Artificial Eye

The retina is a thin layer of neural tissue that lines the back wall inside the eye. Some of these cells act to receive light, while others interpret the information and send messages to the brain through the optic nerve. This is part of the process that enables us to see. In damaged or dysfunctional retina, the photoreceptors stop working, causing blindness. By some estimates, there are more than 10 million people worldwide affected by retinal diseases that lead to loss of vision. The absence of effective therapeutic remedies for retinitis pigmentosa (RP) and age-related macular degeneration (AMD) has motivated the development of experimental strategies to restore some degree of visual function to affected patients. Because the remaining retinal layers are anatomically spared, several approaches have been designed to artificially activate this residual retina and thereby the visual system. At present, two general strategies have been pursued. The "Epiretinal" approach involves a semiconductor-based device placed above the retina, close to or in contact with the nerve fiber layer retinal ganglion cells. The information in this approach must be captured by a camera system before transmitting data and energy to the implant. The "Sub retinal" approach involves the electrical stimulation of the inner retina from the sub retinal space by implantation of a semiconductor-based micro photodiode array (MPA) into this location. The concept of the sub retinal approach is that electrical charge generated by the MPA in response to a light stimulus may be used to artificially alter the membrane potential of neurons in the remaining retinal layers in a manner to produce formed images. Some researchers have developed an implant system where a video camera captures images, a chip processes the images, and an electrode array transmits the images to the brain. It's called Cortical Implants.

The Visual System The human visual system is remarkable instrument. It features two mobile acquisition units each has formidable preprocessing circuitry placed at a remote location from the central processing system (brain). Its primary task include transmitting images with a viewing angle of at least 140deg and resolution of 1 arc min over a limited capacity carrier, the million or so fibers in each optic nerve through these fibers the signals are passed to the so called higher visual cortex of the brain The nerve system can achieve this type of high volume data transfer by confining such capability to just part of the retina surface, whereas the center of the retina has a 1:1 ration between the photoreceptors and the transmitting elements, the far periphery has a ratio of 300:1. This results in gradual shift in resolution and other system parameters. At the brain's highest level the visual cortex an impressive array of feature extraction mechanisms can rapidly adjust the eye's position to sudden movements in the peripherals filed of objects too small to se when stationary. The visual system can resolve spatial depth differences

by combining signals from both eyes with a precision less than one tenth the size of a single photoreceptor. Reference: http://www.seminarprojects.com/Thread-artificial-eye--1999#ixzz1YVcKPfBn

What Is Community Media?

Monday, 19 September 2011

Community media is described by Ellie Rennie (2006), in a broad sense, as "community communication." Fundamentally, it is elusive to define the term in an absolute manner because it can take so many forms, be applied by so many different groups of people, and be directed at such a wide range of issues. The premise, however, that community media is a facilitative tool for discussion and engagement of the ordinary citizenry has some inherent implications. A major implication is that community media is for the most part independent of the market-driven commercial and mainstream media outlets. This, in turn, allows for different models of community media to offer either a wide open editorial policy or a more fine-tuned approach that is still loyal to the encouragement of community participation. The key characteristics of community media convey a more clear understanding of its definition as well as its depth and dimension in terms of how it takes shape in the civic landscape (Rennie, 2006: 208). The South African definition is that community media are either a geographic community or a community of interest. Ideally then, community media are produced, managed and owned by, for and about the community they serve, which can either be a geographic community or one of interest. "Community media is a two-way process, in which the communities participate as planners, producers and performers and it is the means of expression of the community rather than for the community." It appears easier to posit an ideal definition of community media than to extrapolate a definition from the actual

community-based media initiatives existing on the ground (McQuail, 1994). The media used are different and, as is the case with video, sometimes the medium used itself poses challenges to the notion of community participation. The ownership and management patterns are diverse, even though they can be broadly defined as non-governmental and noncorporate. The levels of community participation are equally diverse. And the aims are quite specifically different, although again, in general the aims are all for some aspect of community development. The concept of community media implies that for communities to be heard at national level, they have to be heard at grassroots level first. The potential to communicate and receive communication is a social good, which should be fairly, universally and strictly equal. Curran and Gurevitch (1991) state that the full concept of citizenship presupposes an informed participant body of citizens, most generally, if we suppose there to be a right to communicate then it implies an equal individual claim to hear and to be heard. Similarly, Freire (1990) observes that the less people are consulted, the less democracy a nation has. Community broadcasting seeks to foster debate about, reach consensus on and build solidarity in promoting and protecting human rights and achieving sustainable development, including peace and reconciliation (McQuail, 1994). Community broadcasting is about both access to and dissemination of information. It acts as media for the flow of information to and from communities, on the one hand, and the national and international levels, on the other hand (McQuail, 1994). It provides access to needed external information as well as advocacy on issues of concern, with

relevant policy making levels informed by experiences at the community level and solutions generated therein. In a broader sense, community broadcasting enables greater participation by communities in national and international affairs. It has a dual role - that of a mirror (reflecting the community back at itself) and that of a window (allowing the outside world to look in at its experiences). Fraser, Colin and Sonica Restrepo Estrada (2001) argue that community media provide a vital alternative to the profit oriented agenda of corporate media. They are driven by social objectives rather than the private, profit motive. Community media empower people rather than treat them as passive consumers and they nurture local knowledge rather than replace it with standard solutions. Ownership and control of community media is rooted in and responsible to the communities they serve, and they are suitable approaches to development, (Buckley, 2000). The nature and purpose of community media initiatives should be the most important determinants. Resource shortcomings of any kind can be addressed through alternative strategies. Steve Buckley (2000) observes that democracy and communication are inextricably linked, so much so that the existence or otherwise of certain forms of communications can be a measure of the limits to which democracy itself has developed or is held back. Curran & Gurevitch (1991) state that the nature of community media is participatory and its purpose is development, "processes of public and private dialogue through which people define who they are, what they want and how they can get it. Community participation is thus seen as both a means to an end and an end in itself. The processes of media production, management and ownership are in themselves

empowering, imbuing critical analytic skills and confidence about interpretations reached and solutions found. The medium chosen must, therefore, be one that enables, enhances and sustains community participation. From the above considerations, it follows that the choice of media to be used in a local community is necessarily specific to that community. What works in one community may not work in another (Lesame, 2005). For example, gender and age are factors to be taken into account when discussing sexuality, but the manner in which they are taken into account differs across communities. Literacy levels, access to radio receivers in the community at large, familiarity with symbolism and other visual devices used in audio-visual media are other considerations. The choice of theatre, local language newspapers, radio or video - or any combination thereof - is and should be dependent on both internal and external factors (Bessette, 2004). Internally, the choice should address the development aims of the community concerned and build on what forms of communication already exist, especially where the community concerned has a history or tradition of educational music and dance. And externally, the choice should ensure ease and effectiveness of impact on the national and international actors the community wishes to speak to. For example, video is a powerful medium to raise awareness about human rights concerns, but it is also a medium which does not necessarily or typically allow for the complexities of a situation to be expounded on and can thus lead to simplistic interventions for resolution. Participatory community-based planning to make the choice of a medium should take these internal and external considerations into account.

I grew up in a rural area and i know the needs and aspirations of people who live in rural areas. mort times i feel that they are excluded from the information age, community media can address the discrepancies that exist in our communities where information is concerned. These people can have an opportunity to produce and compile their own information that can address their direct needs and in the process gather experience that can assist them in finding jobs whilst ploghing back to their communitie
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Tajmahal

Agra
Even if the idea of visiting what is arguably the worlds greatest 'monument to love' doesnt appeal; there's actually more to see in Agra. The dusty little town was once the capital of the Mughal Empire and is now home to three UNESCO World Heritage Sites and other fascinating examples of Islamic architecture commissioned by Emperors Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan. Set aside time to shop for handicrafts, embroidery and jewellery. MONUMENTS The Taj Mahal Perhaps youve seen it a hundred times in photos but nothing prepares you for the overwhelming majesty and beauty of the Taj Mahal when seen up close. The worlds most enduring symbol of love and Indias most celebrated architectural marvel is so striking its almost enough to blind you to the wretched condition of the Yamuna river, sluggishly winding itself around the back of the monument. Completed in 1653, this domed mausoleum flanked by four minarets was built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan for his third wife Arjumand Bano Begum, or Mumtaz Mahal as shes more commonly known. The central structure features over 28 types of precious and semiprecious stones dotting the semi-translucent marble. The Taj changes colour with the movement of the sun through the day, a wondrous sight said to depict the various moods of a woman. Visit in the early morning like the late Princess Diana did or in the late afternoon to witness this magnificent monument turn from pink to red and finally, to indigo. The Archaeological Survey of India allows night visits five times each month (including full moon nights) so ask your concierge to check for the opportunity. Red Fort (Agra Fort) The Red Fort (sometimes called the Agra Fort) was built over three generations and was the main military base for the Mughal emperors when Agra was their capital. During Shah Jahans rule it was painstakingly beautified and made a sumptuous palace, but that time of merriment was not to lasthis son eventually betrayed him and imprisoned him here for his final years. It is said that Shah Jahan spent his time in a tower gazing across the Yamuna river at the Taj Mahal, yearning to return to his precious wifes mausoleum. To this day the mighty red sandstone fortress remains surrounded by 65ft-high fortified walls, protecting countless beautiful structures like the Diwan-i-Khas and Nagina Masjid within its boundaries. Itimad-ud-Daulah Often described as a jewel box and sometimes called the Baby Taj, Itimad-ud-Daulah was

actually built 25 years before the Taj Mahal and bears little resemblance to Mumtaz Mahals mausoleum, save for its construction in white marble. Built by Mughal empress Nur Jahan to house her father Mirza Ghiyas Begs tomb, Itimad-ud-Daulah is at its most beautiful when sunlight filters through the intricately carved marble screens, casting stunning plays of light and shadow on the floor below. OUTSIDE THE CITY Tomb of Akbar the Great The final resting place of the Mughal emperor Akbar can be found on the Delhi-Agra highway in a suburb of Agra called Sikandra, but dont let the distance dissuade you from visiting, its well worth the drive. With what some call foresight and others deem ego, Akbar commissioned his own mausoleum while he was still very much alive. Work began five years before his death and was dutifully completed by his son Jahangir. Made from red sandstone featuring white marble accents, this tomb is yet another gorgeous example of the delicacy of Mughal artistry and the stunning geometric precision of their architecture. Akbars Mausoleum is 10km northwest of Agra, alongside the main highway to Mathura at Sikandra. Open daily from sunrise to sunset. Fatehpur Sikri Walking around this fortified city is a beautiful but eerie experiencesince being abandoned in 1585 after only 14 years of use, its been considered a ghost town. It took nearly two decades to build the capital of the erstwhile Mughal empire but Emperor Akbar was forced to forsake it due to water shortages. Today the complex houses glorious monuments and temples, including Indias largest and most famous mosque, Jama Masjid. The inner citadels, Hawa Mahal and Birbal Bhavan, are very well preserved, as theyve been out of use for centuries. No final word on ghostly sightings but we recommend daytime visits. Fatehpur Sikri is located 39km from Agra and is open from sunrise to sunset.