Chapter 6 Electrochemistry a) Electrolyte - chemical substances that conduct electricity in molten or aqueous state & chemical reaction occurs

- able to conduct electricity (free moving ions ) b) Non-electrolyte - chemical substances that cannot conduct electricity (no free moving ions ) - exists as covalent molecules c) Electrolysis -process whereby chemical substances are broken down into their constituent elements though usage of electricity d) Electrode conducter of electricity , carries electricity in & out during electrochemical process, anode(-) & cathode(+) 1. The movement of ions to the electrode cation > cathode, anion > anode 2. Discharge of ions at the electrode - Cation discharged by accepting electron, cathode riches with anode - Anion discharged by donating electron, anode lack of electron Electrolysis of Molten Compunds a) anode ; non-metal ions = non-metal atoms + electron b) cathode ; Metal ions + electron = Metal atoms Observation a) a layer of shiny metal deposited at cathode electrode b) gas bubbles are released at anode Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions (Dilute) a) anode ; 4OH- > 2H2O + O2 + 4 electrons b) cathode ; 2H+ + 2e > H2, Expect for Cu, Hg & Ag Factors that affect electrolysis of aqueous solution 1) Ions Position in ECS 2) Ions concentration of electrolytes 3) Type of electrodes used Electrolysis of concentrated solution a) anode ; non-metal ions = non-metal atoms + electron b) cathode ; Metal ions + electron = Metal atoms

Common Electrode use in electrolysis are Carbon electrode/ Platinum electrode/ Garphite electrode Electrolysis of copper(II) sulphate using copper electrodes Observation 1) Copper electhode (anode) is corroded 2) Cathode electrode became thicker Anode Cathode Metal atoms = Metal Metal ions + electron 3) The mass of anode electrode is reduced ions + electron = Metal atoms 4) The mass of cathode is increased 5) A layer of brown metal is deposited at cathode 6) The intensity of blue CuSO4 solution remain the same for the rest of the experiment Reason;- The concentration of Cu2+ in the solution remain the same
Predict the Products of Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions

Cation: The higher the position in the electrochemical series are very stable (remain as cation). Example: Anions: The higher the position in the electrochemical series are very stable (remain as anion). Example:

K+ and Na+ are never discharged in an aqueous solution in electrolysis.

F - and SO42- are never discharged in an aqueous solution in electrolysis.

Main factor: Position of ions in the electrochemical series Second factor: Concentration of the electrolyte Third factor: Types of electrode as anode
Electrolysis in Industries A. Extraction of reactive metals

Reactive metals: Sodium, calcium, magnesium and aluminium extract from their compounds Example: extraction of aluminium from aluminium oxide, Al2O3 (bauxite) by using cryolite, Na3AlF6 at 980C. Anode: impure metal Cathode: pure metal Electrolyte: solution containing the ions of the metal to be purified Example: purification of impure copper metal. Electroplating is a process of coating the surface of metal objects with a thin and even layer of another metal. Importance of electroplating is to prevent corrosion and improve the appearance. Cathode: object to be electroplated Anode: pure plating metal Electrolyte: aqueous solution contains plating metal ions

B. Purification of metals

C. Electroplating of metals

The Importance of Electrochemical Series To determine:

Terminal of a voltaic cell Voltage produced by a pair of metals Ability of a metal to displace another metal from its salt solution Metal displacement of hydrogen from an acid

The Importance of Electrochemical Industries

Extract useful metals (aluminium, sodium and magnesium) from its ore using electrolysis. Manufacture of useful chemical substances (chlorine and sodium hydroxide) using electrolysis. Electroplating of iron with chromium to protect the iron layer. Silver-plating to make fine cutleries. Voltaic cell (batteries)

Effect of Electrochemical Industries towards the Environment

Heavy metals (chromium and mercury) cause water pollution. Chlorine gas is a toxic gas cause problem (irritates) to human respiratory system. Mercury cell (batteries) is highly toxic. Improper disposal of industrial waste cause water pollution.

Comparison of Electrolytic Cells and Voltaic Cells

Similarities: Electrolytic Cell Voltaic Cell - Two electrodes involves in the reaction Main basic structuresA battery is needed to Battery is not needed. - Electrons flow through the external supply electrical circuit (connecting wires) energy - Anode (oxidation): loss of electrons Energy conversion Electrical energy > Chemical energy > - Cathode (reduction): gain of electrons chemical energy electrical energy Differences: Transfer of electrons Anode (positive Cathode (positive at the positive terminal): Oxidation terminal): Reduction terminal anions lose electrons at the anode Transfer of electrons Cathode (negative Anode (negative at the negative terminal): Reduction terminal): Oxidation terminal cations accept electrons from the cathode

Inert electrodes: Carbon and platinum (Both of these electrodes do not react with the electrolytes or products of electrolysis) Active electrodes: Silver, copper and nickel (Active anode ionises and concentration of cations in the electrolyte does not change) Example 1: Carbon electrode (inert electrode) in the electrolysis of 0.1 mol dm-3 of aqueous copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solution

Positive ions (cations): copper ions (Cu2+) and hydrogen ions (H+), Negative ions (anions): sulphate ions (SO42-) and hydroxide ions (OH-) Cathode (negative electrode): Cu2+ move to the cathode (ions are selectively discharge). A brown deposited on Anode (positive electrode): OH- move to the anode (ions are selectively discharge). Gas bubbles are produced. The intensity of the blue colour solution decreases because the concentration of copper(II) ions decreases.

the cathode. A colourless gas liberates and it ignites the glowing wooden splinter.

Voltaic Cell / Galvanic cell It is an electrochemical cell which converts chemical energy > electrical energy

Negative terminal: more electropositive (higher position in the electrochemical series) Positive terminal: less electropositive (lower position in the electrochemical series) Electrons released (more electropositive metal) through the wire to a less electropositive metal.

Example 1: Zinc plate and iron plate are placed in 1.0 mol dm3 of lead(II) nitrate, Pb(NO3)2solution

Negative terminal (Anode): Zinc metal (Zinc plate dissolves to form Zn2+) Positive terminal (Cathode): Iron metal (hydrogen ions will be selectively discharge to form hydrogen gas. It is

because H+ is lower position than Pb2+ and Zn2+ in the electrochemical series) Daniell Cell It is another example of a voltaic cell.

Solutions are connected by a salt bridge (inert electrolyte) or a porous pot. The main function of a salt bridge / porous pot is to complete the circuit by allowing the movement of ions and

prevent two aq Disadvantages 1. Electrolyte easily spill 2. voltage canot last because cell polarization Chemical Cell conisit of 1. Primary cell (cannot be recharged ) 2. Secondary cell ( can be recharged )

Dry Cell ( Primary Cell) Carbon rod positive terminal Mixture of carbon powder & MnO2 Ammonium chloride paste Electrolyte Zinc cover negative terminal

Lead-Acid Accumulator (Secondary cell) Lead plate Negative terminal Lead plate coated with lead (IV) oxide Positive terminal Concentrated H2SO4 Electrolyte Advantage

Advantage

1. 2. 3. 4.

No spillage of electrolyte Easily to be carried about Cheap, small in size Produce regular current & voltage

1. Can be recharged & produce high voltage 2. Produce regular voltage because no cell
polarization Disadvantage

(-) = Zn > Zn2+ +2e (+) = 2NH4+ +2e > NH3 + H2 + Zn2+ Overall ; Zn + 2NH4+ >NH3 + H2+Zn2+

1. 2. 3. 4.

Big size, heavy & expensive Spillage of acid Distilled water are added from time to time Lead plate could be eroded

(-) = Pb > Pb2+ +2e (+) = PbO2 + 4H+ +2e > Pb2+ +2H2O Overall = Pb 2+ + PbO2+ + 4H+ + 2SO42- > 2PbSO4 + 2H2O Electrochemistry

It is an arrangement of elements according to their tendencies to donate electrons to form cations. Higher position in the series = a metal that has a higher tendencies to ionise and form positive ions. Constructed by the potential difference (voltage difference) between pairs of metals and the ability of a metal

to displace another metal from its own salt solution. A) Electrochemical Series based on the Potential Difference (Voltage Difference)

measure the potential difference between two metals in voltaic cells. Negative terminal (anode) in voltaic cell has a higher tendency to release electrons = higher position in the

electrochemical series (Positive terminal (cathode) in voltaic cell has a lower tendency to release electrons = lower position in the electrochemical series.

The greater the potential difference (voltage) = further apart the positions of two metals in electrochemical

series. B) Electrochemical Series from the Displacement Reaction of Metals

Find out the ability of a metal to displace another metal from its salt solution. Higher position of a metal in the electrochemical series = able to displace a metal below it from its salt

solution. Example: Mg(s) + CuSO4(aq) > MgSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

Mg is more electropositive than Cu (placed higher than copper in electrochemical series)

Mg atom loses electrons to form magnesium ion and dissolves in the solution.

Acids

a chemical substance which ionises in water to produce hydrogen ions, H+ /hydroxonium ions, H3O+. H+(aq) + H2O(l) > H3O+(aq)

can only exhibit its acidc characteristic in the presence of water

Acid HCl HNO3 H2SO4 CH3COOH

Acid name Hydrochloric acid Nitric acid Sulphuric acid Ethanoic acid

Ions H+, Cl H+, NO3H+, SO42H+, CH3COO -

Monoprotic acid = acid can produce only one hydrogen ion per molecule in water. (Example: HCl) Diprotic acid = acid can produce two hydrogen ions per molecule in water. (Example: H2SO4) Triprotic acid = acid can produce three hydrogen ions per molecule in water. (Example: H3PO4)

Bases / Alkalis

A base is a chemical substance which reacts with an acid to produce a salt and water only. Base(s) + acid(aq) > salt + water (l). Example: NaOH(s) + HCl(aq) > NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Base Copper(II) oxide Lead(II) oxide Magnesium oxide Zinc hydroxide Aluminium hydroxide Ferrum(II) ozide Sodium oxide Calcium oxide Sodium hydroxide Potassium hydroxide Barium hydroxide Amonium

Formula CuO PbO MgO Zn(OH)2 Al(OH)3 Fe2 O3 Na2O CaO NaOH KOH Ba(OH)2
NH4

Solubility in water Insoluble base Insoluble base Insoluble base Insoluble base Insoluble base Insoluble base Soluble base (alkali) Soluble base (alkali) Soluble base (alkali) Soluble base (alkali) Soluble base (alkali) Soluble base (weak alkali)

Ions in the aqueous solution Na+, O2Ca2+, O2Na+, OHK+, OHBa2+, OHNH3+, H+

Concentration of acid & alkali

Molarity, M(mol /dm3) the amount of dissolve substance in 1 dm3 of solvent to form solution - Molarity, M(mol /dm3) * RMM = Concentration (g/dm3)

Benzoic acid Carbonic acid Ascorbic acid Ethanoic acid Hydrochloric acid

- preserve food - make carbonated drinks - as vitamin C - A main compound of vinegar - To clean metals before electroplating - household cleaning - leather processing - swimming pool maintenance Nitric acid - Production of fertilisers, explosives, - dissolution of metals (purification & extraction of gold) Sulphuric acid - To make detergent, polymer and fertilisers. Tartaric acid - Manufacturing of soft drinks - provide tartness to food, as emetic (a substance to induce vomiting)

The Uses of Acids & bases in Our Daily Life

Ammonia

Aluminium hydroxide Calcium hydroxide Sodium hydroxide Magnesium hydroxide

- Production of fertilisers , - used in the manufacture of nitric acid - neutralise the acid - prevent premature coagulation in natural / synthetic latex. - Manufacture of aluminium compound - make gastric medicine (antacid) - To make cement, limewater - neutralise the acidity of soil and application of sewage treatment. - Used in the manufacturing of soups, detergents, and cleaners. - used as an antacid - used as an antiperspirant armpit deodorant - used as a non-hazardous alkali to neutralise acidic wastewater.

Chemical Properties

Acid In the presence of water, an acid will ionise to form hydrogen ion, H+. Sour in taste pH values less than 7 Indicator: Blue litmus paper (Red) Indicator: Universal indicator (Orange and red) Indicator: Methyl orange (Red) React with bases & alkali to produce salt sand water. 2HCl(aq) + CuO(s) > CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l) React with metals (reactive metal, higher position than H+ in the electrochemical series) to produces salts and hydrogen gas. 2HCl(aq) + Zn(s) > ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g) React with carbonates to produce salts, carbon dioxide gas and water. H2SO4(aq) + ZnCO3(s) > ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Alkali In the presence of water, an alkali will ionise to form hydroxide ion, OH -. Bitter in taste pH values more than 7 Indicator: Red litmus paper (Blue) Indicator: Universal indicator (Blue and purple) Indicator: Methyl orange (Yellow) React with acids to produce salts and water. NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) > NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) React with an ammonium salt (alkali is heated) to produce ammonia gas. Ba(OH)2(aq) + 2NH4Cl(s) > BaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g) React with aqueous salt solutions to produce metal hydroxides (as precipitate). 2NaOH(aq) + CuSO4(aq) > Na2SO4(aq) + Cu(OH)2(s)

The Strength of Aicds & Alkalis The pH Scale 1. measure degree of acidity & alkalinity of an aqueous solution based on concentration of H+ ions 2. pH- concentration of H+ ions in solution Acid Litmus Phenolpthalein Methyl orange Universal indicator

Neutral Purple Colourless Orange Green

Alkali Blue Pink yellow Blue

red colourless Pink red

The Strength of acid/alkali is defined as degree of dissociation / ionization in solution which depends on fraction / percentage of molecule whick ionizes in solution

Strong Acid (HCl, HNO3, H2SO4 ) Ionizes completely in solution to form H+ ions (degree of dissociation is 100% / 1) Weak Acid (CH3COOH, pH 3 at 0.5M) Does not ionizes completely in solution. (degree of dissociation is ledd than 1 / <100% ) Strong Alkali (NaOH, KCO3) Ionizes completely in solution to form high concentration of OH- ions (degree of dissociation is 100% / 1)

Weak Alkali (NH4OH) (pH 10 at 0.1M) Ionize partially in solution Neutralisation Reaction when acid is added to base / alkali to produce salt & water Example 1. Magnesia milk neutralize hydrochloric acid in our gastric juice 2. Calamine lotions (contains zinc carbonate ) neutralize acid from insects bites 3. Slaked lime (calcium oxide) neutralize soil Acid-Base Titration

-Tiration /quantitative analysis method determine volume of acid required to neutratise a volume of an alkali or vise versa Stopped when the indicator change colour End-point- point which neutralization occurs completely (all H+ ions combine with OH- ions to form water molecule) Calculation on Concentration 1. Mass(g)/Volume (dm-3) Dilution of Solution addition of solvent to a more concentrated solution to obtain less concentrated solution Moles= (mass*volume)/1000, Mass/RMM Fomula of Dilution MaVa=MbVb (M= mass volume) Formula of Neutralisation MaVb/MbVb = a/b