also likely to vary by social class and the numberof employed adults in the family. For example, the most important stress on a single-parent, female-headed household may be economics while the major stress for a professional, dual-career couple may be workabsorptionon the partof one or both parents which precludes desired familial involvement. According to Galinsky and Stein (1990), the major problems employed family members experience fall into seven categories. They include: child care, elder care, work time and timing, relocation, job autonomy and job demands, supervisory relationship, and culture. supportiveorganizational

Moderatingthe Stress
A number of variables have been found to moderate the difficultiesassociated with balancing work and family. For couples, the extent of the husband's participationin household tasks and the corbetween the wife's respondence employment status and the preferences of both the husband and the wife herself are important(Hoffman, 1989). Despite its demonstrated importance and recent modest increases, however, studies indicate relatively little male participationin child care and housework (Ferree, 1990; Thompson&Walker,1989). Evidence exists that a supportive supervisor also moderates work-family stress levels for both men and women (Hughes & Galinsky, 1988). In fact, having a supportivesupervisormay be equivalent to having a supportive spouse in terms of its effect on stress (National Councilfor Jewish Women, 1988). Strategies used by employed women to cope include reducingtime spent doing housework, increasing efficiency, redistributing household chores, giving up leisure time, and planningspecial parentet child activities(Piotrokowski al., 1987). Some couples worknon-day shifts and/or
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stagger their hours in an attemptto manage role overload and conflict (Presser, 1987). Other strategies sometimes used for moderatingstress includealterationof wives' activities. For example, some mothers employed full-timepreferto work fewer hours (Moen & Dempster-McClain, 1987) while others sequence work and familyroles (e.g., early career/latefamily, early marriage/late work). In additionto the individual-level factors considered above, attention is increasinglybeing focused on the role of both work-placeand governmentpolicies in reducingwork/family conflicts.Galinsky and Stein (1990) report that employers are responding to work/farniyissues by providing assistance in locating and obtainingchildcare, assistance in improving the quality of child care, financial assistance, and elder care consultation their and referral. They also are modifying time policies by providingflextime, parttime work, and parentalleave and, since work/familypolicies are not effective if supervisorsdo not supportthem (Hughes & Galinsky, 1988), providingsupervisory training. While some leading employers are adopting such supportive policies, many companies and many managers are still neither aware nor responsive to work/family issues (Galinsky & Stein, 1990). In fact, U.S. employers lag behind those in other countriesin respect to supplying benefits that would assist their employees in balancing work and family (Aldous, 1990). The fact that changes toward a family-responsive workplace have been so slow has lead to questioning of whether marketsolutions willdeliver good or equitable family policy in the forseeable future (Kingston, 1990) and calls for government action (Aldous,
1990).

of the extensive research literature. Anyone interested in such a review should see the recent articles of Hoffman(1989), Menaghan and Parcel (1990), Piotrokowski et al. (1987), Spitze (1988), and Thompsonand Walker(1989). In addition,no effort has been made to provide a comprehensive review of child care resources. While adequate child care plays an importantrole in balancing work and family, child care is an issue in its own right and a review has previously appeared in this journal (MacKinnon & King, 1988). A recent review of self-care and school-age child care resources also is available (Coleman, Johnson, &Todd, 1990).

Books
* Berg, B. J. (1986). The Crisis of the WorkingMother: Resolving the Conflict Between Workand Family. 249 pages. New York:SummitBooks. Using women's comments obtained in interviews and from questionnaires, this book examines the conflicts between work and family. Guilt is a major topic. Why do women have such a heavy, burdensome sense of guilt? Where does it come from? How does it affect them? How can they combat it? Majorsections of the book focus on the conflicts "inthe "in nursery," our jobs,""inour marriages," and "inour selves." * Bowen, G. L., & Orthner,D. K. (1989). The Organization Family:Work and Family Linkages in the U.S. Military. 202 pages. New York:Praeger. This edited book takes an applied perspective and is orientedto helpingthe U.S. militaryassist career members in such areas as satisfaction and children's adjustment. In the process, it provides a compilation of the literature on military families and their work-related satisfactions and frustrations. * Brinkerhoff, B. (1984). Familyand M. Work:Comparative Convergences. 220 pages. Westport,CT:Greenwood Press. This volume, edited by a sociologist, examines the interdependence of the familyand worksystems froma comparative perspective. The seven chapters represent a mix of theoretical and empirical papers, qualitative and quantitative approaches, and microand macro analyses. A commentaryfollows each chapter and an annotated bibliography included is at the end. While not focusing exclusively on the conflicts between workand family, the book may be of interestto familyprofessionals concerned with the convergences between familyand work. * Brooks,A. A. (1989). Children Fastof TrackParents: Raising Self-Sufficient and
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The need for a national parental leave policy has been documented by such authors as Zigley and Frank(1988) and lawmakersare showing interest in it as well as in childcare legislation(Aldous & Dumon,1990).

Resources
The amount of materialon balancing work and family has proliferated to the point where it is impossible to review all of it here. The followingsection presents selected examples which may be most useful to familypractitioners. They should giv interestedindividuals good place to a get started. Whenever possible, addresses for inquiring about or orderingmaterials are provided. Since the focus here is on resources for familypractitioners, efforthas been no made to providea comprehensive review
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Confident Children in an AchievementOriented World.258 pages. New York: Viking. Children of accomplished, highreaching parents frequentlyface hidden difficulties. This book examines the particular child-raisingissues created by affluence and success. In the process, the specific concerns most likely to arise at the differentstages of children'slives are highlighted.As a portraitof what is happening to a growing number of children and parents, the book provides insights for educators, mental health professionals, and familypractitioners well as for as parentsthemselves. * Brothers, J. (1988). The Successful Woman:How You Can Have a Career, a Husband and a Family - and Not Feel Guilty About It. 270 pages. New York: Simon and Schuster. The author of this book, a popular psychologist, shares her own coping strategies as well as those employed by a varietyof successful women in business, the professions, the arts, politics, and government.Whilethe women discussed in the book are privilegedand have more money and status than the average woman, the author contends that they face the same problemsas other working women and theircoping mechanisms can workfor others as well * Eckenrode, J., & Gore, S. (1990). Stress between Workand Family. 244 pages. New York:Plenum. This edited volume contains research on the stress that stems frominteractions between the environment of work and family. The articles, written by authors froma varietyof disciplines,focus on personal, family, and environmental variables to examine how perceptions of various events can cause dysfunction in some people but not in others. * Gilbert,L. A. (1988) SharingItAll:The Rewards and Struggles of Two-Career Families.249 pages. New York:Plenum. This book, writtenby a psychologist, explores both the husband's and the wife's experience in a dual-career marriage and focuses on how the attitudes and structuresof society affect each partner. Three majorparts of the book cover the setting for women and men, livingas a two-career family, and how to more than manage. * Gilbert, L. A. (1985). Men in DualCareer Families: Current Realities and Future Prospects. 185 pages. Hillsdale, NJ:LawrenceErlbaum Associates. This volume combines existing theoretical and empirical literature with the results of a pioneering investigation of men in dual-careerfamilies and considers
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interventions the societal and individual at level that will ease the difficultiesassociated withthe transition this familyform. to It is one of the first efforts focusing on men in dual-careerfamilies -their motivations to pursue this lifestyle; their job placement, advancement, and productivity; and their relationships with spouses and children. * Goldsmith, E. B. (1989). Workand Family: Theory, Research, and Applications. 430 pages. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Originally published as a special issue of the Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, this interdisciplinary, edited volume explores self-esteem, wellbeing, familyand childfunctioning, marital satisfaction, parenting,role overload, job involvement, stress, conflict, absenteeism, career advancement, social support, depression, and time management withinthe context of the work/family interchange. The book, which should be of interest to both scholars and policymakers, is arranged in sections on the present state of work and family theory; effects of employmentand unemployment on families and children;career, job, and family research; conflict resolution and work/family conflict research; and transnationaland cross-culturalresearch studies. * Grollman, E. A., & Sweder, G. L. (1986). The WorkingParent Dilemma: How to Balance the Responsibilities of Children and Careers. 190 pages. Boston:Beacon. Writtenlargely from the child's point of view, this book is addressed to working parents struggling to raise a child in an environment in which the definition of both childhood and family is changing. Drawing upon information provided by children living with two working parents, the book attempts to help parents understand how their employmentaffects their children's daily lives and supplies informationon how to manage workand family life. * Hertz, R. (1986). More Equal Than Others: Womenand Men in Dual-Career Marriages.245 pages. Berkeley,CA: UniPress. versityof California Based on interviews with 21 dualcareer couples, this book explores the reciprocities between work, family, and gender roles as well as family members' expectations about work and how their employers have responded to theirefforts to balance the demands of workand family. It provides insights into the dilemmas, challenges, and strengths of dual-career marriages and is appropriatefor use as either a supplementarytext for seminars focusing on work/family linkages or a refFAMILYRELATIONS

erence for scholarlywork. * Hochschild, A., with Machung, A. (1989). The Second Shift: WorkingParents and the Revolution at Home. 309 pages. New York:Viking. This book highlightsthe dilemma of the workingmother by illustrating difthe ferent ways couples are trying to cope. Based upon in-depth interviews with 50 working couples, as well as personal observations of several of them, the book attempts to answer the question of how two-jobcouples withyoung childrenmanage to juggle job demands, family care, and household tasks. Not surprising, it shows that in most cases it is the wiveswith little, if any, help from their husbands-who are takingcharge. The book links couples' privatedilemmas to social structural factors and shows how they are immune to totally private solutions. The book, which has great popular appeal, provides valuable information and insightsto both lay and professionalreaders. * Kruger, C. W. (1990). WorkingParent-Happy Child:You Can Balance Job and Family. 317 pages. Nashville, TN: AbingdonPress. While it is possible to have a career and be an effective parent at the same time, this book is based on the assumption that it requiresdedicationand organization. Based upon research with hundredsof families,the book attemptsto show working parents how to be better parents. The result is a parentinghandbook with practical how-to ideas and "workbook pages" to help parents put them into practice. * Lew, 1. S. (1986). You Can'tDo It All: Ideas That Workfor Mothers Who Work. 266 pages. New YorkAtheneum. This book guides readers toward problem-solvingsolutions that work best for them. It offers practical,step-by-step techniques and formulas to help employed mothers maximize time and cope withthe daily problemsof childcare and household management as well as with emotional conflicts involving guilt, anger, and stress. * McBride,K. (1989). Tips for Working Parents: Creative Solutions to Everyday Problems. 113 pages. Pownal,VT:Storey Communications. As the title suggests, this book provides tips for solving a wide variety of everyday problemssuch as childcare, fitness, efficient use of household space, managing stress, and protectingchildren fromvictimization. * Magid, R. Y. (1987). When Mothers and Fathers Work: CreativeStrategies for Balancing Careerand Family.198 pages.
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New York:AmericanManagement Association. Written by an early childhood specialist,this book providesworkingparents with suggestions for meeting the responsibilities of family and work. It considers the major roadblocks working families face and provides workable answers to common questions in such areas as reliable child care, negotiating a more flexibleworkschedule, and time management. Ways employers can help parentemployees also are discussed. * Moen, P. (1989). WorkingParents: Transformations in Gender Roles and Public Policies in Sweden. 181 pages. Madison:University Wisconsin Press. of Utilizing survey data from a representative national sample of adults in Sweden in the years 1968, 1974, and 1981, the study reportedin this book analyzes the conflictsand pressures faced by parents of young children. Changes in parentalwell-being are used to measure the impactof legislative reformsdesigned to benefit working parents. Results demonstrate the benefits of part-time work and leaves of absence, both of which have been available since the legislative reforms of the 1970s and 80s. The Swedish experience indicates that social policies explicitlyaimed at lessening the burdens of employed parents can facilitate the combination of work and familyand should be of interestto anyone concerned with work/family issues in modernsociety. * Mortimer, T., Lorence,J., & Kumka, J. D. S. (1987). 267 pages. Work,Family, and Personality:Transitionto Adulthood. Norwood,NJ:Ablex. While it doesn't specificallydeal with balancing work and family, this research monograph should be of interest to any family professional concerned with work/family issues. Based upon a decade-long panel study of 512 male graduates of the Universityof Michigan, the book examines issues such as how work and family experiences come to interpenetrate and mutually affect one another as they influence the developing personality. Majorfindings deal with the effects of family of origin and family of destination on various psychological properties,work-related attitudesand values, and occupationalattainment. * Orsborn, C. (1986). Enough is Enough: Explodingthe Mythof Having It All.205 pages. New York:G. P. Putnam's Sons. Instead of focusing on how to cope or balance competing demands, the author of this handbook shares her own experiences as "a recoveringsuperwoman" and examines the lives of women
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today. The book illustrates how women can make time to know themselves and theirfamilies and how they can enjoy living witha saner scale of expectations. * Pleck, J. H. (1985). WorkingWives/ WorkingHusbands. 167 pages. Beverly Hills,CA:Sage Publications. This monograph utilizes "role overload"hypotheses to examine the connections between paid work and housework. Using data from two national studies, it concludes that while overload remains, it is declining because men's time in the family is increasing while women's is decreasing. What overload remains suggests not so much that women feel they are doing too much, but that they perceive that men are doing too little. * Sekaran, U. (1986). Dual-Career Families: Contemporary Organizational and Counseling Issues. 261 pages. San Francisco:Jossey-Bass. Drawing upon the author's background in organizational management, this book describes both the dilemmas dual-career couples face and the issues that concern those who employ and work withthem. The book has two majorobjectives. It attempts to alert organizationsto the dangers of ignoringthe phenomenal growth of dual-career spouses in the workplace and to propose a proactive course of action to be initiatedby them. It also attempts to provide counselors with a systemic perspective on the intricacies and complexities involved when two spouses try to prioritize, balance, and maintain integrity two careers and a the of family. * Shreve, A. (1987). RemakingMotherhood: How Working MothersAre Shaping Our Children's Future. 227 pages. New York:Viking. Written workingparents, this book for draws upon interviewswith family members and professionals in an attempt to discover the impact of the presence of a workingmother on her child. Confirming what studies have indicated, the conclusion is reassuring for employed parents. Children workingmothersgenerallyare of enrichedratherthan deprived. * Ulrick, D. N., & Dunne, H. P., Jr. (1986). To Love and Work: Systematic A Interlocking of Family, Workplace and Career. 224 pages. New York: Brunner/Mazel. The focus of this book is on the need to address both the work and family worldsas a partof therapy.Whilewritten primarily for therapists, the book also addresses importantlinkages for career counselors and managers of work environments. A variety of work and family issues are discussed, therapeuticstrateFAMILYRELATIONS

gies are set forth, and the necessity for career counselors to understand family systems and for therapists to understand the reciprocaleffects of work systems on individuals and families is emphasized. * Voydanoff,P. (1984). Work and Family: Changing Roles of Men and Women. 383 pages. Palo Alto,CA:Mayfield. This college-level text, designed for professionals and a general audience as well as students, is a collectionof articles focusing on the relationships between workand family.Both the economic roles of men and women and the impact of occupationalconditions on family life are examined. This examination provides a basis for exploring the ways individuals attempt to coordinate the demands of work and family and the institutional responses to work/family conflictand economicdifficulties among families. * Voydanoff,P. (1987). Work and Family Life. 135 pages. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Writtenas part of a series of supplemental textbooks for undergraduatestudents, this book provides an overview of the reciprocal nature of work and family issues. It documents linkages between work and family life and discusses their implicationsfor individuals,families, work organizations,and society. * Welch, D. (1985). Macho Isn't Enough! Family Man in a Liberated World. 100 pages. Atlanta, GA: John KnowPress. This book explores the implications of feminism and the agenda feminism holds for husbands and fathers. Major portions of the book (e.g., chapters on equal partners;work, family, and equity; what do you do withthe children)provide thoughtful analyses and useful information for individuals,particularly men, who are confronting work/family issues.

Reports
* Ford Foundation. (1989). Workand Family Responsibilities:Achieving a Balance. 39 pages. New York:Ford Foundation. As a program paper of the Ford Foundation, this brief booklet first discusses the changes in employment and gender roles that have resultedin the current challenges of balancing work and family responsibilities. It then outlines a varietyof family-responsive programsand describes the Ford Foundation'splan to address the challenges. * Friedman, D. E. (1987). Family-Supportive Policies: The CorporateDecisionMaking Process. 47 pages. New York: The Conference Board.
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This research reportfrom The Conference Board describes the information gatheredfrommore than 75 leading companies in the field of workand familylife. Its purpose is to assist managers as they decide whether and how to conduct their own fact finding on work and family. Forming task forces, assessing family needs, identifyingcommunity resources, and returnon investment are among the topics covered. and Fam* Magid,R. (1990). The Work ily Challenge:No Ordinary Employees ... No OrdinaryManagers. 48 pages. New York: American Management Association. As a ManagementBriefingproduced by the American Management Association, this reportis geared towards helping managers understandand respond to the challenge of work and family. In addition to reviewing the changing nature of the relationship between workand family,the reportaddresses such topics as becoming a people manager, dealing with people needs, and workingwiththe options.

Newsletters
* The NationalReport on Work& Family. BuraffPublications,1350 Connecticut Avenue, N. W., Washington,DC 20036. Designed for business and organizational leaders, this biweekly newsletter provides news on legislation, litigation, and employerpolicies relatedto workand family. Examples of the types of topics addressed include day care, elder care, alternative work schedules, parental leave, and relocation. * Work& Family Life: Balancing Job and Personal Responsibilities. Bank Street College, 610 W. 112th Street, New York,NY 10025. Edited by child and family development experts, this monthly eight-page to newsletteris designed primarily be purchased by employers for distributionto their employees as a benefit. The newsletter attempts to help readers find practicalsolutions to job-relatedand family problems. It is not aimed just at twoincome couples with children. It also is geared towards singles, childrenof aging parents, and those who are divorced and tryingto find time for childrenalong with other demands. The newsletter covers topics of interest to those in all income ranges.

Films and Videos

* Can Working Women Have ItAll? (28 minutes, video). An edited version of a Phil DonahueShow, this video intersperses informational slides on such topics as child care availabilityand parental leave
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with interactionbetween featured guests on the possibility of having it all. In the process, the need for child care is by emphasized. Distributed Films for the Humanities,Inc., P.O. Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08540. * Families in the Balance. (23 minutes, video). By documenting the struggles of four Americanfamilies, this video shows how child care problems affect parents' productivity in the work force and that high-quality,affordablechild care is crucial to the well-being of workingfamilies. A/V by Distributed CornellUniversity Center, 8 Research Park,Ithaca,NY 14850. * Issues of WorkingParents. (20 minutes, video). This video focuses on a variety of concerns of working parents. Examplesincludechildrenalone at home, conflicting demands for time, the workplace as a threatto a spouse, and marital stress. Distributed by Family Service America. * Problems of Working Women. (24 minutes,video). The firsthalf of this video consists of interviewswith and footage of four divorced women. The women raise such post-divorceproblemsas loneliness, childcare convenience and expense, and fatigue from workingin the labor market and at home. The second half of the video features a debate focusing on women's economic position in the labor marketand the supportsthey need to fulfilltheir roles as mothersand familycaretakers. Distributed by Films for the Humanities,Inc., Box 2053, Princeton,NJ 08540. * Women at Work: Change, Choice, Challenge. (19 minutes, film).A dialogue with seven women is offered along with actual on-the-job scenes. It reveals the women's attitudes about work, training, and their personal roles as an oil worker, nurse, jockey, locomotive engineer, surgeon, judge, and candidatefor Congress. All seven women have definite reasons for their career choices and different views of their work-family-community by roles. Distributed EncyclopediaBritannica Educational Corporation, 310 S. Avenue, Chicago, IL60604. Michigan * Women, Work,and Babies. (49 minutes, video). This video provides an overview of issues related to combining child care and work outside the home. Redefinition of parental roles, the absence of support for single parents, corporate responsibility, and questions surrounding day care are among the issues addressed. Distributed by Films 5547 Ravenswood Avenue, Incorporated, Chicago, IL60640. * WorkingMother. (29 minutes, film). Constructive activities that take advantage of children's natural curiosity and
f4

desire to help are suggested. Examples include sorting and matchingat the laundromat, exploring nature, and helping a workingmother with cooking. Distributed by Perennial Education, Inc., 930 Pitner Avenue, Evanston, IL60202. * Working Women: The Corporate Game. (20 minutes, video). This video, a segment from a McNeil-Lehrer report, examines the tenuous relationship between women and corporate America. The first part includes interviews with three women withdifferentexperiences in corporatesettings. The second half is an interview with the editor of Working Woman and the founder of Catalyst, which is an organization working for women's integrationinto business. Both feel that corporationscan change. They need sound parental leave policies as well as a general sensitivityto the issues. Distributed Films for Humanities,Inc., by Box 2053, Princeton,NJ 08540.

REFERENCES Aldous, J. (1990). Specification and speculation concerning the politics of workplace family policies. Joumal of Family Issues, 11, 355-367. Aldous, J., & Dumon, W. (1990). Family policy in the 1980s: Controversy and consensus. Joumal of Marriage and the Family, 52, 1136-1151. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (1989). Employment in perspective: Women in the labor force (First Quarter 1989). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor. Cohen, T. F. (1987). Remaking men: Men's experiences becoming and being husbands and fathers and their implications for reconceptualizing men's lives. Joumal of Family Issues, 8, 57-77. Coleman, M., Johnson, C. E., & Todd, C. M. (1990). Self-care and school-age child care resources. Joumal of Home Economics, 82, 53-57. Crouter, A. C. (1984). Spillover from family to work: The neglected side of the work-family interface. Human Relations, 37, 425-442. Ferree, M. M. (1990). Beyond separate spheres: Feminism and family research. Joumal of Marriage and the Family, 52, 866-884. Galinsky, E., & Stein, P. J. (1990). The impact of human resource policies on employees: Balancing work/family life. Joumal of Family Issues, 11, 368-383. Hayghe, H. V. (1990). Family members in the labor force. Monthly Labor Review, 113, 14-20. Hernandez, D. J., & Myers, D. E. (1988, April). Family composition, parents' work, and the need for child care among preschool children. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Population Association of America, New Orleans, LA. Hoffman, L. W. (1989). Effects of maternal employment in the two-parent family. American Psychologist, 44, 283-292. Hughes, D., & Galinsky, E. (1988). Balancing work and family life: Research and corporate application. In A. E. Gottfried & A. W. Gottfried (Eds.), Matemal employment and children's development: Longitudinal research (pp. 233-268). New York: Plenum. Kelly, R. F., & Voydanoff, P. (1985). Work/family role strain among employed parents. Family Relations, 34, 367-374. Kingston, P. W. (1990). Illusions and ignorance about the family-responsive workplace. Joumal of Family Issues, 11, 438-454. Lewis, S. N. C., & Cooper, C. L. (1987). Stress in two-earner couples and stage in the life-cycle. Joumal of Occupational Psychology, 60, 289-303. MacKinnon, C. E., & King, D. (1988). Day care: A review of literature, implications for policy, and critique of resources. Family Relations, 37, 229-236. McLanalOn, S., & Adams, J. (1987). Parenthood and psychological well-being. Annual Review of Sociology, 5, 237-257. Menaghan, E. G., & Parcel, T. (1990). Parental employment and family life: Research in the 1980s. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 52, 1079-1098. Moen, P., & Dempster-McClain, D. (1987). Employed parents: Role strain, work time, and preferences for working less. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 49, 579-590. National Council for Jewish Women. (1988, August). Employer

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support for child care (NCJW Center for the Child Report). New York: Author. Piotrokowski, C. S., Rapoport, R. N., & Rapoport, R. (1987). Families and work. In M. B. Sussman & S. K. Steinmetz (Eds.), Handbook of marriage and the family (pp. 251-283). New York: Plenum. Presser, H. B. (1987). Work shifts of full-time dual-career couples: Patterns and contrasts by sex of spouse. Demography, 24, 99-112.

Shank, S. (1988). Women and the labor market: The link grows stronger. Monthly Labor Review, 111, 3-8. Spitze, G. (1988). Women's employment and family relations: A review. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 50, 595-618. Staines, G. L., Pleck, J. H., Shepard, L. J., & O'Connor, P. (1978). Wives' employment status and marital adjustment: Yet another look. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 3, 90120.

Thompson, L., & Walker, A. (1989). Gender in families: Women and men in marriage, work, and parenthood. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 51, 845-871. White, L. K., Booth, A., & Edwards, J. N. (1986). Children and marital happiness: Why the negative correlation? Joumal of Family Issues, 7, 131-147. Zigley, E. F., & Frank, M. (Eds.). (1988). The parental leave crisis: Toward a national policy. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

CALL FOR PAPERS

Journal of Family Issues Special Issue: Intergenerational Relationships

betweenand In December1992the Journalof FamilyIssueswill focus on relationships among generationsin the family. The collection of articleswill give coverageto all of phasesof the familyandindividuallife cyclesand will reflectthe approaches various disciplines.Professionalsfrom family studies, child development,psychology,home economics, family medicine,sociology, education,history, social work, marriageand family therapy,gerontology,and anthropologyare invitedto submitpapers.Articles that reportempirical tests of theoryarewelcome,as are articlesthat summarize inand tegrate a range of empiricalfindings and theoreticalperspectives.All papersshould containcriticaldiscussionsof existingresearch theory,and shouldprovidespecific and suggestionsfor futureresearchand theory development.The contextsin which these relationshipsfunction, whether they be familial, community, societal, or cultural, shouldbe elaborated.The underlying and goal of this specialissue is the advancement of development social and behavioraltheoriesthat applyto intergenerational relationships. A collection of papersthat utilizes various lenses on these relationshipsis desired. Papers that focus on a variety of content areas are welcome, includingbut not limitedto examinations discussionsof three-and four-generation and families;quality of family life; family stress and crisis; personal development;parent-childrelationships; family resourcesand strengths;societal change;developmental change;family variations;personalityissues; formaland informalsupportsystems;intervention; and family processand structure. Papers will be reviewedthroughthe regulareditorialprocessof JFI. Manuscripts should be no longer than 25 pages and should follow the guidelinesof the American PsychologicalAssociation.Fourcopies of the manuscript shouldbe submitted later no than December 15, 1991. Inquiries and manuscripts should be directed to: Jay A. Mancini,Guest Editor
Journal of Family Issues

Departmentof Familyand Child Development VirginiaPolytechnicInstituteand State University Blacksburg,VA 24061-0416

703-231-6110

July 1991

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