The design, selection and application of oil-free screw compressors for fuel gas service

Klaus D. Lelgemann

The American Society Of Mechanical Engineers 345 E, 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017 The Society shall not be responsible for statements of opinions advanced in papers or discussion at meetings of the Society or of its Division or Sections, or printed in its publications. Discussion is printed only if the paper is published in an ASME Journal. IGTI-Vol. 8, ASME COGEN-TURBO, ASME 1993

Abstract Fuel gas compressors installed in cogeneration systems must be highly reliable and efficient machines. The screw compressor can usually be designed to meet most of the gas flow rates and pressure conditions generally required for such installations. To an ever-increasing degree, alternative sources are being found for the fuel gas supply, such as coke-oven gas, blast-furnace gas, flare gas, landfill gas and synthesis gas from coal gasification or from pyrolysis. A feature of the oil-free screw compressor when such gases are being considered is the isolation of the gas compression space from the bearing and gear lubrication system by using positive shaft seals. This ensures that the process gas cannot be contaminated by the lubricating oil, and that there is no risk of loss of lubricant viscosity by gas solution in the oil. This feature enables the compressed gas to contain relatively high levels of particulated contamination without danger of "sludge" formation, and also permits the injection of water or liquid solvents into the compression space, to reduce the temperature rise due to the heat of compression, or to "wash" any particulate matter through the compressor.

Introduction Natural gas is usually the most common fuel used in thermal energy processes. However, alternative gases are now being increasingly employed, such as coke-oven gas, blast furnace gas, flare gas, landfill gas and synthesis gas obtained from coal gasification or from pyrolysis. These gases are usually not as easy to process as natural gas and present special problems to most compressor designs. The principle of operation of the screw compressor has been known since 1878, the year in which the respective patent was issued to Heinrich Kriegar. The first operational compressor of this type was designed and constructed in 1934 by the Swedish engineer Lysholm. SRM (Svenska Rotor Maskiner AB), the owner of the master patents, has developed this product to its present level of marketability in co-operation with licensed manufacturers throughout the world.

The design, selection and application of oil-free screw compressors for fuel gas service Klaus D. Lelgemann MAN Turbomaschinen AG GHH BORSIG Germany

Contents 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) Operating principle Design principle Tip speed Volume flow control by speed variation Oil-free screw compressors with liquid injection Mechanical features of the oil-free screw compressor Shaft seals Typical screw compressor sizes and performance data Examples of application and design

1) Operating principle
(Fig. 1) A screw compressor comprises two rotors one of which is called the male and the other, the female rotor. Each rotor has a number of profiled lobes which are designed to mesh with each other. The male rotor has a similar function to that of a piston in a reciprocating compressor and provides induction, compression and discharge by means of purely rotary motion. This means that the operating principle of the screw compressor is that of a positive-displacement machine. Consequently there is no danger of surging as in the turbocompressor. The machine has a stable characteristic with a rise in the pressure ratio hardly causing any drop in volume flow. It has no valves that could become defective, and no component parts subject to mixed friction and wear. Thanks to the purely rotary motion no free inertial forces are produced which would necessitate special foundations or could excite vibration of neighbouring components. The machine has, in relation to its weight and dimensions, a high specific performance.

2) Design principle
(Fig. 2) The induction, compression and discharge operations can only be performed when the rotors are housed in a casing which allows proper admission to the rotor profiles through an aerodynamically shaped inlet port and is provided with an outlet port of similar design. The inlet port is at the top and the outlet port at the bottom. The required pressure ratio determines the built-in volume ratio (Vi) for a particular fuel gas, and this inturn governs the size and configuration of the discharge port. The volume ratio determines the amount of compression work prior to discharge.

Since the rotors in an oil-free screw compressor are not in contact with each other, some means of keeping them separated and in phase is required. This is achieved by means of a pair of timing gears usually adjusted with zero backlash to ensure that the design tolerances are maintained and the rotors are properly synchronized when running. Only about 10% of the power input to the male rotor is transmitted to the female rotor. The male rotor, whose lobes mesh with the flutes of the female rotor, causes displacement and ejection of the gas. The bearings ensure that an exactly defined clearance is maintained between the rotor circumference and the casing as well as between the end face of the rotor profile body and the casing.

2 Vertical cross-section of a typical "oil-free" process-gas screw compressor

In order to achieve the highest possible efficiency, the built-in volume ratio should be as close as possible to the volume ratio determined by the actual pressure ratio. The rotors are radially and axially supported in sturdy bearings outside the compression space. Process-gas screw compressors are supported exclusively in sleeve-type radial bearings with a hydrodynamic film. These have a life expectancy of a very high order.

1 Rotor pair of a process gas screw compressor

The rotor profile clearances are established by precise manufacture. The timing gears ensure that intermeshing of the rotors takes place without any contact between the profiles. Therefore, the rotors of the processgas screw compressors do not need any lubrication in the compression space since there is no contact between the rotors. Consequently there is no danger of lubricant deterioration by gas or gas constituents or of any lubricant portions entering downstream systems.

3) Tip speed (Fig. 3)

Influence of volumetric efficiency v and dynamic losses d with regard to the sonic velocity of the gas handled

tant backflow of part of the gas being compressed. This also occurs to a lesser extent in a screw compressor with lubricant injection, but here the high viscosity of the lubricant has a certain sealing effect at the running clearances so that high volumetric efficiencies are attained, even at low tip speeds. The process-gas screw compressor is operated at higher tip speeds in order to improve the ratio of actual gas delivery and leakage backflow and thus to attain high volumetric efficiencies.

rise in the dynamic losses d due to gas friction between the fast-moving surfaces and the gas. From these two parameters the resultant overall volumetric efficiency i is obtained for a given inlet design condition. As can be seen from the graph, an optimum range of tip speeds can be assigned to every gas handled by an oil-free screw compressor. However, as the curve is almost flat within a relatively large range, a certain deviation from the optimum leads to only a slight decrease in efficiency. Roughly speaking, for gases with a molecular weight of 6080 kg/kmol the optimum tip speed is in the range from 30 to 60 m/s. For gases with a molecular weight of 2040 kg/kmol it is 70 to 120 m/s. With very light gases a tip speed of 150 m/s may not even be the optimum. The idea of these somewhat elaborate considerations is to dispel the frequently expressed prejudice that an oil-free screw compressor runs too fast.The process-gas screw compressor generally runs at a tip speed which is three times that of a screw compressor with lubricant injection. This means, for identical rotor sizes, the flow rate is three times greater. However, compared to a turbocompressor the tip speed is only about 1/3. This explains why the process-gas screw compressor is not as sensitive to the presence of dust in the gas as is the turbocompressor. In principle, dust entrained in the gas causes abrasion, also in a screw compressor without injection, but here the progress of wear is much slower for the same dust content and consistency.

In oil-free screw compressors the effect of oil viscosity in the profile body due to lubricant injection does not exist. As this effect causes the efficiency to be markedly reduced at high speeds. Screw compressors with lubricant injection should not be operated at tip speeds in excess of 50-60 m/s.

3 Efficiency curves for "oil-free" screw compressor

The tip speed of an oil-free screw compressor is mainly determined by the sonic velocity of the gas to be compressed. While the asymmetrical profiles almost exclusively applied today have led to an improvement in efficiency thanks to the smaller size of the so-called "blowhole", the clearances needed for operation of the machine cannot be eliminated.These running clearances allow part of the gas under compression to return, at sonic velocity, from the interlobe space at higher pressure to that at lower pressure. There is thus a cons-

As, for a given compressor size, the clearances are determined on the basis of the operating temperature and are constant, and as the sonic velocity in a defined gas is also constant, the rate of leakage backflow is constant as well. If a compressor thus defined is operated at ever higher tip speeds, the volumetric efficiency v at first improves more and more until the point is reached where, owing to deterioration of the ratio of rotor tip speed to sonic velocity in the gas, the interlobe spaces are filled to a lesser degree. There is also a

4 Curves showing effect of speed variation for "oil free" screw compressors

5 Effect of water injection on discharge temperature for "oil-free" screw compressor

4) Volume flow control by

speed variation (Fig. 4) Screw compressors have a constant torque at a constant pressure ratio. This means that with a speed controlled screw compressor an excellent partload response is obtained. Admittedly, a negative effect is produced by the previously described influences, such as a drop in volumetric efficiency on reduction of the tip speed due to a constant leakage backflow. However, there is also a decrease in the dynamic losses already referred to, so that proper control by speed variation is possible within a relatively wide range. Here again the sonic velocity in the gas is an important factor. The graph shows a screw compressor

without injection which handles a gas with a molecular weight of 30 kg/ kmol. The performance is such that operation away from the optimum speed is best achieved by means of variable-speed drive. The drop in volumetric efficiency at low speed causes the discharge temperature of the compressor to rise. Heavy gases with a low sonic velocity allow speed variation within an even wider range, as at low speed the volumetric efficiency drops to lesser degree. With light gases the range of speed adjustment is limited for screw compressors without injection and allows flow variation by about 30% only.

5) Oil-free screw compressors with liquid injection (Fig. 5) The oil-free screw compressor has already been referred to several time as a machine without injection. It has also been mentioned in the preface that the specific features of the oil-free screw compressor can still be improved by providing additional facilities. One important step for improvement is to inject liquids. This differs from the lubricant-injected screw compressor in that the liquid injected is not expected to lubricate the rotors and the bearings at the same time and is recirculated in a closed-circuit oil system, but can be selected for the specific gas and the particular requirements of the process.

One generally distinguishes between two kinds of injection:

pression. The compressor can safely be kept running. Compressors for gases with changes in molecular weight between 9 and 44 kg/kmol are already in existence. Other compatible liquids can also be used. It is only necessary to ensure that vaporization takes place without any residues and that the liquid injected does not cause any erosion or corrosion problems. The danger of erosion and corrosion can also be eliminated by selection of suitable materials for the compressor. However, the gas may also necessitate limitation of the compression temperature. For instance, all acetylene containing mixed gases decompose in an explosion-like manner when no oxygen is present. Styrene containing gases polymerize and butadienecontaining gases form rubber. This example shows that injection of a liquid may be very important. The quantities of liquid injected for temperature reduction are relatively small compared to the weight of the compressed gas, as the heat is removed with the aid of the vaporization heat of the liquid. This thermal limitation allows singlestage compressors to be applied in cases where normally two-stage machines would be needed. In addition, variable-speed control is possible within a wide range.

A.

Injection for reduction of the compression temperature

reduction of the compression temperature to prevent polymerization or reactions in the gas handled. The compression process is almost isothermal. In addition, the liquid present in the gaps also causes a slight in improvement in volumetric efficiency. There is also a washing effect. Considerable quantities of partly undesirable constituents of the gas are transferred to the injected liquid if the undesirable constituents have an affinity to the liquid. Consequently, the reluctance to use these gases with gas turbines is rapidly diminishing. Among these is coke-oven gas, the NH3, H2S and HCN contents of which are considerably reduced. Another example is low-caloric furnace top gas, where the contents of chloride and also of dust are reduced. There are oil-free screw compressors which handle gas containing up to 300 mg/m3 of dust without any noticeable abrasion effect. This is explained by the fact that the liquid injected covers all internal surfaces of the machine with a film by which the dust is kept off. However, the material selected for the compressor must be of a kind which does not allow erosion to be caused by the medium injected.

Compression is known to be a more or less isentropic process. The compression temperature results from the pressure ratio, the Cp/Cv factor of the gas to be compressed, and an allowance for the loss in efficiency. As the operating temperature of an oilfree screw compressor is restricted by the selection of the construction materials and the coefficients of expansion of these, i.e., their thermal expansion, the discharge temperature must be limited to about 200C or a maximum of 250C for each compressor stage. The running clearances referred to in section 2) may cease to exist if the discharge temperature is too high, and this may result in damage to the machine. Liquid injection is very helpful where the gas to be compressed permanently changes its molecular weight and thus the Cp/Cv factor. An example of such gases is flare gas. If the gas mixture is heavy, the Cp/Cv factor is small; for instance, at a pressure ratio of 6 a single-stage compressor can be operated with a relatively low discharge temperature. If the gas mixture becomes lighter, the Cp/Cv factor increases considerably and the discharge temperature of the compressor rises abruptly above the allowable level. In this case a small quantity of liquid, such as petrol, is injected into the compressor stage and the vaporization heat of this absorbs the heat of com

The injection of large quantities of liquid into oil-free screw compressors also allows landfill gas to be handled by these machines. With this gas one never knows for sure what aggressive B. Injection for cooling and constituents and in what quantities washing have been added to the base gas in the course of time. As the injection liquid is incompressible, it is necessary If a quantity of liquid greater than the to limit its quantity according to the vaporization quantity is injected, a twophase mixture is discharged at the com- rotor profile chosen and to the built-in pressor outlet port. This liquid causes a volume ratio.

Normally injection quantities up to 3% by volume referred to the suction flowrate of the compressor stage do not present any problem if the liquid is distributed in the form of droplets. This applies particularly to machine where the liquid is already contained in the gas handled, as with two phasic compressor. Abrupt accumulation of large quantities of liquid may cause destruction of a screw compressor (liquid hammer). As the intake port is at the top and the outlet port at the bottom, liquids automatically run out of the compression space when the machine is at a standstill. However, the intended cleaning of the gas stream from undesirable gas constituents does not allow frequent utilisation of the injection liquid in the compressor. The contaminants accumulate and the liquid gradually loses its ability to absorb them. A point of saturation is reached. In addition, liquids with a high concentration of acid constituents start attacking the materials of the compressor system. Therefore it is necessary to remove injection liquid in good time and to replace it by a clean liquid. Some injection liquids are used only once, which shows that the desired cleaning of the main gas stream is not achieved without consequences, as the liquid removed has to be discarded. This compression process also allows single-stage compressors with high pressure ratios to be provided and to operate these machines within wide speed variation ranges.

6)

Mechanical features of the oil-free screw compressor (Fig. 6)

Compression takes place only in an exactly defined sealed triangular area of the rotor pair on one side, i.e., the discharge side. This means that the opposite, or suction side, of the rotor pair is either exposed to no pressure or inlet suction pressure. As a result, the rotor pair is subjected both radially and axially to forces produced by the difference between the gas pressures. This is entirely different from the turbocompressor. These features lead to certain specific requirements.

As the rotors are rotating bodies, the rotor shaft stress is an alternating stress. The ratio of actual stress to allowable stress has to be checked in every particular case. Depending on the material, a stress of up to about 40 N/mm2 is allowed. This value is relatively low, but the notch effect in the fillet between rotor profile body and rotor shaft as well as any possible corrosive attack on the shaft surfaces by the gas have to be taken into account. The bearing span results from the length of the profile body and the length needed for shaft sealing. The residual rotor shaft diameter results from the profile chosen is usually the most significant single factor affecting rotor deflection.

6 Pressure distribution and rotor bending force for a downward discharge screw compressor

In the first place, rotor material of appropriate strength has to be chosen. This is necessary because of the fact that the stress which arises and the deflection of the rotors are determined by the bearing spacing and the residual rotor shaft diameter together with the gas load. However, the small rotor profile clearances do not allow any major deflection.

Small numbers of profile lobes, such as with the 3/4 combination, result in small residual rotor shaft diameters. Large numbers of profile lobes, such as with the 4/6 combination, result in larger residual rotor shaft diameters and consequently stiffer rotors.

A typical length/diameter ratio of the rotor profile body in an oil-free screw compressor is 1.65, although models with an L/D ratio of 1.2 and 0.9 are also available. However, scope for development has not yet come to an end and the innovation potential is far from being exhausted. Larger lobe numbers and smaller L/D ratios are already under consideration with a view to developing screw compressors for higher pressure differences. There are also other essential distinguishing features compared to turbocompressors. The necessary high rotor stiffness with respect to deflection and rotor shaft stress automatically leads to lateral critical speeds which are above the operating speeds. The separation margin of 20% over the maximum allowable operating speed as required under API 619, para 4.7.1.6 is exceeded in most cases. For a machine with variable-speed control this means that operation at any desired speed within the adjusting range is possible. Any necessary uprating later on can also be achieved in most cases by just increasing the speed. The bearings have to absorb the radial and axial forces resulting from the difference between the gas pressures. These forces are much higher than those arising with turbocompressors, where generally only the rotor weight has to be supported. Therefore the bearings of screw compressors are provided with much larger faces. The allowable load for radial bearings is max. 5 N/mm2 and for axial bearings max. 2 N/mm2.

The relatively high bearing load in a screw compressor is always applied in the same direction. Therefore no oil whip can occur as in the turbocompressor, where this is prevented by providing bearings of special shape (polygon shape, lemon shape, tilting pad). The bearings used by MAN TURBO for screw compressors are sleeve-type radial bearings and tapered-land axial bearings. While with turbocompressors, the mechanical bearing loss is about 1% of the compressor power requirement, this loss may be up to 6% in the case of a screw compressor. Of course, the higher power losses are partly due to the fact that two rotors have to be supported and there are twice as many bearings. This disadvantage does however provide a desirable beneficial feature. Thanks to the previously mentioned high rotor stiffness, a rigid connection between the rotating rotors and the stiff casing is established with the aid of the high bearing forces. This allows any irregular condition with respect to unbalance to be exactly measured with an accelerometer to API 670. As the machine is run at subcritical speed, dynamic balancing of the rotors is never done in the contract casing, so that there is no need for vibration measurement in a second plane or for mounting a key-phasor. Of course, installation of vibration probes to API 670 is possible. However, these do not provide any more safety of compressor operation. For measurement of the bearing condition, RTD's to API 670 are provided both radially and axially in the loadsupporting areas of the bearing faces.

As the rotors intermesh in the profile body and there are only small clearances, an RTD embedded in the axial bearing responds to an axial rotor movement due to a bearing defect more quickly and with more reliability than an axial position probe to API 670. Therefore, installation of axial position probes to API 670 can be dispensed with. Of course, installation of axial position probes to API 670 is possible. However, these do not provide any more safety of compressor operation as they only respond when an axial bearing is defective and the compressor has already been shut down by the axialbearing temperature monitoring system. For radial vibration measurement it is also important to know that the lobes on the male rotor cause a radial vibration. Each lobe meshing with the corresponding flute on the female rotor causing a pulse, like gas ejection performs an operation which corresponds to that of the compression stroke of a reciprocating compressor. This compression stroke of the malerotor lobe produces a reaction vibration in a radial direction on the rotor and the casing. This reaction vibration caused by the gas pulsation is insignificant for a qualitative assessment of the running smoothness of the machine to VDI 2056 "Criteria for assessing mechanical vibrations of machines" and has therefore to be filtered out at the monitor. This also applies to low-frequency vibrations as otherwise vibrations produced in the vicinity of the compressor may cause compressor shutdown. The vibration amplitude produced by the compression stroke of each rotor lobe may be up to 4 times that produced by the rotation of the male rotor.

A portable real-time analyser allows occasional checking of the entire vibration spectrum. The relatively high bearing losses in a screw compressor also have a further advantage which should not remain unmentioned. This is the high damping effect with respect to torsional critical speeds, because in drivers with a relatively uniform torque, such as squirrelcage motors, steam or gas turbines, the damping forces in the rotating system are so high that even torsional forces excited at the first torsional critical speed cannot produce surface stresses that are a danger to the system. This is particularly important with variable-speed control ranges between 50 and 100%, where the first torsional critical speed is frequently passed. Of course, for drivers with an irregular torque the transient torsional vibration analysis required under API 619, para. 4.7.2.6, is performed.

7) Shaft seals
It is necessary to provide an absolutely tight sealing between the gas-handling portion of the machine and the lubricated hydrodynamic bearings, as no contact between the gas and the lubricant is allowed. This is the only way to achieve the long inspection intervals of 24,000 service hours for the compressor units, demanded today for applications in refineries, power generation and petrochemical plants, and to obtain a high availability. Labyrinth seals in a variety of materials can be provided. These seals require a buffer gas or gas extraction system. Most of the oil-free screw compressors with liquid injection as described under 5. B. are provided with liquid-film seals whose sealing liquid is the same as the medium injected into the machine.

Most "oil-free" screw compressors are equipped with mechanical (contact) seals. These are cooled by the oil system of the compressor. With this type of sealing, buffer gas is needed in very rare cases only. However, buffer gas can be additionally provided where difficult or toxic gases are compressed. This seal is gas-tight not only during operation of the machine but also during standstill periods, even if the seal oil supply should fail. Leakage oil is generally discarded. With currently available material combinations for mechanical seals, such as silicon carbide, mechanical seals are no longer regarded as wearing parts. All "oil-free" screw compressors are also available with double or single dry gas seals. The most appropriate sealing system is agreed upon between the user and the manufacturer.

8)

Typical screw compressor sizes and performance data

9)

Examples of application and design

Fig. 7

7
Process-gas screw compressor completely assembled at the manufacturer's works as a packaged unit for installation directly at a well-head (gas gathering) without needing a foundation. The unit is protected against ingress of drifting sand. Cooling of the lube and seal oil for the mechanical seal is by an air-blast cooler as the compressor is used in a desert area. It compresses 3,950 m3/h of "associate" gas from 1.03 bar to 3.44 bar.

Fig. 8 Flare-gas compressor with accessible noise enclosure in a refinery. Two-stage process-gas screw compressors are mounted on a single table-top foundation. All auxiliary equipment is installed under the table-top. Each individual compressor is equipped with liquid-film seals. The same liquid which is used for sealing is injected into the compression spaces to prevent polymerisation of the heavy hydrocarbons. Compression is almost isothermal. Each unit compresses 11,000 m3/h of flare gas from 1.01 to 7.0 bar.

Fig. 9 Fuel-gas compressors in a refinery. Three two-stage process-gas screw compressors (two driven by electric motor, one with steam turbine drive) as packaged units, mounted on concrete slabs, for fuel gas supply to a gas turbine. The compressors are equipped with mechanical seals. Each unit compresses 2,500 m3/h of fuel gas from 3.5 bar to 17.5 bar.

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Fig. 10 Charging a molecular sieve with cokeoven gas for hydrogen extraction. Two two-stage process-gas screw compressors as packaged units mounted on concrete slabs, outdoors. Each individual compressor is equipped with liquid-film seals. The same liquid which is used for sealing is injected into the compression spaces to prevent polymerisation of the heavy hydrocarbons. Compression is almost isothermal. Each unit compresses 4,800 m3/h of coke-oven gas from 1.03 bar to 9.0 bar.

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11

13

12

Figs. 11 and 12 Process-gas screw compressor completely assembled at the manufacturer's works as a single-lift package for direct mounting on the deck of an offshore oil production platform. The machine compresses 5,650 m3/h of "associate" gas from 1.37 to 6.85 bar. This compressor stage has mechanical seals.

Fig. 13 Injection of coke-oven gas into blast furnaces to substitute coke and to accelerate reduction. Two two-stage process-gas screw compressors are individually mounted on table-top foundations. All auxiliary equipment is installed under the table tops. The gas/water coolers and the water/air coolers are located adjacent to the foundations. Each individual compressor is equipped with liquid-film seals. The same liquid which is used for sealing is injected into the compression spaces to prevent polymerisation of the heavy hydrocarbons. Compression is almost iso-thermal. Each unit compresses 40,700m3/h of coke-oven gas from 1.01 bar to 11.0 bar.

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