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Snowball Earth

Jonna Reamer Fall Seminar 2010

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AbstractDuring the Neoproterozoic there were two periods of intense glaciation. These glaciations are believed to have encompassed the entire globe in ice, creating a Snowball Earth. Cap carbonates have been analyzed to indicate that every continent shows evidence of this event through paleomagnetism, pH levels, iridium anomalies, and 13C signatures. The extent of the glaciation was perpetuated by an ice albedo feedback loop, and it is also proposed that cyanobacteria disrupted the CO2 levels in the atmosphere, cooling the temperature and allowing for the onset of glaciation. IntroductionThere have been many glaciations throughout the course of Earths history; however, the evidence provided by paleomagnetism and cap carbonates suggests an extreme scenario during the Neoproterozoic. The explanation for the extent of the glaciations is somewhat controversial. In 1992, Joseph L. Kirschvink proposed the Snowball Earth Hypothesis, which was later revised by Paul Hoffman and Daniel Schrag (Fairchild and Kennedy, 2007). This hypothesis has been one of the leading concepts considered since. Kirschvinks belief is that after glacial conditions had been established, the increased albedo from the ice caused a positive feedback loop that failed to be counteracted until the entire Earth was encased in ice and snow (Hoffman et al., 1998). One of the main lines of evidence supporting Kirschvinks ideas is the staggering amount of cap carbonates which all date to approximately the same time (Kasemann et al., 2010). The time frame being examined is roughly 710 Ma previously to 635 Ma, and has been broken up into two separate periods of glaciations, both thought to encompass the entire Earth, called the Sturtian and Marinoan glacial epochs (Bodiselitsch et al., 2005).

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Though there have been a variety of models constructed to depict what might have occurred based on the evidence present today, the one at the forefront of the debate is the Snowball Earth. CO2 levels, iridium anomalies, paleomagnetism and ocean acidification all support this hypothesis. Carbonate RocksThe carbonate rocks associated with these glaciations were analyzed for 13C content and it was determined that during the time period of 710Ma to 635Ma are negative values with just a slight variation to positive in the middle of the time interval (Kasemann et al., 2010). As is characteristic of glacial periods, these cap carbonates contain layers of microcrystalline dolomite (Fairchild and Kennedy, 2007). The negative 13C values are interpreted to represent periods of glaciations resulting from seawater variations. The carbonates below the glacial layers demonstrate positive carbon-13 values, as do the carbonates above the glacial layer (Hoffman et al., 1998). The glacial deposits and debris flows seen on the continental slope show that the ice grinding line did not stray far from the edge of the platform, which indicates grounded ice in a tropical region (Hoffman et al., 1998). The previously mentioned data from cap carbonates supports a period of extensive glaciations which covered the equatorial regions. The global cap carbonate distribution may be noted in figure 1.

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Fig. 1: a) Distribution of glacial deposits during Sturtian (740-660Ma) b) distribution of glacial deposits during Marinoan (<660-635Ma), shown as black circles. White circles indicate inconsistent dating of the formation (Fairchild and Kennedy, 2007). It has been believed that the pH of the ocean varies little with time, though the pH was much lower in the Proterozoic than in the Phanerozoic. From boron isotopes in cap carbonate deposits from Namibia it has been determined that the pH of the seawater during the deglaciation period was approximately 7. This is rather low, and suggests not only that there was a major ocean acidification event, but that high levels of CO2 at the same time (Bodiselitsch et al., 2005). Because the pH (through analysis of Boron isotopes from cap carbonates) has been found to be the same at the onset of glaciation, the pH must have been unaffected by the glaciations and the high CO2 levels (Bodiselitsch, et al., 2005). pH values measured after the deglaciation raised the pH to 8.3 (Kasemann, et al., 2010). This indicates that the seawater was cut off from the atmosphere by ice encasing the globe.

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Although the ice was cutting off the atmosphere from the water on the planet, and shutting down the hydrological cycle, there were a whole new set of conditions developing under the ice. The glaciations did not shut down volcanic processes. Volcanism and hydrothermal activities at oceanic ridges continued. This activity combined with a decrease in oxygenic photosynthesis and the removal of atmospheric influence led to reducing conditions in the seawater (Kirschvink et al., 2000). The formation of reducing conditions in the ocean is further supported by the existence of Banded Iron Formations dated to this period (Kirschvink et. Al., 2000). This evidence all implies that during the glaciations, the seawater was cut off from the atmosphere while the CO2 levels were building. Snowball Earth, would have resulted in ice separating the atmosphere from the oceans. The ocean acidification event occurred at the same time as deglaciation leading to a build up of CO2 in the atmosphere. The greenhouse effect caused deglaciation, during which the seawater was rapidly exposed to the CO2 causing the pH to become more acidic. Duration/IntensityThe Snowball Earth hypothesis states that the duration of each of the two glaciations lasted more than a million years. Cap carbonates have been examined for paleomagnetism and show that throughout the glacial periods multiple pole reversals occurred (Bodiselitsch et al., 2005). Specifically, the Elatina formation from Southern Australia provides a duration for the Marinoan Glacial Epoch of one million years (Bodiselitsch et al., 2005). By examining the rate of subaerial volcanic CO2 outgassing today, a similar time frame is shown. Without an exchange from seawater to atmosphere, and the luminosity of the Neoproterozoic, as well as differences in the amount of carbonate deposition this time interval remains valid. While an exact time frame

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has not been established, the Marinoan glacial episode is believed to have been a minimum of three million years long (Bodiselitsch et al., 2005). It can logically be implied that while the Earth was covered with ice, any extraterrestrial material that may have made its way to the surface would have been on top of the ice. When deglaciation occurred any of this material would be deposited at the base of the cap carbonates. Examination of these cap carbonates showed Iridium and Platinum group anomalies for both the Marinoan and Sturtian Glacial Epochs (Bodiselitsch et al., 2005). The anomalies were significant, at approximately 2 ppb for the iridium (Bodiselitsch et al., 2005). The extraterrestrial matter would have been composed of interplanetary dust particles as well as any remnants of asteroids or comets that collided with the Earth between 710Ma and 635Ma (Bodiselitsch et al., 2005). The Kipushi Petit Conglomerate/cap carbonate transition was yielded a chromium/iridium ratio of 2.9 x 103, which closely resembles the ratio found in carbonaceous chondrites at 5.5 x 103 (Bodiselitsch et al., 2005). A demonstration of the iridium anomalies in comparison with other elements can be seen below in figure 2.

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Fig. 2: Iridium anomalies from cap carbonates from the Congo for Marinoan and Strutian Glacial Epochs (Bodiselitsch et al., 2005). The intensity of the period is implied by the extent of glaciation described in the hypothesis. The duration and intensity of the Snowball Earth epochs was aided greatly by the feedback of ice albedo. As the planet became more severely covered with ice, albedo increased, leading to the formation of more ice. Climate models representing the time indicate that there

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would have been between 500 and 1500m of pack ice (Kirschvink et al., 2000). If extended to predict surface temperatures, the same models would produce temperstures ranging from -20C to -50C (Kirschvink et al., 2000). PaleogeographyWhen considering how glaciations began during this period, it is important to note the position of the continents. During the Neoproterozoic, the supercontinent Rodinia had been established, amassing the continents on one side of the Earth and greatly affecting the climate. Through paleomagnetism the orientation of the continents has been established but an anomaly has popped up. Fairchild and Kennedy (2007) speculate that true polar wander occurred triggering the onset of glaciations. The process would have been quicker than any known Phanerozoic rates of plate motion that have been calculated. The event would have rotated the entire crust and mantle without moving the outer core. In the case of the Neoproterozoic, Rodinia would have rotated to leave the supercontinent centered on the equator (Fairchild and Kennedy, 2007). From this position with the supercontinent being above a mantle plume, breakup would have occurred as shown in Figure 3.

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Fig. 3: Left- Laurentia 780-723Ma, Right- 750Ma Rodinia, beginning to fragment (Fairchild and Kennedy, 2007). Contrasting EvidenceThe Snowball Earth Hypothesis depicts a certain scenario of tectonics happening across the Earth, and does not leave much room for variation. However, there are a series of basins in India, the Purana basins, which have been dated by fossil evidence at 500-700Ma (University of Florida, 2010). The Purana Basins indicate that India was rifting and thinning out at the time of formation, which does not agree with the Snowball Earth Theory. More recently, a kimberlite from one of the Purana Basins has been dated using zircon crystals, and the basin age has been revised to more than 1billion years old, which removes the basins from consideration as their formation was well before the glaciations in the Neoproterozoic (University of Florida, 2010). Further, the kimberlites paleomagnetic orientation was compared to rocks from other Purana Basins, and the orientations found to be nearly indistinguishable (Universoty of Florida, 2010). This evidence revises the dates of all the Purana Basins, therefore supporting the Snowball Earth Hypothesis.

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There is also significant debate about the Slushball Earth Theory. Instead of having the oceans in tropical regions be completely covered by ice, Slushball Earth dictates that there was some open ocean in tropical latitudes (Fairchild and Kennedy, 2007). While this would provide for some sea-air exchange, it is uncertain what amount of open ocean would be enough to really affect the processes happening. The oceanic pH at the time and CO2 levels suggest that there was no sea-air exchange. However, it is unknown what the influence of small amounts of seawaterair exchange would have on these figures (Fairchild and Kennedy, 2007). Biological InfluenceAs is expected with rapid and extreme adjustments to the climate, biological productivity was affected negatively. With the entire planet covered in ice, it would seem that no species would thrive however, there is evidence of a cyanobacterial bloom. It is proposed that this bloom occurred during deglaciation and created an oxygen spike (Kopp et al., 2005). This increase in oxygen combined with the reducing environment developed under the ice, caused oxidative precipitation rich in iron and manganese (Kopp et al., 2005). Which is seen in the Banded Iron Formations. The oceans were rich in these elements from the hydrothermal activity, which continued despite the glaciations. For the onset of glaciations to occur, there must have been a disturbance to the system at hand. Kopp (2005) proposes that cyanobacteria were a significant factor through oxygen disturbance. There had been smaller glaciations previous to the Marioan and Sturtian glaciations and during this time the methane greenhouse had been in effect due to the large amounts of CO2 in the atmosphere, warming the temperature of the atmosphere. Banded Iron Formations deposited after the Makganyene glaciation (~2.3Ga) show increased oxygen levels. Specifically the Ongeluk and Hotazel Formations from South Africa demonstrate these increased levels

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(Kopp et al., 2005). Figure four shows these formations as well as the onset and end of glaciations. The Ongeluk and Hotazel are directly between the onset and end of glaciations (Kopp, et al., 2005). The onset of the cyanobacterial growth during a partial glaciation perpetuated the glaciation to the extent seen during the Snowball Events.

Fig. 4: Indicating the age of Rock formations from South Africa and their relationship to the Snowball Earth Glaciations (Kopp et al., 2005).

DeglaciationAfter the establishment of a Snowball Earth state, in order to deglaciate the Earth again there must be a trigger for the climate change. A major inconsistency with climate models for the Snowball Earth Glaciations is in the amount of CO2 needed for the deglaciation to occur. If the model cannot account for deglaciation, then as Earth is currently not under Snowball Earth conditions, the model would be rendered implausible. Generally, climate models dictate that 0.3bars is needed for the partial pressure of CO2 in order for deglaciation to occur (Abbot and

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Halevy, 2010). Evidence from oxygen isotopic anomalies shows that at 635 Ma, CO2 levels had reached a maximum of 0.08bars (Abbot and Halevy, 2010). Naturally, this has raised significant doubt as to the plausibility of the Snowball Earth Hypothesis. If the ocean in tropical regions was not completely iced over, this open water may significantly effect albedo. With some open seawater, the hydrological cycle would still be functioning and the layer of dust on the ice surface would decrease albedo (Abbot and Halevy, 2010). With this factored into the climate model, it can now be expected that deglaciation would be possible with only 0.01-0.1bars of CO2 (Abbot and Halevy, 2010). Formation of a planetary net ablation zone would occur in this scenario as there is no heat flow during Snowball Earth (Abbot and Halevy, 2010). As a result, any dust or aerosols would stay within 25 of the equator. Even with sublimation occurring on the ice surface at an estimate of 0.01m/yr, the climate model consistently produces deglaciation. As ice is sublimated, it must be replaced by freezing at the bottom of the ice sheet or ice sheet flow from higher latitudes, either of which would explain the occurrence of dust on the surface in tropical regions (Abbot and Halevy, 2010). ConclusionThere have been significant findings all over the Earth such as the banded iron formations and cap carbonates, which support the Snowball Earth Hypothesis. While many aspects of this hypothesis, such as the true polar wander and deglaciation, are still under debate, it appears that Snowball Earth is the best explanation for the paleomagnetic, iridium anomalies, 13C signatures, and pH levels during the Neoproterozoic.

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References CitedAbbot, D. S., Halevy, I., 2010, Dust Aerosol Important for Snowball Earth Deglaciation, Journal of Climate, vol. 23, p. 4121-4132. Bodiselitsch, B., Koeberl, C., Master, S., Reimold, W., 2005, Estimating Duration and Intensity of Neoproterozoic Snowball Glaciations from Ir Anomalies, Science, vol. 308, p. 239-242. Fairchild, I.J., Kennedy, M.J., 2007, Neoproterozoic Glaciation in the Earth System, Journal of the Geological Society, vol. 164, p. 895-921. Hoffman, P., Kaufman, A., Halverson, G., Schrag, D., 1998, A Neoproterozoic Snowball Earth, Science, vol. 281, p. 1342-1346. Kasemann, S., Prave, A., Fallick, A., Hawkesworth,C., and Hoffmann, K., 2010, Neoproterozoic Ice Ages, Boron Isotopes, and Ocean Acidification: Implications for a Snowball Earth, Geology, vol.38, p. 775-778. Kirschvink, J., Gaidos, E., Bertani, L., Beukes, N., Gutzmer, J., Maepa, L., Steinberger, R., 2000, Paleoproterozoic Snowball Earth: Extreme Climatic and Geochemical Global Change and Its Biological Consequences, Proceeding of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 97, p. 1400-1405. Kopp, R., Kirschvink, J., Hilburn, I., Nash, C., Hoffman, P., 2005, The Paleoproterozoic Snowball earth: A Climate Disaster Triggered by the Evolution of Oxygenic Photosynthesis, Proceedings of the National Academyof Sciences of the united States of America, vol. 102, p. 11131-11136.

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University of Florida; Geologists push back date basins formed, supporting frozen Earth theory. NewsRx Science, 14 Jul 2008: Research Library, ProQuest. Web. 25 Oct. 2010.