Solar power

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This article is about generation of electricity using solar energy. For other uses of solar energy, see Solar energy.

The PS10 concentrates sunlight from a field of heliostats on a central tower.

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Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power(CSP). Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. Photovoltaics convert light into electric current using the photoelectric effect.[1]

Commercial concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the 1980s, and the 354 MW SEGS CSP installation is the largest solar power plant in the world and is located in the Mojave Desert of California. Other large CSP plants include the Solnova Solar Power Station (150 MW) and the Andasol solar power station (100 MW), both in Spain. The 97 MW Sarnia Photovoltaic Power Plant in Canada, is the worlds largest photovoltaic plant.
Contents
[hide]

1 Applications 2 Concentrating solar power 3 Photovoltaics 4 Development and deployment 5 Economics 6 Energy storage methods 7 Experimental solar power 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References

[edit]Applications

Average insolation showing land area (small black dots) required to replace the world primary energy supply with solar electricity. 18 TW is 568 Exajoule (EJ) per year. Insolation for most people is from 150 to 300 W/m or 3.5 to 7.0 kWh/m/day.

Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity. Sunlight can be converted directly into electricity usingphotovoltaics (PV), or indirectly with concentrated solar power (CSP), which normally focuses the sun's energy to boil water which is then used to provide power,

and other technologies, such as the Stirling engine dishes which use a Stirling cycle engine to power a generator. Photovoltaics were initially used to power small and medium-sized applications, from the calculator powered by a single solar cell to off-grid homes powered by a photovoltaic array. A significant problem with solar power is installation cost. Developing countries in particular may not have the funds to build solar power plants, although small solar applications are now replacing other sources in the developing world.[2][3]
[edit]Concentrating

solar power

Further information: Solar thermal energy and Concentrated solar power

Solar troughs are the most widely deployed.

Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. The concentrated heat is then used as a heat source for a conventional power plant. A wide range of concentrating technologies exists; the most developed are the parabolic trough [discuss], the concentrating linear fresnel reflector, the Stirling dish and the solar power tower. Various techniques are used to track the Sun and focus light. In all of these systems a working fluid is heated by the concentrated sunlight, and is then used for power generation or energy storage.[4] A parabolic trough consists of a linear parabolic reflector that concentrates light onto a receiver positioned along the reflector's focal line. The receiver is a tube positioned right above the middle of the parabolic mirror and is filled with a working fluid. The reflector is made to follow the Sun during the daylight hours by tracking along a single axis. Parabolic trough systems provide the best land-use factor of any solar technology.[5] The SEGS plants in California and Acciona's Nevada Solar One near Boulder City, Nevada are representatives of this technology.[6][7] Compact Linear Fresnel Reflectors are CSP-plants which use many thin mirror strips instead of parabolic mirrors to concentrate sunlight onto two tubes with working fluid. This has the advantage that flat mirrors can be used which are

much cheaper than parabolic mirrors, and that more reflectors can be placed in the same amount of space, allowing more of the available sunlight to be used. Concentrating linear fresnel reflectors can be used in either large or more compact plants.[8][9] The Stirling solar dish combines a parabolic concentrating dish with a Stirling engine which normally drives an electric generator. The advantages of Stirling solar over photovoltaic cells are higher efficiency of converting sunlight into electricity and longer lifetime. Parabolic dish systems give the highest efficiency among CSP technologies.[10] The 50 kW Big Dish inCanberra, Australia is an example of this technology.[6] A solar power tower uses an array of tracking reflectors (heliostats) to concentrate light on a central receiver atop a tower. Power towers are more cost effective, offer higher efficiency and better energy storage capability among CSP technologies.[6] The Solar Two in Barstow, California and the Planta Solar 10 in Sanlucar la Mayor, Spain are representatives of this technology.[6][11]
[edit]Photovoltaics

Main article: Photovoltaics

The 71.8 MW Lieberose Photovoltaic Parkin Germany.

A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell (PV), is a device that converts light into electric current using the photoelectric effect. The first solar cell was constructed by Charles Fritts in the 1880s.[12] In 1931 a German engineer, Dr Bruno Lange, developed a photo cell using silver selenide in place of copper oxide.[13] Although the prototype selenium cells converted less than 1% of incident light into electricity, both Ernst Werner von Siemens and James Clerk Maxwell recognized the importance of this discovery.[14] Following the work of Russell Ohl in the 1940s, researchers Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller and Daryl Chapin created the silicon solar cell in 1954.[15] These early solar cells cost 286 USD/watt and reached efficiencies of 4.56%.[16]
[edit]Development

and deployment

Main article: Deployment of solar power to energy grids

Nellis Solar Power Plant, 14 MW power plant installed 2007 in Nevada, USA

The early development of solar technologies starting in the 1860s was driven by an expectation that coal would soon become scarce. However, development of solar technologies stagnated in the early 20th century in the face of the increasing availability, economy, and utility of coal andpetroleum.[17] In 1974 it was estimated that only six private homes in all of North America were entirely heated or cooled by functional solar power systems.[18] The 1973 oil embargo and 1979 energy crisis caused a reorganization of energy policies around the world and brought renewed attention to developing solar technologies.[19][20] Deployment strategies focused on incentive programs such as the Federal Photovoltaic Utilization Program in the US and the Sunshine Program in Japan. Other efforts included the formation of research facilities in the US (SERI, now NREL), Japan (NEDO), and Germany (Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE).[21] Between 1970 and 1983 photovoltaic installations grew rapidly, but falling oil prices in the early 1980s moderated the growth of PV from 1984 to 1996. Since 1997, PV development has accelerated due to supply issues with oil and natural gas, global warming concerns, and the improving economic position of PV relative to other energy technologies.[22] Photovoltaic production growth has averaged 40% per year since 2000 and installed capacity reached 10.6 GW at the end of 2007,[23] and 14.73 GW in 2008.[24] As of November 2010, the largest photovoltaic (PV) power plants in the world are the Finsterwalde Solar Park (Germany, 80.7 MW), Sarnia Photovoltaic Power Plant (Canada, 80 MW), Olmedilla Photovoltaic Park (Spain, 60 MW), the Strasskirchen Solar Park (Germany, 54 MW), the Lieberose Photovoltaic Park (Germany, 53 MW), and the Puertollano Photovoltaic Park (Spain, 50 MW).[25]
World's largest photovoltaic power stations (50 MW or larger) [25]

PV power station Sarnia Photovoltaic Power Plant[26] Montalto di Castro Photovoltaic Power Station[25] Finsterwalde Solar Park[28][29] Rovigo Photovoltaic Power Plant[30][31] Olmedilla Photovoltaic Park Strasskirchen Solar Park Lieberose Photovoltaic Park
[32][33]

Country

DC peak power (MWp) 97[25] 84.2 80.7 70 60 54 53 50 Completed in 2009

Notes Constructed 2009-2010[27] Constructed 2009-2010 Phase I completed 2009, phase II and III 2010 Completed November 2010 Completed September 2008

Canada Italy Germany Italy Spain Germany Germany Spain

Puertollano Photovoltaic Park

231,653 crystalline silicon modules, Suntech and Solaria, opened 2008

Commercial concentrating solar thermal power (CSP) plants were first developed in the 1980s. The 11 MW PS10 power tower in Spain, completed in late 2005, is Europe's first commercial CSP system, and a total capacity of 300 MW is expected to be installed in the same area by 2013.[34] When built, the Ivanpah Solar Power Facility in southeastern California near the Nevada border is expected to have a capacity of 392 Megawatts.
Operational solar thermal power stations Capacity (MW) 354 Country

Name Solar Energy Generating Systems

Location

Notes Collection of 9 units Completed 2010

[35][36][37][38][39]

USA Mojave Desert California Spain Seville Spain Granada USA Boulder City, Nevada Spain Puertollano, Ciudad Real Spain Badajoz Torre de Miguel Sesmero Spain (Badajoz) Spain Alvarado (Badajoz)

150 Solnova Solar Power Station

100 Andasol solar power station 64 Nevada Solar One 50 Ibersol Ciudad Real 50 Alvarado I 50 Extresol 1 50 La Florida [edit]Economics

Completed 2009
[40][41]

Completed May 2009 [42] Completed July 2009 [43][44][45] Completed February 2010 [46][47][48] completed July 2010 [46][49]

Bloomberg New Energy Finance, in March 2011, put the 2010 cost of solar panels at $1.80 per watt, but estimated that the price would decline to $1.50 per watt by the end of

2011.[50]Nevertheless, there are exceptions-- Nellis Air Force Base is receiving photoelectric power for about 2.2 /kWh and grid power for 9 /kWh.[51][52] Also, since PV systems use no fuel and modules typically last 25 to 40 years, the International Conference on Solar Photovoltaic Investments, organized by EPIA, has estimated that PV systems will pay back their investors in 8 to 12 years.[53] As a result, since 2006 it has been economical for investors to install photovoltaics for free in return for a long term power purchase agreement. Fifty percent of commercial systems were installed in this manner in 2007 and it is expected that 90% will by 2009.[54] Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) facilities produce power more cheaply than photovoltaic systems and may eventually be price-competitive with conventional power plants. The Ivanpah Solar Power Facility is expected to produce power at costs comparable to natural gas.[55] Additionally, governments have created various financial incentives to encourage the use of solar power. Renewable portfolio standards impose a government mandate that utilities generate or acquire a certain percentage of renewable power regardless of increased energy procurement costs. In most states, RPS goals can be achieved by any combination of solar, wind, biomass, landfill gas, ocean, geothermal, municipal solid waste, hydroelectric, hydrogen, or fuel cell technologies.[55] In Canada, the Renewable Energy Standard Offer Program (RESOP), introduced in 2006[56] and updated in 2009 with the passage of the Green Energy Act, allows residential homeowners in Ontario with solar panel installations to sell the energy they produce back to the grid at 42/kWh, while drawing power from the grid at an average rate of 6/kWh.[57] The program is designed to help promote the government's green agenda and lower the strain often placed on the energy grid at peak hours. In March, 2009 the proposed feed-in tariff was increased to 80/kWh for small, roof-top systems (10 kW).[58]
[edit]Energy

storage methods

Main articles: Grid energy storage and V2G

This energy park in Geesthacht, Germany, includes solar panels and pumped-storage hydroelectricity.

Seasonal variation of the output of the solar panels at AT&T Park in San Francisco

Solar energy is not available at night, making energy storage an important issue in order to provide the continuous availability of energy.[59] Both wind power and solar power are intermittent energy sources, meaning that all available output must be taken when it is available and either stored for when it can be used, or transported, over transmission lines, to where it can be used. Wind power and solar power tend to be somewhat complementary, as there tends to be more wind in the winter and more sun in the summer, but on days with no sun and no wind the difference needs to be made up in some manner.[60] The Institute for Solar Energy Supply Technology of the University of Kassel pilot-tested a combined power plant linking solar, wind, biogas andhydrostorage to provide load-following power around the clock, entirely from renewable sources.[61] Solar energy can be stored at high temperatures using molten salts. Salts are an effective storage medium because they are low-cost, have a high specific heat capacity and can deliver heat at temperatures compatible with conventional power systems. The Solar Two used this method of energy storage, allowing it to store 1.44 TJ in its 68 m storage tank, enough to provide full output for close to 39 hours, with an efficiency of about 99%. [62] Off-grid PV systems have traditionally used rechargeable batteries to store excess electricity. With grid-tied systems, excess electricity can be sent to the

transmission grid. Net metering programs give these systems a credit for the electricity they deliver to the grid. This credit offsets electricity provided from the grid when the system cannot meet demand, effectively using the grid as a storage mechanism. Credits are normally rolled over month to month and any remaining surplus settled annually. [63] Pumped-storage hydroelectricity stores energy in the form of water pumped when surplus electricity is available, from a lower elevation reservoir to a higher elevation one. The energy is recovered when demand is high by releasing the water: the pump becomes a turbine, and the motor a hydroelectric power generator.[64] Artificial photosynthesis involves the use of nanotechnology to store solar electromagnetic energy in chemical bonds, by splitting water to produce hydrogen fuel or then combining with carbon dioxide to make biopolymers such as methanol. Many large national and regional research projects on artificial photosynthesis are now trying to develop techniques integrating improved light capture, quantum coherence methods of electron transfer and cheap catalytic materials that operate under a variety of atmospheric conditions. [65]
[edit]Experimental

solar power

Concentrating photovoltaics in Catalonia, Spain

Concentrated photovoltaics (CPV) systems employ sunlight concentrated onto photovoltaic surfaces for the purpose of electrical power production. Solar concentrators of all varieties may be used, and these are often mounted on a solar tracker in order to keep the focal point upon the cell as the Sun moves across the sky.[66] Luminescent solar concentrators (when combined with a PV-solar cell) can also be regarded as a CPV system. Luminescent solar concentrators are useful as they can improve performance of PV-solar panels drastically.[67] Thermoelectric, or "thermovoltaic" devices convert a temperature difference between dissimilar materials into an electric current. First proposed as a method to store solar

energy by solar pioneer Mouchout in the 1800s, [68] thermoelectrics reemerged in the Soviet Union during the 1930s. Under the direction of Soviet scientist Abram Ioffe a concentrating system was used to thermoelectrically generate power for a 1 hp engine.[69]Thermogenerators were later used in the US space program as an energy conversion technology for powering deep space missions such asCassini, Galileo and Viking. Research in this area is focused on raising the efficiency of these devices from 78% to 1520%.[70] Space-based solar power is a theoretical design for the collection of solar power in space, for use on Earth. SBSP differs from the usual method of solar power collection in that the solar panels used to collect the energy would reside on a satellite in orbit, often referred to as a solar power satellite (SPS), rather than on Earth's surface. In space, collection of the Sun's energy is unaffected by the day/night cycle, weather, seasons, or the filtering effect of Earth's atmospheric gases. Average solar energy per unit area outside Earth's atmosphere is on the order of ten times that available on Earth's surface.
[edit]

Solar Energy - Basic Principles Posted: Nov 19, 2008 |Comments: 1 | Views: 3,018 |

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Solar Energy Information Find here the latest information about Photovoltaics & Solar Energy! www.solarserver.com Wind Turbine Control Main control and pitch systems for wind turbines. www.deifwindpower.com SolData Instruments Measuring Solar Radiation? Check out the SolData Pyranometer www.soldata.dk Solar Panels From Italy From 10 to 300 Watt Mono and Polycrystalline www.fvgenergy.com This article will describe how solar energy is created and cover some of its basic principles. Solar energy is created by light and heat which is emitted by the sun, in the form of electromagnetic radiation. With today's technology, we are able to capture this radiation and turn it into usable forms of solar energy - such as heating or electricity. Although one could go into technical dissertations on the subject of electromagnetic radiation, how it is converted into solar energy, and the exact qualities of its electromagnetic rays, this is not something the average person needs or wants to know. But in order to be able to benefit from the use of solar energy, there are a few facts you should know. Knowing these facts can assist you to make a sound decisions, when looking at the use of solar power as a clean energy source for your home, RV, or whatever the case may be. Available Solar Resource The technical feasibility and economical viability of using solar energy depends on the amount of available sunlight (solar radiation) in the area where you intend to place solar heaters or solar panels. This is sometimes referred to as the available solar resource. Every part of Earth is provided with sunlight during at least one part of the year. (I say "part of the year" as the north and south polar caps are each in total darkness for a few months of the year.) The amount of sunlight available is one factor to take into account when considering using solar energy. There are a few other factors, however, which need to be looked at when determining the viability of solar energy in any given location. These are as follows:

Geographic location Time of day Season Local landscape

Local weather Because the Earth is round, the sun hits its surface at different angles, at different locations on the globe. This ranges from 0 (just above the horizon - a good example of this is the north pole during the winter) to 90 (directly overhead, at and near the equator).

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When the sun's rays are vertical (directly overhead), the Earth's surface gets a maximum of solar energy. The more slanted the sun's rays are, the longer they have to travel through Earth's atmosphere before reaching the surface (becoming more scattered and diffuse as they go along). The more scattered and diffuse the sun rays are, the less concentrated thesolar energy is. Because of the fact that the Earth is round, the polar regions never get direct sunlight, and, during their respective winter months, they receive no sun at all. The Earth travels around the sun, in an elliptical orbit. Because of its elliptical path, the northern hemisphere of the Earth is closer to the sun during one half of the year, and the southern hemisphere is closer during the other half of the year. When one part of the Earth is closer to the sun, it receives more concentrated solar energy. This is the time of year that is referred to as "summer." But regardless of summer or winter, the 23.5 tilt of the Earth's axis plays a larger role in determining the amount of sunlight striking Earth at a particular location. The Earth's tilting results in longer days in the northern hemisphere during one half the year, and longer days in the southern hemisphere during the other half of the year. Areas such as the United States and Europe receive more solar energy between May and September not only because days are longer, but also because the sun is almost directly overhead during this season. The sun's rays are far more slanted during the shorter days of the winter months. Cities such as Denver, Colorado, receive nearly three times more solar energyin June than they do in December. Diffuse and Direct Sunlight As sunlight passes through Earth's atmosphere, some of it is absorbed, scattered, and reflected. The following is a general list of materials which cause the sunlight to become diffused:

Air Molecules Water vapor

Clouds Dust Pollutants Sunlight affected in this way is referred to as diffuse solar radiation or diffuse sunlight. Sunlight that reaches the Earth's surface without being diffused is called direct beam solar radiation or direct sunlight. The sum total of all diffuse and direct solar radiation in a given location is called global solar radiation. It is the total amount of sunlight hitting the Earth at any specific spot, both direct and diffuse combined. Pollution and other atmospheric conditions (such as weather patterns) can reduce direct sunlight by 10% on clear dry days. They can reduce direct beam radiation by 100% on thick, cloudy days. Note that the absence of direct sunlight does not imply total darkness, as some diffuse light will still get through. Measuring Sunlight and Solar Energy Scientists measure the amount of sunlight available in specific locations during the different times of year. They are then able to estimate the amount of sunlight which falls on similar regions at the same latitude with similar climates and conditions. Measurements of solar energy are normally expressed as "total radiation on a horizontal surface", or as "total amount of radiation on a surface tracking the sun". In this last case, the assumption is that one is using a solar panel that automatically tracks the sun. In other words, the solar panel would be mounted on a tracking device so that the panel would remain at right angles to the sun throughout the day. This system is primarily used for industrial setups, when it is used at all. Solar Energy Measurements Radiation data (the amount of solar energy available at a given location) for solar electric (photovoltaic) systems is often represented as kilowatt-hours per square meter (kWh/m2). Direct estimates of solar energy may be expressed as "watts per square meter" (W/m2). Radiation data for solar water heating and space heating systems is usually represented in British thermal units per square foot (Btu/ft2).

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Products > Solar Energy > Our Solar Power Spirit > About Solar Energy > Science Behind the Solar Cell

Science Behind the Solar Cell

Converting Sunlight Into Electricity

Solar Cell (multicrystalline silicon)

Photovoltaic modules, commonly called solar modules, are the key components used to convert sunlight into electricity. Solar modules are made of semiconductors that are very similar to those used to create integrated circuits for electronic equipment. The most common type of semiconductor currently in use is made of silicon crystal. Silicon crystals are laminated into n-type and p-type layers, stacked on top of each other. Light striking the crystals induces the photovoltaic effect, which generates electricity. The electricity produced is called direct current (DC) and can be used immediately or stored in a battery. For systems installed on homes served by a utility grid, a device called an inverter changes the electricity into alternating current (AC), the standard power used in residential homes.

Power Generation Using the P-N Gate High purity silicon crystals are used to manufacture solar cells. The crystals are processed into solar cells using the melt and cast method. The cube-shaped casting is then cut into ingots, and then sliced into very thin wafers. Processing wafers Silicon atoms have four "arms." Under stable conditions, they become perfect insulators. By combining a small number of five-armed atoms (with a surplus electron), a negative charge will occur when sunlight (photons) hits the surplus electron. The electron is then discharged from the arm to move around freely. Silicon with these characteristics conducts electricity. This is called an n-type (negative) semiconductor, and is usually caused by having the silicon 'doped' with a boron film. In contrast, combining three-armed atoms that lack one electron results in a hole with an electron missing. The semiconductor will then carry a positive charge. This is called a ptype (positive) semiconductor, and is usually obtained when phosphorous is doped into the silicon.

A p-n junction is formed by placing p-type and n-type semiconductors next to one another. The p-type, with one less electron, attracts the surplus electron from the n-type to stabilize itself. Thus the electricity is displaced and generates a flow of electrons, otherwise known as electricity. When sunlight hits the semiconductor, an electron springs up and is attracted toward the n-type semiconductor. This causes more negatives in the n-type

semiconductors and more positives in the p-type, thus generating a higher flow of electricity. This is the photovoltaic effect.

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Hydroelectric power: How it works

So just how do we get electricity from water? Actually, hydroelectric and coal-fired power plants produce electricity in a similar way. In both cases a power source is used to turn a propeller-like piece called a turbine, which then turns a metal shaft in anelectric generator, which is the motor that produces electricity. A coal-fired power plant uses steam to turn the turbine blades; whereas a hydroelectric plant uses falling water to turn the turbine. The results are the same. Take a look at this diagram (courtesy of the Tennessee Valley Authority) of a hydroelectric power plant to see the details: The theory is to build a dam on a large river that has a large drop in elevation (there are not many hydroelectric plants in Kansas or Florida). The dam stores lots of water behind it in the reservoir. Near the bottom of the dam wall there is the water intake. Gravity causes it to fall through the penstock inside the dam. At the end of the penstock there is a turbine propeller, which is turned by the moving water. The shaft from the turbine goes up into the generator, which produces

the power. Power lines are connected to the generator that carry electricity to your home and mine. The water continues past the propeller through the tailrace into the river past the dam. By the way, it is not a good idea to be playing in the water right below a dam when water is released! This diagram of a hydroelectric generator is courtesy of U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. As to how this generator works, the Corps of Engineers explains it this way: "A hydraulic turbine converts the energy of flowing water into mechanical energy. A hydroelectric generator converts this mechanical energy into electricity. The operation of a generator is based on the principles discovered by Faraday. He found that when a magnet is moved past a conductor, it causes electricity to flow. In a large generator, electromagnets are made by circulating direct current through loops of wire wound around stacks of magnetic steel laminations. These are called field poles, and are mounted on the perimeter of the rotor. The rotor is attached to the turbine shaft, and rotates at a fixed speed. When the rotor turns, it causes the field poles (the electromagnets) to move past the conductors mounted in the stator. This, in turn, causes electricity to flow and a voltage to develop at the generator output terminals."
Pumped storage: Reusing water for peak electricity demand

Demand for electricity is not "flat" and constant. Demand goes up and down during the day, and overnight there is less need for electricity in homes, businesses, and other facilities. For example, here in Atlanta, Georgia at 5:00 PM on a hot August weekend day, you can bet there is a huge demand for electricity to run millions of air conditioners! But, 12 hours later at 5:00 AM .... not so much. Hydroelectric plants are more efficient at providing for peak power demands during short periods than are fossil-fuel and nuclear power plants,

and one way of doing that is by using "pumped storage", which reuses the same water more than once. Pumped storage is a method of keeping water in reserve for peak period power demands by pumping water that has already flowed through the turbines back up a storage pool above the powerplant at a time when customer demand for energy is low, such as during the middle of the night. The water is then allowed to flow back through the turbine-generators at times when demand is high and a heavy load is placed on the system. The reservoir acts much like a battery, storing power in the form of water when demands are low and producing maximum power during daily and seasonal peak periods. An advantage of pumped storage is that hydroelectric generating units are able to start up quickly and make rapid adjustments in output. They operate efficiently when used for one hour or several hours. Because pumped storage reservoirs are relatively small, construction costs are generally low compared with conventional hydropower facilities.
Sources and more information

Hydroelectric power - US Dept. of the Interior; Bureau of Reclamation