IndianMaritimeHistory PointsextractedfromthepresentationsmadebyMr.Narasiah FROMPREHISTORYTIMETOPRESENT EARLIESTREFERENCES RigVedasays,Takeusacrosstheseasforourbenefit. Tolkappiyam,oldestwrittenworkinIndia,(inTamillanguage)says,Bothbylandandseawecan leave Marinearchaeologistshavefoundtheremainsofadocksystembelongingto2300BCatLothal inGujarat(WestCoastofIndia). SimilarlythereexistedportsintheCoromandalcoast(EastCoastofIndia).

OTHERREFERRENCES AtharvanaVedasays,thattheboatswhichrodethewaveswerebroadinbeam,spacious, comfortable,resplendent,withstrongruddersandfaultlessconstruction ReferencesareavailableinPaliliterature. BiblementionsaboutSolomonsshipsgettingmaterialfromIndia. Thefourcenturies200BCto200ADwerethebestofIndianMaritimepractices.

MAGESTHANESMENTIONS ThefirstclearmentionofseaandNavyoccursintheMahabaratha. Historically,however,thefirstattestedattempttoorganizeanavyinIndia,isdescribedby Megasthanes(350BCE290BCE). ThisisattributedtoChandragupta(322BCE298BCE). IntheMauryanEmpire(322BCE185BCE)navycontinuedtillthetimesofemperorAsoka (273BCE32BCE),whousedittosenddiplomaticmissionstoGreece,Syria,Egypt,etc.,

DWARAKAFINDS SRRao,agreatmarinearchaeologistofIndiahasfoundtheremainsofDwarakaunderthesea. ItcanbeseenagreatcivilizationsexistedlongbeforeWesternersknewsearoutesandtrade.

EARLYHISTORY

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Indianmaritimehistorybeginsduringthe3RDmillenniumBCwheninhabitantsoftheIndus valley,initiatedmaritimetradingcontactwithMesopotamia. DuringthetimeofAugustusupto120shipsweresettingsaileveryyeartoIndia. AstradebetweenIndiaandtheWestincreased,spicesbecamethemainimportfromIndia. IndianswerepresentinAlexandriaandtheforeigntraderscontinuedtoliveinIndialongafter thefalloftheRomanEmpire. TheIndiancommercialconnectionwithSouthEastAsiaprovedvitaltothemerchantsofArabia andPersiaduringthe7th8thcentury.

EARLYTRADETHROUGHSEA TextilesofIndiawereindemandinEgyptandtheMediterraneanbetweenthe1st2ndcenturies TheseregionsbecameoverseasmarketsforIndianexports. InJavaandBorneo,theintroductionofIndianculturecreatedademandforaromatics. ThesetradingoutpostslaterservedtheChineseandArabmarketsaswell. ProductswereshippedacrosstheportsofArabiatotheNearEastthroughtheportsofIndia. TheCholas(2001279)wereatthepeakofseapowerduringthemedievalperiod. EmperorsRajarajaChola(9851014)andRajendraChola(10121044)extendedtheChola kingdombeyondIndianShores TheIndiancommercialconnectionwithSouthEastAsiaprovedvitaltothemerchantsofArabia andPersiabetween78century

CONNECTIONWITHTHEEAST ActivecommercewiththeEastwaspresentintheearlycenturiesofcommonera. FaHien(401410)mentionsDakshina,andhissailingfromTamaraliptitoCeyloninalarge vessel. ITsing(673)alsomentionsabouttheentirecoastline. AdventurersfromSaurashtracolonisedJavainsixthcentury. MarcopolohasleftcompletedescriptionofIndianShips.

CHOLAS

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TheCholadynasty(2001279)wasatthepeakofitsinfluenceandpowerduringthemedieval period. EmperorsRajarajaChola,(9851014)andRajendraChola(10121044)extendedtheChola kingdomtowardstheeast. TheempirestretchedfromSrilankatotheGodavaribasininthenorth. ThekingdomsalongtheeastcoastofIndiauptotheriverGangesacknowledgedChola suzerainty. CholanaviesinvadedandconqueredSrivijaya(7th13thcentury)intheMalayArchipelago.

SPREADOFCOMMERCEINCHOLATIME TheCholasexcelledinforeigntradeandmaritimeactivity. TheyextendedtheirinfluencetoChinaandSoutheastAsia. Towardstheendofthe9thcentury,Cholashaddevelopedextensivemaritimeandcommercial activity. TheCholas,beinginpossessionofpartsofboththewestandtheeastcoastsofpeninsularIndia, wereattheforefrontoftheseventures. TheTangDynasty(618907)ofChina,theSrivijayaempireintheMalayanarchipelagounder theSailendras,andBaghdadwerethemaintradingpartners.

PANDYASTOOEXCELLED! DuringthereignofParantakaNedumjadaiyan(765790),theCheraswereallyofthePallavas. PallavamallaNandivarmandefeatedthePandyaVaragunawiththehelpofaCheraking. CulturalcontactsbetweenthePallavacourtandtheCheracountrywerecommon. IndianspiceexportsfindmentionintheworksofIbnKhurdadhbeh(850),alGhafiqi(1150), IshakbinImaran(907)andAlKalkashandi(14thcentury) ChinesetravelerHsuanTsangmentionstownsofEastCoastofIndia.

PROOFOFTRADEWITHROME ThattheWesthadgreattradewithSouthIndiaisprovedbythefactthatRomancoinsarefound inmanyplaces.

54THPARAGRAPHPERIPLUS

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54.TyndisisoftheKingdomofCerobothra;itisavillageinplainsightbythesea.Muziris,ofthe samekingdom,aboundsinshipssenttherewithcargoesfromArabia,andbytheGreeks;itis located on a river, distant from Tyndis by river and sea five hundred stadia, and up the river from the shore twenty stadia. Nelcynda is distant from Muziris by river and sea about five hundredstadia,andisofanotherKingdom,thePandian.Thisplacealsoissituatedonariver, aboutonehundredandtwentystadiafromthesea.

CEROBOTHRA CerobothrasaretheCheraKingsmentionedinSangampoetryandthenamesmentionedare: NedumCheralathan PalyaneChelKezhuKuttuvan KalankaiKanniNarmudiCheran ChenkuttuvanCheran(KadalPirakottiyaVelKezhuKuttuvan) AttuKottuPattuCheralathan ChelvaKadunkoAzhiAthan ThakadurErinthaPerumCheralIrumporai KudakoIlamCheralIrumporai.

55thPARAGRAPHPERIPLUS 55.Thereisanotherplaceatthemouthofthisriver,thevillageofBacare,towhichshipsdrop downontheoutwardvoyagefromNelcynda,andanchorintheroadsteadtotakeontheir cargoes;becausetheriverisfullofshoalsandthechannelsarenotclear.Thekingsofboth thesemarkettownsliveintheinterior.Andasasigntothoseapproachingtheseplacesfrom theseathereareserpentscomingforthtomeetyou,blackincolor,butshorter,likesnakesin thehead,andwithbloodredeyes

56THPARAGRAPHPERIPLUS 56.Theysendlargeshipstothesemarkettownsonaccountofthegreatquantityandbulkof pepperandmalabathrum. Thereareimportedhere,inthefirstplace,agreatquantityofcoin;topaz,thinclothing,not much;figuredlinens,antimony,coral,crudeglass,copper,tin,lead;wine,notmuch,butas muchasatBarygaza;realgarandorpiment;andwheatenoughforthesailors,forthisisnot dealtinbythemerchantsthere.Thereisexportedpepper,whichisproducedinquantityinonly oneregionnearthesemarkets,adistrictcalledCottonara.

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Besidesthisthereareexportedgreatquantitiesoffinepearls,ivory,silkcloth,spikenardfrom theGanges,malabathrumfromtheplacesintheinterior,transparentstonesof'allkinds, diamondsandsapphires,andtortoiseshell;thatfromChryseIsland,andthattakenamongthe islandsalongthecoastofDamirica. TheymakethevoyagetothisplaceinafavorableseasonwhosetoutfromEgyptaboutthe monthofJuly,thatisEpiphi.

59THPARAGRAPHPERIPLUS 59.FromComaritowardthesouththisregionextendstoColchi,wherethepearlfisheriesare; (theyareworkedbycondemnedcriminals);anditbelongstothePandianKingdom.Beyond ColchitherefollowsanotherdistrictcalledtheCoastCountry,whichliesonabay,andhasa regioninlandcalledArgaru.Atthisplace,andnowhereelse,areboughtthepearlsgatheredon thecoastthereabouts;andfromthereareexportedmuslins,thosecalledArgaritic.

PLINYTHEELDER PlinytheElderrecordsthatofMuziris,thus: "Ifthewind,calledHippalus,happenstobeblowing,itispossibletoarriveinfortydaysatthe nearestmarketofIndia,calledMuziris. Theroadsteadforshippingisaconsiderabledistancefromtheshore,andthecargoeshaveto beconveyedinboats,eitherforloadingordischarging,whichfactisconfirmedbySangam poetry.

THESTATEOFAFFAIRSINTHEEASTCOAST AtonetimewhenCheraswererulingTyndis(Ponnanai),Muziris(Cranganore)and Naura(Cannanore)weregreatports. TheyareallmentionedbothinthePeriplusandintheSangamLiterature. AftertheCherasruledisappearedsmallerfactionsstartedrulingtheKeralaCoastandtheywere internalquarrelswhichcausedweakness. Itwaseasyforanyforeignertocomeandestablishtradethen!

KERALAAFTER9THCENTURY SuchsmallstateswereruledbydifferentchieftainsandthebestofthemwasPERUMAL. PerumalswereCherasandtheyruledfrom9thto11thCentury. In1122theplacebecametwodistinctstatesErnaduandPolnadu. Awarthatlasted48yearscausedtheentireareatocomeunderUdaiyavarkal.

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TheyestablishedtheirheadquarteratVelapuramandbuiltaFortthere. TheKingthenwasSwamiNambiathriThirumulpat. ThisbecameSamudrilaterandwesternerscalledthesekingsasZamurins.

AFOREIGNTRAVELLERABDULRAZAK(1442)RECORDSINHISNOTICES Kozhicodeisasafeharbour. Fromallovertheworldtraderscomehereinshipsandexchangegoods. JusticeisproperlydeliveredherebythelocalKingandanyreligioncanbepracticed. Costlygoodsaretradedherewithoutanyfearoflossortheft. Kinggaveallprotectiontothetraders.

IMPORTOFHORSESFROMARABIA BishopRCaldwellquotesPoloassaying: Herearenohorsesbred;andthusagreatpartofthewealthofthecountryiswastedin purchasinghorses.ThemerchantsofKisandHormes,Dofar(YemenCoast)andSoerandAden collectagreatnumberofhorsesandthesetheybringtotheterritoriesofthekingandofhisfour brothers...

WHICHMEANS. Thatthesailingshipsfromabroadenteredtheharbourwithouthavingtolowertheirsails,and withoutlighteningtheirload! Eventodaywehaveharbourswheretheshipsspeedhastobereducedandloadlightened beforeentering. Inotherwordstheharbourswerewellmaintainedwhichitselfwasanincentiveforforeign ships.

FINALLYTHESCENEOFBIGSHIPSCOMINGINTOTHEPORTSANGAMSAYS

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, ... 7581

WHICHMEANS TheportisidentifiedbyPtolemyasSaalur;heretheshipsfromabroadcometearingthesea, withtheforceofthewindwithalltheimportantcargoandgold,drumsbeating Thusweseethatduringsangamperiod,theSouthIndiancoastwashavinggreattradeactivities withthewest,throughtheRedsea.

SCENARIOCHANGES TheIndianMaritimeeffortsslowlylostgroundduemainlyto,thevariouswarsbetweenKings andledtoforeignerstakingover. ThetimewasripefortheEuropeanstosailtowardstheEast. TheywerenotverygoodinnavigationandtookassistanceofArabsailors.

STATEOFAFFAIRSINEUROPEIN14THCENTURY Therewasgreateconomiccrisisandlossoflifeduetoblackdeath TherewerereligiousfightsbetweentheChristians. Peoplewerelookingforreliefbytradefromoutside. Itsetafoottheageofdiscovery.

EUROPEIN15THCENTURY TheAgeofdiscoverystartedwiththePortuguesenavigators. PrinceHenrytheNavigatorstartedamaritimeschoolinPortugal. ThisledtoPortugaldevelopingthemostadvancedshipsthatforthefirsttimeinhistorymade trulyglobalmaritimenavigationpossible. TheroutetoIndiaviatheAfricanCapewasdiscoveredintwophases.

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InitiallyBarthalomeoDiasarrivedintheIndianOceanviaAfricancape. TheSecondphasetookVascodaGamaaroundAfricaandontoIndiaandtheEast. ItwasthefirsttimeinhistorythathumanshadnavigatedfromEuropetoAsia. FerdinandMagellen,aPortuguesebythehelpofSpanishcrownwasthefirstmantosailaround theworld.

MARITIMEGATEWAYOFWESTERNCOAST Kozhicode(Calicut)becametheentryportfortheWesternersinIndia. PrinceHenrytheNavigatorofPortugal,wantedhissailorstoinvestigatetheEasterncountries especiallyIndia. Hisideawastwofold:tospreadChristianityandengageinseatrade. HisbrotherDomPedrohadspentmuchtimeatseaandhaddrawingsofMarcoPolo. From1416to1441,hehadsentshipstoAfricanCoast.

CHURCHINTERVENES TherewasbitterfightbetweenSpainandPortugueseregardingSEATRADE. TheysoughttheinterventionofPopewhosaidtheseabelongedonlytothesetwocountries anddecidebydrawingalineacrossEuropeanddeclaringthattheEastwasforPortugalandthe WestwasforSpain!

ASPANISHGALEON TheSpaniardshadalsodevelopedaformidableMarineforce Theirshipsfartoosuperiorandcouldsailacrosstheoceans

CHRISTOPHERCOLUMBUS ChristopherColumbussetsailintheSantaMariaonhistorysgreatestvoyageofdiscoveryon August3,1492. LeavingfromthetownofPalos,insouthernSpain,Columbusheadedwest. AfterabriefstopintheCanaryIslandsforprovisionsandrepairs,hesetoutforAsia. HereachedSanSalvadorfirst,inOctober,andthensailedpastCubastillsearchingforAsia. Hereturnedhomein1493toahero'swelcome,andwithinsixmonthshad1,500menand17 vesselsathiscommand!

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THEPAPALBULL ThePapalBullwasgivenon3rdMay,1493bySpanishPopeAlexander. TheseorderswereratifiedbysubsequentPopesin1506andin1514. ThusitwaslefttothePortuguesetoventureouttowardstheEast. ThosedaysArabsruledtheoceansandwereknowntobeexcellentsailors.

DUTCHWERECOMINGONTHESCENE SincetheDutchwerealsolookingfortradewiththeEast,Portugalcalleduponayoungsailor knownforhissailingskillstosailouttoEast. TheKingwasthenManuel,andhegavefourshipstoVascodaGama,theyoungsailorto proceed. Vascosetsailonthe8thJuly,1497andreachedtheIndiancoastonthe20thMay,1498. ThingswereneversameagainforIndians! Indiansfellbadlyinallcountsinspiteoftheirknowledgeandskillandbecamesubordinatesto Europeansinduecourse.

VASCODAGAMA OnordersofKingManualIofPortugal,fourvesselsunderthecommandofnavigatorVascoDa GamacameroundtheCapeofGoodHopetosailacrosstheIndianOceantoCalicut. ThewealthoftheEastwasnowopenfortheEuropeanstoexplore. ThePortuguesewasoneoftheearlyEuropeanempirestogrowfromspicetrade.

EASTINDIACOMPANY TheCompanywasgrantedanEnglishRoyalCharter,underthenameGovernorandCompanyof MerchantsofLondonTradingintotheEastIndies,byElizabethIon31December1600. AfterarivalEnglishcompanychallengeditsmonopolyinthelate17thcentury,thetwo companiesweremergedin1708toformtheUnitedCompanyofMerchantsofEnglandTrading totheEastIndies,commonlystyledtheHonourableEastIndiaCompany. TheCompanywascolloquiallyreferredtoasJohnCompany.

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COLONIALINDIA WHENBRITISHCOLONISEDCHANGESTAKEPLACETOTHEDETRIMENTOFINDIANSKILLSANDEFFORTS! INDIAUNDERFOREIGNRULE

East India Company Company rule in India British Raj British Rule in Burma Princely States Partition of India
AFTERTHE1857INDEPENDENCEEFFORT

16121757 17571857 18581947 18241867 17651947 1947

GovernmentofIndiaActcameintoforcein1858. ThiswasthedirecteffectofthefirstwarofIndependenceof1857. BritishIndiawasthereafterdirectlyruledbytheBritishCrownasacolonyoftheBritish. From1876itwasknownasEmpireofIndia. IndiaconsistedofregionsreferredtoasBritishIndiathatweredirectlyadministeredbythe British. ESTABLISHMENTSOFPRESIDENCIES MadrasPresidency:established1640. BombayPresidency:establishedin1687 Bengalpresidency:establishedin1690 EastIndiaCompany'sheadquartersmovedfromSurattoBombayin1687. TheBritishstartedextendingtheirtentaclesalloverthecountry,mostlybyfoulmeans. Page11of24

THEACTOF1858 TheCompany'sterritoriesinIndiawerevestedintheQueen. TheCompanyceasestobecontrollingthecolony. IndiawastobegovernedintheQueen'sname. TheCrownwasempoweredtoappointaGovernorGeneralandGovernorsoftheStates. CreationofanIndianCivilServiceunderthecontroloftheSecretaryofState. AllthepropertyoftheEastIndiaCompanywastransferredtotheCrown. TheCrownalsoassumedtheresponsibilitiesoftheCompanyastheyrelatedtotreaties, contracts,andsoforth. THEVICTIMSOFTHEACT AllindustrieswerecontrolledbytheBritish TextilebecamethemaintradewithrawcottongoingfromIndiaandclothsentfromtheUK. Systematicallyallimportantindustriesweretakenoverandfullcontroloftrade. AppointmentsmadetoinducewillingIndians shippingwasthebiggestsufferer SHIPPINGANDSHIPBUILDING Restrictivelegislationsslowlykilledtheshippingindustry. TheforerunnerwastheNavigationActof1646. In1650itbecametougher. OliverCromwellbroughtyetanotherrestrictionin1651:itprovidedthatnogoodsproducedin Asia,canbeimportedintoEnglandinanyshipthatwasnotbuiltinEnglandanddidnothaveat least75%ofEnglishsailors! CHANGINGSHIPS TheIndustrialrevolutionandmechanizationbroughtinlargechangesinindustry. SteamEnginesreplacedsails Nowtimberwasreplacedbyironinshipbuilding. SailorshadtolearnnewtechniqueswhichweredeniedtoIndians Page12of24

EVENSOINDIANSWERENOTBEHIND! In1819itselfIndianshadasteamshipsailingintheriverGomathi ItwasapleasureboatofKingofOudh. InHooghlyalsosteamferrieswereoperating. BombaydockyardbuiltthefrigateFIROZof1,450tonsfortheBritishNavy. SimilarlyBombayDocksbuiltseveralshipsfortheBritishNavy. BANNEDSKILLS! EvenduringCompanyregimeinCalcutta,Indianartificersandcarpenterswerebannedthey werenotallowedtotakeupanyshipbuildingorshiprepairingactivitybythemselves! Thiswasinpracticefrom1789itself! InotherwordstheEnglishstartedslowlybutsteadilykillingtheshippingIndustry! Firstitwasoncraftsmenthenontariff! TARIFFDISCRIMINATION 1811wasthefirstdiscriminatoryorderontariff. CalcuttapromulgatedseparateratesofimportdutiesongoodscarriedbyIndianandCompanys ships! Theratewas7.5%forthecompanyvesselsand15%fornonBritishships. Madrasfollowedthisin1812andBombayin1813. OriginallyallnonBritishshipssufferedbutbyprotestFrenchandtheDutchwereexempted. THE1814ACT AsBritishshipbuildersandtraderswantedprotectionandwereworriedthatIndiansmay becomecontenders,theysoughtandgotthisactpassed Accordingtothis,eventhoughIndiansailorsareBritishsubjects,theyshallnotbedeemedas BritishMariners! ShipsnothavinganEnglishcaptainand/or allowedtoenterEnglishPorts! Page13of24

75%ofitscrewasBritishmarinersshallnotbe

SIRWILLIAMDIGBY Digbywasajournalist. HeworkedinCeylonandIndia. InMay1888hesetuptheIndianPoliticalandGeneralAgencyinLondonforraisingawareness aboutIndiangrievancesintheBritishParliamentandPress. HebecameastrongadvocateofconstitutionalreformandactedasanunofficialguidetoINC leadersvisitingLondon. HeusedhispoliticalcontactstoraiseIndia'sgrievancesintheBritishPublicsphere. SIRWILLIAMDIGBYWROTE(1901) Theancientoccupationsonseaandlandhavebeendestroyed. TheshipswhichnowcarryIndiascoastwisetradearesteamersbuiltinBritain,theofficersare Britons,theprofitsderivablefromtradegotoBritain. WeareliterallydrainingIndiadrybleedingwasthetermusedbyLordSalisburyin1875 Itismoreaccuratethanmyown. ADDINGINSULTTOINJURY! Theparliamentarycommitteewhilerecommendingtherestrictivemeasuressaid: ThenativesailorsofIndiatothedisgraceofournationalmorals,ontheirarrivalhere,areled intosceneswhichsoondivestthemoftherespectandawetheyhadentertainedinIndiaforthe Britishcharacter ..Theeffectsofitmayproveextremelydetrimental 1857to189899

Ships owned In d ia n British In d ia n British

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Vessels 3 4 ,2 8 6 5 9 ,4 4 1 2 ,3 0 2 6 ,2 1 9

Tons 1,219,958 2,475,472 133,033 7,685,009

18991900 Thefiguresbecamehorrible! 1,676vesselsandtonnage109,813 ActuallyopeningoftheSuezcanalin1869shouldhaveimprovedIndianShipping. Onthecontrary,itdepleted. TheB.I.andP&Olinesbenefittedbythesupportfromtherulers. LordInchcapewasthecauseforallthis. ***

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GEOGRAPHYASABASEFORHISTORY GEOGRAPHYISSPACERELATED&HISTORYISTIMERELATED GEOGRAPHICALBACKGROUND GEOGRAPHYWASTHEBASEFROMWHEREHISTORYSTARTED Historyandgeographyarecooperativedisciplines. Theaimisforstudentstohaveasynthesizedtimerelatedandspacerelatedawarenessastheir knowledgebase. Withbasicknowledgeofgeography,thestudentswillbeabletoaccuratelyinterpretthe historicalevolution. EARLYCIVILISATIONS

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EARLYHISTORYTIMELINE

SUMERIANEMPIRE RuinsofBabylon(Baghdad,Iraq). Theirdynastystartedbyabout2900BC,andlastedfor650years. INDUSVALLEYCIVILISATION AFERTILEAREA

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THEFOURANCIENTCIVILISATIONS TheFOURMAJORancientcivilisationsoftheoldworldare: Sumerian3500BCE Egyptian3000BCE IndusValley2500BCE Chinese2200BCE CIVILISATIONBASE ThusweseeallearlycivilizationswerebasedontheSUITABLEgeographicallocations. Thepeoplechoseriverbanksastheirmainpalceofliving. Theearlypeoplelivedbyhuntingandslowlytheybecameagriculturists. Manswealthwasknownbythecattlehepossessed. Landwasthenextacquisition. SEAROUTES In275BC,PtolemyII(285BC246BC),KingofEgypt,foundedashippingportontheRedSea coastandnameditafterhismother,BerenikeI. ThegeographicpositionofBerenikewaseminentlysuitablesinceitwasanaturalharbour, protectedagainsttheprevailingnorthernwindsbyalargepeninsula. Furthermore,thedangerousshippingrouteovertheRedSea,withitstreacherouscoralreefs anditspiratesoperatingfromtheArabianpeninsulamadeitdesirabletohaveasafelanding placeasfartothesouthaspossible. FromBereniketherewereoverlandroutesthroughtheEasterndeserttotheNilevalley, protectedbywaystations(hydreumata). BERENIKEDEVELOPS IntheRomanperiod,Berenikedevelopedintoatradeemporium. Spices,pearlsandtextileswereshippedviaBereniketoAlexandriaandRome. Thenatureofthistradewasmoreorlessknownfromtextualevidence,especiallyfromtheso calledPeriplusoftheErythraeanSeawhichliststheharboursalongtheRedSea. Page18of24

LOCATIONOFBERENIKE

TRADEFROMINDIA AstoryrelatingtoStrabo(STRABOANDGEOGRAPHY)saysthatanIndiansailorwasfoundon thebanksoftheNileandhehadnarratedaboutaseavoyage. FordevelopingthetradewithEast,inEgypttwoportsplayedimportantrole.Alexandriainthe NorthandBernikeintheEast. Separatedbyalandrouteofabout20daysthecargofounditswaytobothseasoftheeastand westthroughtheseports.Cargolikegold,wineusedtobetransportedtoIndianportsbysea fromthewesttoAlexandriaandfromtherebylandtoBernike. STRABOBORN64/63BCAD23 GreekgeographerandhistorianwhoseGEOGRAPHYistheonlyextantworkcoveringthewhole rangeofpeoplesandcountriesknowntobothGreeksandRomansduringthereignofAugustus (27BCAD14). Itsnumerousquotationsfromtechnicalliterature,providearemarkableaccountofthestateof Greekgeographicalscience,aswellasofthehistoryofthecountriesitsurveys.

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GreekgeographerStrabo Straboisfamousforhis17volumeworkGeographica,whichpresentedadescriptivehistoryof peopleandplacesfromdifferentregionsoftheworldknowntohisera. Itisanimportantsourceofinformationontheancientworld. WithinthebooksofGeographicaisamapofEurope THEMONSOONWINDS Hippaluswasprobablythefirst(inthewest)torecognizethenorthsouthdirectionofIndia's westcoastandoftheregularityofthemonsoonwinds. BeforeHippalus'discoveryofregulartradewinds,GreekgeographersthoughtthattheIndian coaststretchedfromwesttoeast. TheuseofHippalus'directroutegreatlycontributedtotheprosperityofTradecontacts betweentheRomansandSouthIndians. FromRedSeaportslikeBerenike,largeshipscrossedtheIndianOceantotheTamilkingdoms. PERIPLUSOFTHEERYTHRAEANSEA ThePeriplusoftheErythraeanSea(PeriplusMarisErythraei)isaGreekPeriplus. ItdescribesthenavigationandtradingopportunitiesfromRomanEgyptianPortsalongthecoast ofredseaandthecoastsofAfricaandIndia. Amid1stcenturydateisnowthemostcommonlyaccepteddateofthewriting. Thoughtheauthorisunknown,itisclearlyafirsthanddescriptionbysomeonefamiliarwiththe areaprovidingaccurateinsightsintowhattheancientworldknewaboutthelandsaroundthe IndianOcean. PERIPLUSOFTHEERYTHRAEANSEA(1stPara) 1.OfthedesignatedportsontheErythraeanSea,andthemarkettownsaroundit,thefirstisthe EgyptianportofMusselHarbor.Tothosesailingdownfromthatplace,ontherighthand,aftereighteen hundredstadia,thereisBerenice.TheharborsofbothareattheboundaryofEgypt,andarebays openingfromtheErythraeanSea. PERIPLUSOFTHEERYTHRAEANSEA(59thPara) 59.FromComaritowardthesouththisregionextendstoColchi,wherethepearlfisheriesare; (theyareworkedbycondemnedcriminals);anditbelongstothePandianKingdom.Beyond ColchitherefollowsanotherdistrictcalledtheCoastCountry.

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 Atthisplace,andnowhereelse,areboughtthepearlsgatheredonthecoastthereabouts;and fromthereareexportedmuslins,thosecalledArgaritic. PERIPLUSOFTHEERYTHRAEANSEA(60thPara) 60.Amongthemarkettownsofthesecountries,andtheharborswheretheshipsputinfrom Damiricaandfromthenorth,themostimportantare,inorderastheylie,firstCamara,then Poduca,thenSopatma;inwhichthereareshipsofthecountrycoastingalongtheshoreasfaras Damirica;andotherverylargevesselsmadeofsinglelogsboundtogether,calledsangara;but thosewhichmakethevoyagetoChryseandtotheGangesarecalledcolandia,andarevery large.ThereareimportedintotheseplaceseverythingmadeinDamirica,andthegreatestpart ofwhatisbroughtatanytimefromEgyptcomeshere,togetherwithmostkindsofallthethings thatarebroughtfromDamirica THEMERCANTILEPERIOD Eleventhcenturywastheperiodofwarriors Thirteenthcenturybelongedtogreatmerchants ThediscoveryofgreatnumberofChineseceramicshredsof13thCent.AndlaterperiodinTN confirmsthis ThereareseveralinscriptionsfoundinSEAsiaandChina Theimportantfactisthelanguageusedinthoseinscriptions. TEXTOFANINSCRIPTION 1. harahswastisrisagaptam1203vatucittirai 2. Cittirainalsrice[kace]kantirumenikkunan 3. Rakaudaiyartiruk[ka]niccuramudaiyanayanarai 4. Eriyarulappanninarcampndapperumal 5. Anatavaccakravartikalce[ka]caikanparmanpadi CHENNAIMADRAS TodaysChennaiwascausedtobeherebecauseofgeographicalreasons! TheEnglishwerelookingforaplacetotradefrom,bysea. TheyknewthevalueofthecottonmaterialavailableinSouthIndia,especiallynorthMadras area.

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 Chintzwasaspecialitemforthem. TRADEANDMERCHANDISE TheEnglishandotherEuropeansbarteredIndiangoodslikeclothforspicesinSouthEastAsia, whichtheysoldinEurope. MasulipatnamChintzwasverypopular.Themadderandvegetabledyesusedwereunknownin theWest. ThesewereavailableonlynearMasulipatnam. Golcondadiamondswereanotherattraction.(Kohinoor,Pittsdiamondetc.,) IndianshadlosttheirshippingskillsandthatprovedtheadvantageoftheWest. CHINTZCOTTONMATERIAL Bylate1600theCoromandelCoastwasthesceneofrivalriesamongEuropeanpowersfor controloftheIndiatrade. TheEnglishestablishedthemselvesatFortStGeorge. TheDutchatPulicat TheFrenchatPuducherryandKaraikkal. TheDanishatTarangambadi COTTONMATERIALFROMINDIA Chintzwasoriginallyawoodblockprinted,paintedorstainedcalicoproducedinIndiabetween 1600to1800. ThismaterialwaspopularinEurope Theseearlyfabricswereextremelyexpensiveandrare. By1680morethanmillionpiecesofchintzwereimportedintoEngland. THEDYESUSED Themostcommoncolorsofred,black,blue,violet,green,andyellowwereobtainedfrom plantsandmineralsnativetoAndhraregion. Indigoplantsareprocessedandtradedintheformofdriedcakesthatareusedtocreate differentshadesofblue. Page22of24

GEOGRAPHYDECIDESLOCATION Madras/Chennaiasatownwasnonexistent. InnorthThiruvottiyurwasanancienttown InsouthitwasThiruvanmiyur. InbetweenMylaporewasknownfromthebeginningofCommonEra. ForeigntravelershavenoticedMylapore. EvidenceistheretoshowthatMylaporefunctionedasaport. CHOICEOFMADRAS Cooumwasariverflowingfromwesttoeast.Elumurriverwasflowingfromnorthtosouth. Adyarwasflowingfromwesttoeast. TheplacechosenbytheEnglishtobuildastoragearea,thatcametobeknownasFortwas whereElumurorNorthrivermettheCooum. ItwasnamedafterthepatronsaintofEngland(St.George). InCOROMANDELCOAST(EastCoastofIndia), SEATRADESTARTEDWITHMADRASASAROADSTEADPORT THERIVERS ElamboreriverflowedfromNorthparalleltothecoast,curvednearthepresentGeneral HospitalandmettheCooumriver. CooumthenknownasKomalewaramandTriplicaneriver,flowedfromtheWestandjoinedwith thisnorthernriverandemptiedintotheBayofBengal. ThenaturalmarshyareatherewascalledISLANDaportionNorthEastofitwasknownas Narimedu. MADRASBECAMEABUSYHARBOUR THETOWNDEVELOPS MadrasapatnamdevelopedasBlackandWhitetowns Thisbroughtintheneedtohaveservices Thegovernorsdevelopedthetowns.

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 LaterMadrasbecamethefirstCorporationinIndia Thatneededfullfledgedadministration. Theflagstaffisa150ft(tallestinIndia)teakwoodmastgotfromafounderedship(Loyal Adventure)erectedin1687,andtheflag(crossofSt.George)hoistedbyElihuYale. THEADMINISTRATION In1652,theFortwasmadeaPresidencyandtheAgentwasrenamedthePRESIDENT HehadthreehereditaryIndianofficialsAdhikari.KanakkuppillaiandPeddaNaik PeddaNaikwastheChiefwatchmanandhadTalayaristoassisthim FRENCHOCCUPYMADRAS TheFrenchcaptureofMadrasbyLabourdonnaisin1746isagreateventinthehistoryofthe City. TheFrenchwereinoccupationoftheCityforthreeyearstillAugust1749.Theyplannedto retainitpermanently.TheydemolishedtheIndianhousesofOldBlackTownwhichadjoinedthe northwalloftheFortandformedaglaciswiththedebris. On21stAugust1749MadraswasrestoredtotheBritishunderthetreatyofAixLaChapelle ***

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