SPACE FRAMES

Introduction
A growing interest in space frame structures has been witnessed world wide over the last half century. The search for new structural forms to accommodate large unobstructed areas has always been the main objective of architects and engineers. With the advent of new building techniques and construction materials, space frames frequently provide the right answer and satisfy the requirements for lightness, economy, and speedy construction. Signicant progress has been made in the process of the development of the space frame. A large amount of theoretical and experimental research programs was carried out by many universities and research institutions in various countries. As a result, a great deal of useful information has been disseminated and fruitful results have been put into practice.

In the past few decades, the proliferation of the space frame was mainly due to its greatstructural potential and visual beauty. New and imaginative applications of space frames arebeing demonstrated in the total range of building types, such as sports arenas, exhibitionpavilions, assembly halls, transportation terminals, airplane hangars, workshops, andwarehouses. They have been used not only on long-span roofs, but also on mid- and short-span enclosures as roofs, oors, exterior walls, and canopies. Many interesting projects have been designed and constructed all over the world using a variety of congurations. Some important factors that inuence the rapid development of the space frame can be cited as follows. First, the search for large indoor space has always been the focus of humanactivities. Consequently, sports tournaments, cultural performances, mass assemblies, andexhibitions can be held under one roof. The modern production and the needs of greateroperational efciency also created demand for large space with a minimum interference frominternal supports. The space frame provides the benet that the interior space can be used in a variety of ways and thus is ideally suited for such requirements

.Space frames are highly statically indeterminate and their analysis leads to extremely tedious computation if by hand. The difculty of the complicated analysis of such systems contributed to their limited use. The introduction of electronic computers has radically changedthe whole approach to the analysis of space frames. By using computer programs, it is possible toanalyze very complex space structures with great accuracy and less time involved

Lastly, the space frame also has the problem of connecting a large number of members(sometimes up to 20) in space through different angles at a single point. The emergence of several connecting methods of proprietary systems has made great improvement in theconstruction of the space frame, which offered simple and efcient means for making connection of members. The exact tolerances required by these jointing systems can be achieved in thefabrication of the members and joints

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SPACE STRUCTURES

The 'prehistory' of space structures started when Belanger and Brunei designed and builtthe Halle au Ble in Paris between 1806 and 1S11 in the form of a hemispherical dome of castiron elements. The first iron domes in England were built in 1815-1823 over the Royal Pavilionin Brighton in the famous flame form, and the greenhouse of Syon House covered by an irondome was designed bv Fowler in 1S27. These dome structures more or less were translations of timber into cast iron. The stoical scheme was simple, and in our eyes with insufficient stability.The domes ot the Crvstal Art Palace in the Botanical Garden ot Glasgow by Kibble I1S73I showby their twisted lines that the glass panels in putty contributed in a large extend to the torsionalstability of the domes. Mainly due to the glass panel coverings, the glass houses were to becomevery popular in the nineteenth century, and were mainly built as serial produced buildings.August Foppl 11834-1924! is generally recognised as one ot the first scientists having introducedconsequent research work concerning 3-D steel trusses. However, the first real attempts to designand realise metal space frames are known to have been made by Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922). This scientist is generally known as the inventor of the telephone. But Bell has also beenan universal genius engaged in different sciences: aerodynamics, aeronautics, shipbuilding,structural design. medical

and electrotechmcal sciences. In 1907 he was 60 years old, and livedin Canada. At that time much scientific research was focussed on the new aeronauticalexperiments.

As we know, during the first years of this century, Orville and Wilbur Wright developedtheir flying machines in the USA. Their Flyer III became the first usable plane in the world in1905. The model of this Flyer was very much influenced by the state of the art of the19th-century knowledge of truss systems from the building industry. During the second half of the last century, a large number of interesting steel structures in buildings were conceived andbuilt: bridges, exhibition halls, train stations, towers, and glass houses, (fig 3) Gustav Eiffel(18321923) was responsible for a considerable development of space truss elements he hadmade of separate open steel sections riveted to a whole. These elements were used in his Dourobridge in Oporto, (1877), his Truyiere bridge in the French Massive (1880-1884) and his EiffelTower in Paris (1887-1889). At the same time Benjamin Baker and John Fowler were responsible for the design of the rail bridge over the Firth of Forth near Edinburgh between 1882and 1890. In this design cantilevering space trusses were used, for the first time in wrought steeland with tubular steel sections riveted together like boiler shafts. These steel structures inFrance and in the UK made the 1880s very important for steel structures in general, and actuallyformed the 'middle ages' for space structures. These works were realized about 20 years beforeBell undertook his structural experiments. Especially the differences between earth-bound steelstructures and flying structures, stimulated 3-dimensional thinking. As aeroplanes flyindependent from any means of support, a different set of random conditions are applicable inthe design of the overall structure of a plane: a flying structure must consist of a closed structuralsystem capable both to take tensile and compressive stresses in its composing members due to allkinds of external loadings. Where buildings can be provided with additional fixings to theground capable to get rid of horizontal or vertical compressive and tensile forces, aeroplanesmust be designed as an entity of forces

Space Frame Structures: Definition

Space structures are load bearing structures applied in architecture that reallymake use of its threedimensional action as a structure. As a spatial design feature spacestructures have a strong impact on the overall architecture. The major part of studies on spacestructures concerns the structural action. But as space structures are getting more popular to beapplied in architecture, the time has come to give the view of a designer on this matter. Spacestructures can be defined in a few different ways: according to the involved aspects inarchitecture, in topology, in function, the psychological role and of course in the structural sense.

Space structures are known as structural schemes for building applications forapproximately 200 years. The first iron skeleton dome was built in Paris in 1806. The firstattempts to build space frames are known to be made by Alexander Graham Bell in 1907,although the real popularity of space frames only came in the 1950s and later when thesestructures were accepted as a means of design by architects. The stretched membranes weredeveloped by Frei Otto from the 1950s and becamepopular in the 1960s.

As a whole the current use of space structures has been stimulated bv a number of important developments, that will be dealt with separately: 1. 2 . 3. 4. 5. .6. The invention and further development of structural materials. .The striving for maximum use of structural materials Development of new structural 3-D schemes. Development of structural analysis methods for statically indeterminate structures. Functional requirements for roof structures with large column free monospans Increased demand for square internal column grids in plan rather than rectangulargrids in multispans. 7. 8. The personal input and involvement of pioneers of three-dimensional structuraldesign. Acceptance of space structures by architects and integration of space structuresas building components in their projects.

The description of 'space structures' can be seen from different points of view: 1. Structurally: Space structures are loadbearing structures that can be analysed as really 3-dimensional, and cannot be analysed in terms of cooperating 2-dimensional elements orplanes. The word 'space structures' or 'spatial structures' is abbreviated from 'spatiallystabilized structures' as an indication of their structural action. 2 Topologically : Space structures in architecture are the most space-bound structures inarchitecture: more spacebound than earth-bound: roof structures rather than floors. 3 Architectonically : Space structures are structures with a spacious impact, involving allthree dimensions around the spectator. In reality the architectural attractiveness is themajor cause for building space structures. 4 Literally : Space structures are structures in outer space, from outer space or connectedwith aeronautics. 5 Functionally : Space structures need space to act as a structure, are rather bulky andcontain a large air volume like air-inflated structure 6 Philosophically : Space structures tend to suggest a relationship between our terrestrialstructures and aeronautical structures. There is a suggestion of a struggle with the laws of gravity and a relationship with the techniques of production derived from aeronautics. If one looks at technical literature on structural engineering, one will nd that the meaning of the space framehas been very diverse or even confusing. In a very broad sense, the denition of the space frame is literally a three-dimensional structure. However, in a morerestricted sense, space frame means some type of special structure action in three dimensions.Sometimes structural engineers and architects seem to fail to convey with it what they reallywant to communicate

.A space frame is a structure system assembled of linear elements so arranged that forces aretransferred in a three-dimensional manner. In some cases, the constituent element may be two-dimensional.

Macroscopically a space frame often takes the form of a at or curved surface.It should be noted that virtually the same structure dened as a space frame here is referred to aslatticed structures.

A latticed structure is a structure system in the form of a network of elements (as opposed toa continuous surface). Rolled, extruded or fabricated sections comprise the member elements.Another characteristic of latticed structural system is that their load-carrying mechanism is threedimensional in nature.

A space frame is usually arranged in an array of single, double, or multiple layers of intersecting members. Some authors dene space frames only as double layer grids. A singlelayer space frame that has the form of a curved surface is termed as braced vault, braced dome,or latticed shell.

Occasionally the term space truss appears in the technical literature. According to thestructural analysis approach, a space frame is analyzed by assuming rigid joints that causeinternal torsions and moments in the members, whereas a space truss is assumed as hinged jointsand therefore has no internal member moments. The choice between space frame and space trussaction is mainly determined by the joint-connection detailing and the member geometry is nodifferent for both. However, in engineering practice, there is no absolutely rigid or hinged joints

Properties of Space Frame Structures

Even when badly damaged they do not collapse rapidly. This property is of greatimportance in the case of fire, earthquake, explosion or terrorist attack. Due to theinherent stiffness of space frames, their deflection is considerably less.

1.

Possess great rigidity and stiffness hence resist largeconcentrated and unsymmetrical loading.

2.

Ideal for long column-free like Sports facilities,exhibition centers, passenger terminals, malls, assemblyareas, and production facilities etc

3.

Long cantilevers are made possible, increasing roof areaeven with smaller ground area for columns

4.

Redefine industry standards of aesthetic requirements

5.

True new medium for architectural expression meetingthe challenges for lightweight, and aesthetic formsrequired of these facilities

6.

There is virtually no limit to the shapes and spans thatare possible

7.

The light and strong space structures are efficient and,most importantly, beautiful. Space structures provide anarchitecturally pleasing appearance. In multi layerstructures, lights, airconditioning ducts and otherfacilities can be kept inside the roof elements thus givinga clean appearance.

Types of Space Frame Structures

They are classified broadly in three categories .i. Skeleton (braced) frame work e.g. domes, barrel vaults, double and multiplier grids, braced plates. Theyare more popular. They are I nnumerable combinations and variation possible andfollow regular geometric forms .ii. Stressed skin systems e.g. Stressed skin folded plates, stressed skin domes and barrel vaults,pneumatic structures. iii. Suspended (cable or membrane) structures e.g. Cable roofs. The space frame can be formed either in a at or a curved surface. The earliest form of space frame structures is a single layer grid. By adding intermediate grids and including rigidconnecting to the joist and girder framing system, the single layer grid is formed. The majorcharacteristic of grid construction is the omnidirectional spreading of the load as opposed to thelinear transfer of the load in an ordinary framing system. Since such load transfer is mainly bybending, for larger spans,the bending stiffness is increased most efciently by going to a double layer system. The load transfer mechanism of curved surface space frame is essentially differentfrom the grid system that is primarily membrane-like action.

Advantages of Space Frames

1. One of the most important advantages of a space frame structure is its light weight. It is mainlydue to fact that material is distributed spatially in such a way that the load transfer mechanism isprimarily axial tension or compression. Consequently, all material in any given element isutilized to its full extent. Furthermore, most space frames are now constructed with steel oraluminum, which decreases considerably their self-weight. This is especially important in thecase of long span roofs that led to a number of notable examples of applications. 2. The units of space frames are usually mass produced in the factory so that they can take fulladvantage of an industrialized system of construction. Space frames can be built from simpleprefabricated units, which are often of standard size and shape. Such units can be easilytransported and rapidly assembled on site by semi-skilled labor. Consequently, space frames canbe built at a lower cost. 3. A space frame is usually sufciently stiff in spite of its lightness. This is due to its three -dimensional character and to the full participation of its constituent elements. Engineersappreciate the inherent rigidity and great stiffness of space frames and their exceptional ability toresist unsymmetrical or heavy concentrated load. Possessing greater rigidity, the space frames also allow greater exibility in layout and positioning of columns.

Figure 1 ROOF FRAMING FOR A CIRCULAR DOME

4 Space frames possess a versatility of shape and form and can utilize a standard module to generate various at space grids, latticed shell, or even free-form shapes. Architects appreciatethe visual beauty and the impressive simplicity of lines in space frames. A trend is verynoticeable in which the structural members are left exposed as a part of the architecturalexpression. Desire for openness for both visual impact as well as the ability to accommodatevariable space requirements always calls for space frames as the most favorable solution.

Guidelines
In the preliminary stage of planning a space frame to cover a specic building, a number of factors should be studied and evaluated before proceeding to structural analysis and design.These include not only structural adequacy and functional requirements, but also the aestheticeffect desired.

1.

In its initial phase, structural design consists of choosing the general form of the building and thetype of space frame appropriate to this form. Since a space frame is assembled from straight,linear elements connected at nodes, the geometrical arrangement of the elements surface shape,number of layers, grid pattern, etc.needs to be studied carefully in the light of various pertinentrequirements The geometry of the space frame is an important factor to be planned which will inuence both he bearing capacity and weight of the structure. Themodule size is developed from the overallbuilding dimensions, while the depth of the grid (in case of a double layer), the size of cladding,and the position of supports will also have a pronounced effect upon it. For a curved surface, the geometry is also related to the curvature or, more specically, to the rise of the span. Acompromise between these various aspects usually has to be made to achieve a satisfactorysolution.

.2.

3.

In a space frame, connecting joints play an important role, both functional and aesthetic, which is derived from their rationality during construction and after completion. Since joints have adecisive effect on the strength and stiffness of the structure and compose around 20 to 30% of the total weight, joint design is critical to space frame economy and safety. There are a numberof proprietary systems that are used for space frame structures. A system should be selected onthe basis of quality, cost, and erecti on efciency. In addition, custom-designed space frameshave been developed, especially for long span roofs. Regardless of the type of space frame, theessence of any system is the jointing system.

At the preliminary stage of design, choosing the type of space frame has to be closely related tothe constructional technology. The space frames do not have such sequential order of erection for planar structures and require special consideration on the method of construction. Usually acomplete falsework has to be provided so that the structure can be assembled in the high place.Alternatively, the structure can be assembled on the ground, and certain techniques can beadopted to lift the whole structure, or its large part, to the nal position.

Materials
The space structures designed usually use either steel or aluminium as structural materialoccasionally combined with plastics and glass. The inspiration derived from the virtues andproperties of these materials for the designer of space structures are are given in short:

Steel as the most commonly used material for space structures, is well accepted in all itsproperties and is researched on in great depth. Most of the research results do not have aninfluence on design. Amongst these are the developments of high grade steel qualities, of welding

Aluminium is a less rigid material for structural purposes, but has advantages over steel in caseof lightweight loadings and corrosion aggressive atmospheres. Its material properties lead toanother set of space structure systems, where form and geometry neutralise the lack of materialrigidity, especially for the very design-sensitive glass-covered structures.

Glass is only allowed in use by the building codes of most European countries as a non-structural material. Only small bending moments are allowed to be taken, and no additionalnormal forces from external loadings like deadweight of other glass panels and wind/snowloading. The growing resistance of glass panels in regard to safety and vandalism, lead towardsthe use of heat strengthened and laminated glass panels. These panels are so strong that anattempt seemed worthwhile to try to use glass panels as structural elements, replacing a part of the usual steel or aluminium elements.

Plastics have known a positive and fast development as a structural material until 1973, whenthe oil prices went up dramatically and the prophesied plastics boom collapsed. As a structuralmaterial it was used in Glass fiber Reinforced Polyester shells, in the fabric material of stretchedmembranes and pneumatic structures. These inflatables since then also suffered from the high maintenance and energy costs, and are not very popular any more. GRP material has severelybeen restricted in use by tire regulations, and was occasionally replaced by Glass fiberReinforced Cement (GRC), which does not have the same appealing structural properties. GRPis a good material solution for chemically aggressive environments. Only in the fields of thestretched membrane materials some developments have taken

place like the teflon- for PTFE-coated and silicone-coated glass fiber fabrics. These membranes can be combined with flexiblepul-trusion bar elements to form small flexible membrane units with a simple manual erection.

Applications

The space frame system has great structural strength as well as aesthetically pleasingfeatures. The system consists of tubular members, solid spherical node connectors with speciallydesigned bolted props. ATRIUM ROOFING POLYCARBONATE SHEETS

CANOPIES

PRE-FABRICATED STRUCTURE

SKYLIGHT STRUCTURE

CONCLUSION FORADVANTAGES OF SPACE FRAMES

1. Long span area can be covered with space frame. 2. Maximum column free area can be achieved. 3. Because of three- dimensional system less consumption of steel can be achieved ascompared to a conventional truss system. 4. Pre- Fabricated single members, so powder coating or any pre surface treatment ispossible. 5. Manually handling becomes easier which reduces the assembly and erection perio