Part-A 1. What are the responsibilities of data link layer?

Framing Physical Addersing Flow control Error control Access control 2. Define Routing? Draw the structure for routing Table? It is the process of routing a packet from source to the destination host in another network.Each and every host of the router maintains routing table.Routing decisions are based upon the routing table entries. Mask Network Next-hop Interface Flags Reference Use address address count 3. Draw the IP V6 datagram? 40 bytes Up to 65,535 bytes Base Header Payload Extension headers layer(optional) Data packet from upper

4. Define proxy ARP A technique called proxy ARP is used to create subnetting effect.A proxy ARP is an ARP that acts on behalf of a set of hosts.Whenever a router receives an ARP request looking for IP address of one of the hosts ,the router sends an ARP reply announcing its own hardware addressAfter the router receives the actual IP packet,it sends the packet to the appropriate host or the router. 5. List out the factors that affect the network performance? Two Factors: a) Delay b) Throughput Delay versus load: Delay : Time taken to reach destination from source. Load is low then delay is less. Load is high then delay is high . (waiting in queue) Throughput Versus load : Throughput : number of packets passing through network per unit time. Load is low then throughput high. Load is high then throughput is less 6. Compare ARP & RARP? ARP and RARP are dynamic routing protocols ARP-Address Resolution Protocol is used for mapping logical address to a physical address.RARP-Reverse Address Resolution Protocol is used for mapping physical address to a logical address.

7. Define MTU MTU-Maximum Transfer unit.Each data link layer protocol has its ownframe format in most o its protocols.one of the fields defined in the format is the maximum size of the data field.when the datagram is encpsulated in a frame the total size must be less than the this maximum size. 8. Define dynamic mapping Each time a machine knows one of the two address(logical or physical then it uses a protocol to find the other address.The protocols may be ARP-for mapping logical address to physical address,and RARP- for mapping physical address to a logical address. 9. Compare Subnetting & Supernetting? Subnetting is aprocess of dividing a network into several other smaller networks with each subnetwork having its own subnet address.It forms three level hierarchy in the IP address.The routing of an IP datagram now involes three steps :delivery to the site,delivery to the subnetwork,and delivery to the host. 10. Compare Strict source route and loose source route? It is a predetermined route used by the source for the datagram to travel.if a datagram specifies a strict source route, all routers defined in the option must be visited atleast once by the datagram.if any other router is visited that is not in the table then the datagram is discarded. It has a route predetermined in which sender can choose the path.Each router in the datagram must be visited but the datagram can also visit other routers.It is more relaxed than the strict source. 11. Define ICANN? List out the types of port numbers? Internet Corporation for Assigned Names & Numbers Well Known - - - Assigned ,Controlled and Registered by ICANN Registered - - - Not Assigned & Controlled by ICANN. It prevents Duplication Dynamic - - - - - Ephemeral Port Numbers. Not Controlled by ICANN 12. What are the services of SCTP? Process to process communication Multiple streams Multihoming Full-duplex Communication Connection oriented service Reliable service 13. What are the steps in association? A connection in SCTP is called as an association. ASSOCIATION ESTABLISHMENT : There are four steps to be followed in establishing a connection. Hence it is called as an fourway handshake. STEP 1 : The client sends a first packet which contains an INIT chunk. no verification tag. STEP 2 : The server sends the packet, which contains an INIT ACK chunk. STEP 3 : The client sends the third packet, which includes a COOKIE ECHO chunk. STEP 4 : The server sends the fourth packet, which includes the COOKIE ACK chunk that acknowledges the receipt of the COOKIE ECHO

14. What is ephemeral port number? The client program defines itself with a port number,called the ephemeral port number.The word Ephemeral means short lived and is used because the life of a client is normally short.An ephemeral port number is recommended to be greater than 1023. 15. List out the types of closed loop congestion control ? Back pressure. Choke point. Implicit signaling. Explicit signaling. 16. Define Half close condition? In TCP,one end can stop sending data while still receiving data.This is called Half close.It is normally initiated by the client.The client half closes the connection by sending a FIN segment.The server accepts the half-close by sending the ACK segment.The data transfers from the client to the server stops.The server,however , can still send data. When the server has sent all the processed data, it sends a FIN segment , which is acknowledged by an ACK from the client. 17. What is called as SYN Flooding Attack & Denial of service attack? SYN Flooding Attack :The connection establishment procedure in TCP is susceptible to a serious security problem called SYN Flooding Attack.This happens when a malicious attacker sends a large number of SYN segments to a server pretending that each of them is coming from a different client by faking the source IP addresses in the datagrams.The Server,assuming that the clients are issuing an active open,allocates the necessary resources to tha fake clients.Hence lot of resources are occupied without being used. Denial of service attack: Due to the SYN Flooding attack,lots of resources are allocated to the fake clients by the server.Due to this,the server eventually runs out of resources and may crash.This SYN Flooding attack belongs to a group of security attacks known as a Denial of Service attack.Here the attacker monopolizes a system with so many service requests that the system collapses and denies service to every request. 18. Compare SCTP & TCP? Sn TCP SCTP o 1. It is a Byte oriented protocol It is a message oriented protocol 2. It provides Stream delivery service It provides Multi Homing Service 3. Features includes Sequence Features includes Transmission Sequence number,Acknowledgement number,Stream Identifier and Stream number,Flow contrl,error control and Sequence Number Congestion control 19. What does Pushing Data means in a TCP? Delayed Transmission and delayed delivery of data may not be acceptable by the application program.In this situation the application program at the sending site can request a PUSH operation.This means that the sending TCP must not wait for the window to be filled.The sending TCP must also set the push bit (PSH)to let the receiving TCP

know that segment includes data to be delivered to the receiving application program and not to wait for more data to come. 20. How does process to process communication take place in TCP? TCP provides Process to process communication using port numbers.Some well known port numbers used by TCP are given below PORT PROTOCOL DESCRIPTION 7 9 23 25 53 Echo Discrad TELNET SMTP DNS Echoes a received datagram back to sender Discards any datagram that is received Terminal Network Simple Mail Transfer Protocol Domain Name Server

21. Define Nagle Algorithm? This algorithm says that a TCP connection can have only one outstanding small segment that has not yet been acknowledged. No additional small segments can be sent until the acknowledgment is received. Instead, small amounts of data are collected by TCP and sent in a single segment when the acknowledgment arrives. The beauty of this algorithm is that it is self-clocking: the faster the ACKs come back, the faster the data is sent. But on a slow WAN, where it is desired to reduce the number of tinygrams, fewer segments are sent. 22. What is called as Timer Backoff strategy? timer backoff strategy. The backoff technique computes an initial timeout using a formula like the one shown above. However, if the timer expires and causes a retransmission, TCP increases the timeout. In fact, each time it must retransmit a segment, TCP increases the timeout. Implementations use a variety of techniques to compute backoff. Most choose a multiplicative factor, y, and set the new value to: new-timeout = y * timeout Typically, y is 2. 23. Give the description of the control field flags FLAG DESCRIPTION URG ACK PSH RST SYN FIN The value of the urgent pointer field is valid The value of the acknowledgement field is valid Push the data The connection must be reset Synchronize sequence numbers during connection Terminate the connection

24. What is Bandwidth-Delay Product We can calculate the capacity of the pipe as capacity (bits) = bandwidth (bits/sec) x round-trip time (sec) This is normally called the bandwidth-delay product. Either the bandwidth of the delay can affect the capacity of the pipe between the sender and receiver. 25. Define Congestion Window Limit? Write the formula for window size? To control congestion TCP maintains a second limit, called the congestion window limit or congestion window, that it uses to restrict data flow to less than the receiver's buffer size when congestion occurs. That is, at any time, TCP acts as if the window size is: Allowed-window = min ( receiver-advertisement, congestion-window ) Formula for window size: Allowed-window = min ( receiver-advertisement, congestion-window ) 26. Define Keep alive Time, Keep alive Interval? Keepalive time is the duration between two keepalive transmissions in idle condition. TCP keepalive period is required to be configurable and by default is set to no less than 2 hours. Keepalive interval is the duration between two successive keepalive retransmissions, if acknowledgement to the previous keepalive transmission is not received. 27. Write a short note on Urgent Mode TCP provides what it calls urgent mode, allowing one end to tell the other end that urgent data of some form has been placed into the normal stream of data. The other end is notified that this urgent data has been placed into the data stream, and its up to the receiving end to decide what to do. The notification from one end to the other that urgent data exists in the data stream is done by setting two fields in the TCP header. The URG bit is turned on and the 16-bit urgent pointer is set to a positive offset that must be added to the sequence number field in the TCP header to obtain the sequence number of the last byte of urgent data. 28. Explain the Packet and byte count basis by which data is transmitted On a packet-count basis about half of all TCP segments contain bulk data (FTP, electronic mail, Usenet news) and the other half contain interactive data (Telnet and Rlogin, for example). On a byte-count basis the ratio is around 90% bulk data and 10% interactive, since bulk data segments tend to be full sized (normally 512 bytes of user data), while interactive data tends to be much smaller. (The above-mentioned study found that 90% of Telnet and Rlogin packets carry less than 10 bytes of user data.) 29. What is meant by timeout? If an acknowledgment, carrier, logon, etc., has not occurred in a specified amount of time, the timeout ends the waiting loop so that the request can be retransmitted or the process terminated. Timeouts are common in communications applications in order to free up a line or port that is tied up with a request that has not been answered in a reasonable amount of time. 30. Define multipliccativve decrease?

Multiplicative Decrease Congestion Avoidance: Upon loss of a segment, reduce the congestion window by hay (down to a minimum of atleast one segment). For those segments that remain in the allowed window, backoff the retransmission timer exponentially. 31. Define Random early discard operations? The general operation of RED can be described by three rules that determine the disposition of each arriving datagram:If the queue currently contains fewer than Tmin datagrams, add the new datagram to the queue.If the queue contains more than Tdatagrams, discard the new datagram. If the queue contains between Tmin and T- datagrams, randomly discard the datagram according to a probability, p. 32. What is called as Fast Retransmit? TCP may generate an immediate acknowledgment (a duplicate ACK) when an out- of-order segment is received. This duplicate ACK should not be delayed. The purpose of this duplicate ACK is to let the other end know that a segment was received out of order, and to tell it what sequence number is expected.Since TCP does not know whether a duplicate ACK is caused by a lost segment or just a reordering of segments, it waits for a small number of duplicate ACKs to be received. It is assumed that if there is just a reordering of the segments, there will be only one or two duplicate ACKs before the reordered segment is processed, which will then generate a new ACK. 33. List out the Keep alive timer parameters? There are three parameters related to keepalive, namely time, interval and retry. Keepalive time is the duration between two keepalive transmissions in idle condition. TCP keepalive period is required to be configurable and by default is set to no less than 2 hours. Keepalive interval is the duration between two successive keepalive retransmissions, if acknowledgement to the previous keepalive transmission is not received. Keepalive retry is the number of retransmissions to be carried out before declaring that remote end is not available. 34. Define Sequence Space Comparison? Give an example? TCP uses integer subtraction to compare two sequence values because it can assume they never differ by more than one-half of the sequence space.that is if a and b are two sequence numbers that differ by no more than one-half the largest possible integer value, the following is true: Result of a-b relationship in sequence space 0 + a precedes b a equals b a follows b

35. Define TCB. TCP co-ordinates the activities of transmission, reception, and retransmission for each TCP connection through a data structure known as TCB or Transmission Control Block. This TCB is shared by all processes and each TCP maintains one TCB for each of its active connection. 36. Give the TCP segment Format implementation.

typedef long tcpseq; /*tcp packet format*/ struct tcp{ unsigned short tcp_sport; unsigned short tcp_dport; unsigned char tcp_offset; tcpseq tcp_seq; tcpseq tcp_ack; unsigned char tcp_code; unsigned short tcp_window; unsigned short tcp_cksum; unsigned short tcp_urgptr; unsigned short tcp_data[1]; }; 37. Name the types involved in implementing TCP Finite State Machine. The two basic implementation of TCP finite State Machine are as follows: Table-Driven approach Procedure Driven approach 38. What is the function of tcpcksum? TCP computes a checksum of a pseudoheader that includes the source and destination IP addresses, segment length, and protocol type value used by IP. It then treats the segment as an array of 16-bit values and adds each of them to the checksum. Finally, tcpcksum handles overflow and returns the complement of the checksum to the caller. 39. Define FSM? List out the states that present in the FSM? The finite state machine specifies how TCP makes macroscopic state transitions in response to input or user commands. The implementation of finite state machine contains separate mechanisms that make microscopic state transitions to control output and retransmission. CLOSED LISTEN SYN RECVD SYN SENT ESTABLISHED CLOSE WAIT LAST ACK FIN WAIT-1 CLOSING FIN-WAIT-2 TIME WAIT 40. Define Output Processing? List out the messages in the Output process? SEND send data and/or ACK PERSIST send probe to test receivers zero window RETRANSMIT retransmit data segment DELETE delete a TCB that has expired

41. Draw the sequence space maintained by TCP for sending a segment. Available to send
Already acknowledge d Sent, but not acknowledg ed Not yet sent Not yet generat ed

Suna snext suna+sbcount 42. Write the code to choose an Initial Sequence Number. An initial starting sequence is generated by using the current time-of-day clock. #include<conf.h> #include<kernel.h> #include<network.h> # define TCPINCR 904 int tcpiss(void) { static int seq=0; extern long clktime; if (seq==0) seq=clktime; seq+=TCPINCR; return seq; } 43. what are the two basic designs that TCP timer management s/w can follow? The two basic designs are: Items on the timer delta list can store commands that the timer process interpretswhen the event occurs. Items on the list can store messages that the timer process delivers when the event occurs. 44. what is silly window syndrome? Silly window syndrome is characterized as a situation in which the receivers window oscillates between zero and a small positive value,while the sender transmits small segments to fill the window as soon as it opens. 45. What are the five principles in which TCP adaptive transmission must be tuned? Retransmission timer and backoff Window based flow control Maximum segment size computation Congestion avoidance and control Round trip estimation 46. What are the three pieces of information that software needs to implement Karns Algorithm? It needs to store a value for retransmission timeout,which it computes from the current round trip estimate. It needs to store an indication of whether TCP has begum retransmitting. It needs to store a count of retransmissions. 47. Why buffering is important in TCP ?

Buffering is important because it makes TCP more efficient It lowers network overhead. It increases data transmission delays. 48.How the TCP Data length can be computed? For normal case, if the length is needed for retransmission of a segment or for the first segment in a stream, it starts the offset at zero, and sets the data length equal to the count of octets in the output buffer. For other cases, it computes the offset of the first unsent byte of data, and computes the length of data to be sent by finding the difference between that sequence and the highest sequence of octets in the sending buffer. 49. Give the general structure for Timed Events? Give an example? 50. What does TCP needs to provide data mark interpretation? TCP only needs to remember a location in the sequence space for which an urgent pointer has been received.It does not need to divide the data into two streams,nor does it need to record the position ofholes that remain after urgent data has been consumed. 51. Brief on Retransmission Timer and Backoff? TCP uses a cumulative ack scheme in which each ack carries a sequence number.The sequence number specifies how many contiguous octets from the data stream the remote site has received correctly.Because ack do not specify individual segments and because ack can be lost. 52. Brief about Urgent Data? Sender sets the Urgent data bit in the code field of the segment header,places the urgent data in the segment and assigns the urgent data pointer field an offset in the data area of the segment at which the urgent data ends. When a segment carrying urgent data arrives,the receiver must notify the receiving application immediately;it cannot delay to wait for the application to process normal data that may be waiting. Tcp places theapplication in urgent mode which informs the application that urgent data exists.After receiving the application is read until it reaches the end of urgent data . 53. what is formula for increasing congestion window,number of segments that fit in the congestion window and how TCP increments? Increase = segment/window Segments per window=congestion window/max segment size Tcp increment =(MSS*MSS)/congestion window 54. Define Karns Algorithm? Karns Algorithm is an algorithm used to control the retransmission timer value. Karns Algorithm specifies that TCP should ignore round trip measurements for all retransmitted segments.Once retransmission begin, Karns Algorithm separates the computation of retransmission timeouts from the previous estimate ofround trip delay,doubling the timeout for each transmission. 55. Define Round Trip Estimation & Timeout? Timeout:If an acknowledgment, carrier, logon, etc., has not occurred in a specified amount of time, the timeout ends the waiting loop so that the request can be

retransmitted or the process terminated. Timeouts are common in communications applications in order to free up a line or port that is tied up with a request that has not been answered in a reasonable amount of time. 56. What is congestion collapse? When congestion occurs,delay increase,causing TCP to retransmit segments.In the worst case,retransmission increase congestion and produce an effect known as congestion collapse. 57. what does the software that calls tcpkilltimers does and what tmleft does? Software that calls tcpkilltimers uses a pointer to refer to a TCB instead of the array index. Tmleft is used to determine time remaining it sums the relative times in all events up to and including the time on the specified event.