Chapter 11 Notes on my own (Ms.

Q Lecture highlighted)
Motivation~ is a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior Nature- physiological push Nurture- cognitive and cultural pulls

Motivational Concepts
4 Perspectives to try and understand motivated behaviors -Instinct Theory (now evolutionary perspective) focuses on genetically predisposed behaviors - Drive-reduction theory focuses on how our inner pushes and external pulls interact - Arousal Theory focuses on finding the right amount of stimulation - Maslows Hierarchy of Needs describes how some of our needs take priority over others Instincts and Evolutionary Psychology - With Darwins theory of evolution it became popular to label all behaviors as instinct - However, this only named instincts rather than explaining them - e.g one may say that someone criticizes themselves because of a self-abasement instinct however, they are not explaining why one may have this supposed instinct. - An instinct is actually a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned. - Common in other species, but also in humans (babies instinct for rooting and sucking) - Most psychologists view human behavior as directed by physiological needs and by psychological wants - Instinct theory failed to explain motives behind behavior but assumption that genes predispose species-specific behavior remains as strong as ever. Drives and Incentives - Original instinct theory of motivation collapsed &replaced by drive-reduction theory ~the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need. - with few exceptions, when physiological need increases so does a psychological drive(aroused motivated state)

- aim of drive reduction is homeostasis ~ maintenance of a steady internal state e.g temp. - pushed by our need to reduce drives, also pulled by incentives ~ positive or negative stimuli that lure or repel us - when need and incentive = strongly drive e.g hunger + smell of baking bread

Need (e.g. for food, water)

Drive (hunger, thirst)

Drive-reducing behaviors (eating, drinking)

Optimum Arousal - Some motivated behaviors actually increase arousal - human motivation seeks not to eliminate arousal but to seek optimum levels of it - Once biological needs satisfied, feel driven to experience stimulation and hunger for info - infovores - lacking stimulation=boredom=look for way to increase arousal - too much stimulation can come stress and then search for way to decrease arousal A Hierarchy of Motives - Abraham Maslow creates hierarchy of beginning at the base with be satisfied before higher-level safety needs become active.
Stuff I don't know. Material random needs I think. Self-Transcenence NeedsNeed to find meaning and identity beyond the self Self-Actualization NeedsNeed to live up to our fullest and unique potential Esteem NeedsNeed for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independence; need for recognition and respect from others Belongingness and love needsNeed to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted; need to avoid lonliness and seperation Safety NeedsNeed to feel that the world is organized and predictable; need to feel safe.

needs~ pyramid of human needs, physiological needs that must first needs and then psychological

Physiological NeedsNeed to satisfy hunger and thirst

Hunger
The Physiology of Hunger -Stomach contractions (pangs) send signals to our brain telling us that were hungry - Still feel hunger even without hunger pangs - Tsang removed rat stomachs and attached esophagus to small intestine, but rats still ate - Levels of glucose are monitored by receptors (neurons) in the stomach, liver, and intestines and then send signals to the hypothalamus -Glucose is the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. Levels are low=hunger - The lateral hypothalamus (LH) brings on hunger (stimulation) ~destroy=no hunger -Reduction of blood glucose stimulates orexin the LH, causing to eat ravenously - The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) depresses stimulation~ destroy=eats ravenously - Number of hormones elated to hunger~ Orexin increaseHypothalamusincrease hunger Ghrelin increasestomachincrease hunger Insulin increasepancreaseincrease hunger Leptin increasefat cellsdecrease hunger PPY increasedigestive tractdecrease hunger

-Manipulating the lateral and ventromedial hypothalamus alters the body weight thermostat - Heredity affects set point~ point at which an individuals weight thermostat us supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight - Heredity also affects basal metabolic rate~ the bodys resting rate of energy expenditure - If weight is lost, food intake increases and energy expenditure decreases. I weight is gained, opposite.

The Psychology of Hunger - Memory important role in hunger ( when last ate, when should eat etc.) ~Amnesia patients have trouble with retention and if given food will eat continuously - Body chemistry and environmental influences determine when hungry and what for ~Countries with hot climates use more bacteria-inhibiting spices in meat dishes Eating Disorders - Anorexia nervosa ~typically begins as weight-loss diet ~usually adolescent females (3/4) ~typically drop 15% or more below normal weight

~still feel fat, fear gaining weight, obsessed with losing weight ~half display a binge-purge-depression cycle - Bulimia Nervosa ~ may be triggered by a weight-loss diet, broken by gorging on forbidden foods ~late teens early twenties (females typically) ~over-eating is followed by purging ~may be: vomiting, laxative use, fasting, excessive exercise. ~bouts of depression and anxiety, most severe during and following binges - Binge-eating disorder ~significant binge eating ~ followed by remorse or guilt

~do not purge, fast, or excessively exercise - Eating disorders do not provide telltale evidence of childhood sexual abuse -Younger children may develop eating disorders when raised in families where weight is an excessive concern - Studies have shown that eating disorders are more likely to appear in identical twins than fraternal, showing a genetic connection.

Obesity - Obesity and Weight Control~ fat is an ideal form of stored energy and readily available ~in times of famine fat was sign of affluence - Obesity ~disorder characterized by being excessively overweight ~ increase: cardiovascular disease, diabetes, hypertension, arthritis, and back problems - BMI~ Body Mass Index healthy under 25 - Obesity in children increases chance of diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease, gallstones, arthritis, and certain types of cancer~ therefore shortening their life-expectancy - Death rate highest in overweight men - when females were made to look overweight they were less likely to be hired Physiology of Obesity - 30-40 billon fat cells in the body, these can increase to 2 to 3 times the size and number (75 billion) in an obese person - Set point and metabolism~ when calorie intake reduced from 3,500 to 450, weight loss was minimal 6% and metabolic rate a mere 15% ~ Obese defend their weight by conserving energy - Twin studies reveal genetic factor - Lack of exercise major contributor to obesity Losing Weight - US: 2/3rd of women want to lose weight and of men (lose $ on diet programs) - To actually lose weight: begin weight-loss program, avoid temptation, exercise,&forgive lapses Summary Chart
Biological: -mid-hypothalamic centers in the brain monitoring appetite. -appetite hormones -stomach pangs -set/settling point weight -universal attraction to sweet and salty foods - adaptive wariness towards novel food Psychological: - sight and smell of a variety of tasty foods - memory of time elapsed since last meal - mood Eating Behavior

~ over past 40 years weight gain has increased

Social-cultural: - culturally learned taste preferences - learned restraint in cultures idealizing thinness

Sexual Motivation - Sexual motivation is natures lever way of making sure we reproduce and survive - Masters and Johnson describe four phases of the sexual response cycle ~ Excitement- genitals engorged with blood; vagina expands, secretes lubricant; penis enlarges ~ Plateau- Excitement peaks such as breathing, pulse, and blood pressure ~ Orgasm- contractions all over the body, increase in breathing, pulse, and blood pressure. Sexual release ~ Resolution- Engorged genital release blood men have refractory period (cant orgasm again). Women take longer to resolve Problems - Men typically suffer from two types of problems: premature ejaculation and erectile disorder. -- Women: orgasmic disorders ~Not personality disorders and may be treated through behavior therapy and drugs such as Viagra Hormones and Sexual Behavior - Sex hormones effect the development of sexual characteristics and (esp. in animals) activate sexual behavior - Estrogen: females animal in heat exhibit peak levels of estrogen ~Sex hormones may have a milder effect on humans than animals ~Women are more likely to have sex close to ovulation (increased testosterone) and men show increased testosterone when socializing when women. - Testosterone: ~Levels of testosterone remain relatively level in men so it is difficult to activate sexual behavior. ~Castration, which reduces levels of testosterone, lowers sexual interest - Sex is not a need however, hunger is, without it, we die, but w/out sex we do not die - People with spinal cord injuries and no genital sensation can still feel sexual desire Sexual Behavior influenced by - Biological: sexual maturity, sex hormones esp. testosterone, and sexual orientation - Psychological: exposure to stimulating conditions, sexual fantasies - Social-cultural: family and society values, religious and personal values, cultural expectations Contraception: - Ignorance, less likely to use contraceptives. e.g Canadian girls - Guilt related to sexual activity, guilt reduces sexual activity but also use of contraceptives - Minimal communication, many teenage girls feel uncomfortable discussing contraceptives - Alcohol use, using alcohol prior to sex less likely to use contraceptives - Mass media, media portrayal of unsafe extramarital sex reduces use of contraceptives

Reduce Sexual Activity - High intelligence, teens of higher intelligence are more likely to delay sex - Religiosity, religious teens and adults are more likely to save sex for marriage - Father presence, father absence can cause higher teen sexual activity - Learning programs, students who participate in programs that help prevent teen pregnancy are less likely to have unsafe sex - Homosexuality is more likely biologically based rather than environmental - Homosexuality exists in the animal world ~Homosexuality seems to run in families ~ Identical twins more likely to both be homosexual than fraternal twins ~ Experiments with fruit flies show genetic tampering can cause males to act female and Need to Belong -Separation from others increases our need to belong (e.g Cast Away, Tom Hanks) - Social bonds increased ancestors chance of survival ~Protecting (esp. the young) against predators ~ Procuring food ~ Reproducing - Wanting to belong, need to belong colors out thinking and emotions - Social Acceptance, sense of belonging increases self-esteem, social segregation decreases it - Maintaining relationships, we resist breaking social bonds, even bad ones -Ostracism, social exclusion leads to demoralization, depression, and at times nasty behavior. Achievement Motivation - Desire for significant accomplishment - People with high motivation to achieve tend to: ~ choose tasks that allow for success yet ~still require skill and effort, and ~ keep persisting until success is achieved - Parents and teachers have an influence on motivation ~ Emotional Roots- learning to associate achievement with positive emotions ~Cognitive Roots- learning to attribute achievement to ones own competence, thus raising expectations of oneself - People have different attitudes towards work ~ Job: have to do for money ~Career: opportunity to advance from position to position ~ Calling: fulfilling a socially useful activity - Flow is the experience between no work and a lot of work - Flow marks immersion in ones work - Those that flow in their work are less driven by extrinsic rewards and more by intrinsic ones

Industrial/Organizational Psychology - Personnel psychology~ studies the principles of studying and evaluating workers - Organizational psychology~ Studies how work environments and management styles influence work motivation, satisfaction, and productivity - Human Factors psychology~ explores how machines and environments can be designed to fit out natural perceptions The Interviewer Illusion - Intention vs. Habits~ Intentions matter but long-lasting habits matter more - Successful Employees- Interviewers more likely to talk about employees who were successful - Presumptions about candidates- Interviewers wrongly presume what they see is what they get - Preconceptions- Interviewers prior knowledge about candidate may affect judgment. Satisfaction and Engagement - Observed that employee engagement means: ~ Knows what is expected of him ~ Has what is needed to do the work ~ Feels fulfilled at work ~ Has opportunities to do his best ~ Thinks himself to be part of something significant ~ Has opportunities to learn and develop - Every leader dreams of managing in ways that enhance peoples satisfaction, engagement, and productivity in his or her organization. - Effective leaders need to select the right people, determine their employees talents, adjust their work roles to their talents, and develop their talents and strengths.

Summary
Motivation us a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior. There are four perspectives to explain behavior, instinct (evolutionary), drive-reduction, arousal, and hierarchy of motives. Instincts are complex behaviors that have fixed patterns throughout different species and are unlearned. Maslows pyramids shows human needs with the most basic physiological ones at the base and self-transcendence at the top. Hunger and what we hunger for are influenced by multiple factors. Eating disorders and obesity are also contributed to differing factors. Nothing only has one factor, its all fine. Sexual motivation is natures clever way of making sure our race survives. Masters and Johnson described the sexual response cycle in four stages, excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. Teens of higher intelligence are more likely to delay sex. Humans feel the need to belong. K thats my summary :)