12 Farmachildcare 111106152423 Phpapp02

Journal of Ethnopharmacology 121 (2009) 148170
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Ethnopharmacology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jethpharm
Bathe the baby to make it strong and healthy: Plant use and child care among Saramaccan Maroons in Suriname
Soe Ruysschaert a,b, , Tinde van Andel c , Kobeke Van de Putte b , Patrick Van Damme a
a
Laboratory of Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture and Ethnobotany, Ghent University, Coupure links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium Research Group Spermatophytes, Ghent University, K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35, 9000 Ghent, Belgium c National Herbarium of the Netherlands, Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 2, 3584 CS Utrecht, The Netherlands
b
a r t i c l e
i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Ethnopharmacological relevance: Young children are vulnerable to a range of illnesses and evil forces. Ethnobotanical folk remedies often play a major role in combating these afictions. Here we show that plant use is highly valued and practiced within the Saramaccan Maroon Society in Suriname to maintain the general health and well-being of children. Aim of the study: To assess the plant use importance in child care, we (1) quantied diversity and current status of herbal pharmacopoeia used in child care and (2) elucidated the reasons why care takers (mostly mothers) use these plants. Methodology: We collected botanical vouchers of plants used in child care, carried out an ethnobotanical household survey with 105 women and interviewed 19 key informants. Results: A total of 178 plant species were used in child care for different purposes. Preventive practices were preferred over curing remedies and plants were most frequently used to keep young children strong and healthy. Child care had a strong magical connotation. Bathing proved to be the most important type of application, often combined with drinking small amounts of the bath water. Conclusions: Plants play an important role in child care, but more research is needed on how Maroon plant use reects actual health problems in young children in the Surinamese interior. 2008 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
Article history: Received 21 March 2008 Received in revised form 13 October 2008 Accepted 18 October 2008 Available online 30 October 2008 Keywords: Suriname Saramaccan Maroon Child health Traditional medicine Herbal bath Ethnopharmacology
1. Introduction Child mortality around the world is important, as more than 10 million children in developing countries die before their fth birthday every year. Seven in 10 of these deaths are caused by acute respiratory infections, diarrhoea, measles, malaria, malnutrition or a combination of the above (WHO, 1997). Even though vaccine-preventable diseases are on the decline, the latter keep on exerting severe pressure (UNICEF, 2007). In many cultures, child care involves the use of folk remedies based on herbal products (e.g. De Zoysa et al., 1998; Heuveline and Goldman, 2000; Ellis et al., 2007). However, herbal remedies associated with child care are poorly documented in the literature, even if they could play an important role in health promotion, disease prevention and cure (McDade et al., 2007).
Corresponding author at: Laboratory of Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture and Ethnobotany, Ghent University, Coupure links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium. Tel.: +32 9 2646093; fax: +32 9 264 6241. E-mail address: Soe.Ruysschaert@UGent.be (S. Ruysschaert). 0378-8741/$ see front matter 2008 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2008.10.020
In Suriname, the health condition of children is a major preoccupation, as the country has a quite high infant mortality rate for the Caribbean region. Under ve mortality rate on national level was 39 deaths per 1000 live births in 2005, while infant mortality rate under one and neonatal mortality rate was 30 (2005) and 17 (2004), respectively (WHO, 2008). Many Surinamers still rely on medicinal plants and traditional knowledge to cure and/or prevent diseases, including those related to child health (Behari-Ramdas, 2005; van Andel et al., 2007, 2008). Hence, folk practices and herbal remedies used in child care in Suriname deserve increased attention. The aim of the present study is to document the current diversity and cultural importance of the herbal pharmacopoeia administered to young children in Saramaccan Maroon communities in Suriname. Maroons are descendants of enslaved Africans who escaped from coastal plantations into the interior forests in the 17th and 18th centuries. They still form semi-independent communities in several parts of the Americas, such as Suriname, French Guiana, Jamaica, Colombia and Brazil. Since the 1920s, Maroons have been an important focus of anthropological and ethnographic research, contributing to theoretical debates about the heritage of Africa in the Americas. The English word Maroon is derived from the Spanish cimarrn and originally referred to run-away cattle (Price,
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2002). The Surinamese Maroons now constitute the most fully documented case of how former slaves built new societies and cultures that persist until today (Price, 1976; Thoden van Velzen and van Wetering, 1988; Price, 2002). Nowadays six Maroon tribes with a total population of 72,553 (ABS, 2005) occur in Suriname: Saramaccan, Matawai, Aucan, Paramaccan, Boni and Kwinti. Many of these people still live in tribal societies, while others moved to the capital Paramaribo or abroad, mostly as a response to economic malaise in recent decades (Price, 1976; Hoop, 1991; St.-Hilaire, 2000). Until now, they largely maintained their African culture, which is reected in their religious practices (Thoden van Velzen and van Wetering, 1988; Stephen, 1998). Their animistic religion WINTI (meaning wind or spirit) has a clear common West-African ground and plays a key role in Surinamese Maroon culture (Stephen, 1998). The central issue in this Afro-Surinamese religion is the belief in spirits that inhabit complex supernatural societies and are able to interfere with peoples life. If these spirits are neglected or not provided with regular offerings, they can cause disease and misfortune (Stephen, 1998). Until 1980, it was forbidden to use medicinal plants, visit traditional healers or practice traditional religion, as this was seen as idolatry (Stephen, 1998). Hence, much traditional knowledge must have been lost. Various studies have tried to capture some of the Surinamese ethnobotanical knowledge, but they mainly lack upto-date scientic names and voucher collections (e.g. Sedoc, 1992; Heyde, 1995). Moreover, they hardly mentioned any Maroon plant use. Only recently, increased efforts have been made to document
traditional Maroon knowledge in Suriname (Behari-Ramdas, 2005; van Andel et al., 2007, 2008) and in French Guyana (Fleury, 1991; Grenand et al., 2004). The Saramaccans are one of the largest and oldest Maroon tribes in Suriname. Originally, they were living along the Suriname River basin in the districts of Brokopondo and Sipaliwini (Hoop, 1991). Ethnographic information on this culture is well represented in the literature, as this group has been extensively studied by Sally and Richard Price since the seventies (e.g. Price and Price, 1972; Price, 1993). Children are highly valued within the matrilineal system of the Saramaccan society (Price, 1993). Hence, their general health condition and well-being are of major importance. Here we will show how the Maroons concern for their children is strongly reected in their ethnobotanical practices. 2. Methodology Fieldwork was conducted in several stages. From September to October 2005, we carried out an explorative ethnobotanical survey in Brownsweg (Brokopondo district) (Fig. 1). We conducted semistructured interviews and eld trips to collect useful plant species with key informants, identied through community contacts as generally knowledgeable about plant use issues. Brownsweg is a Saramaccan community with approximately 4000 inhabitants (ca. 810 households), at 140 km from the capital city Paramaribo. There is one public health care centre, which was reconstructed, modernized and reopened in 1999 after the civil war (19861992).
Fig. 1. Map of Suriname and location of the study village Brownsweg (based on map from H. Rijpkema).
150
Fig. 2. Prevalence of most abundant illnesses of children under 5 years recorded in the public health care centre in Brownsweg (based on MZ, 2008).
methods of preparation, associated beliefs and use purposes. Medical equivalents of local disease concepts were obtained by matching descriptions given by the informants and primary health care workers. Folk names and culture bound illnesses are mentioned in small capitals, along with their local symptom specications. We classied these conditions with respect to their local perceptions, although they could have similar medical symptoms. Together with key informants, we collected vouchers of nearly all plant species mentioned to be used in child care. Duplicates of botanical vouchers were deposited at the National Herbarium of Suriname (BBS), the Ghent University Herbarium (GENT) and the Utrecht Branch of the National Herbarium of the Netherlands(U). All eldwork was conducted after explaining the nature and detailed purposes of the project to all participants and obtaining prior informed consent. 3. Results and discussion
Since 1993, a neonatal health programme was established in this village as part of a community and maternal health programme (ProHealth, 2005). The most abundant illnesses of children under 5 years recorded in the public health care centre in Brownsweg are respiratory infections, diarrhoea, dysentery and malaria (MZ, 2008). Fig. 2 shows the prevalence of these conditions in the period 20022007. Then, from August to October 2006, we carried out an ethnobotanical household survey in Brownsweg. For this survey, we randomly selected 105 households (13%) with at least one child. We chose particularly to interview mothers and grandmothers, because they play the most signicant role in child care within the household. Additionally to the household survey, we continued our semi-structured interviews and collection trips of 2005 in 2006 with other local plant specialists. Hence, a total of 19 key informants (8 men and 11 women) and 105 women (household survey) participated in this research. During the household survey, we used semi-structured standardized questionnaires. We showed the (grand)mothers the same set of photographs of 31 different plant species. This specic method was chosen, because photograph-based interviews are more time efcient when questioning a larger group of people on a selected number of plants (Thomas et al., 2007). Selection of these 31 species was based on the 2005 explorative ethnobotanical survey and executed according to two main criteria: (1) common plants occurring in the immediacy of the village and (2) species with at least three previously reported different uses. As the main objective of this part of the survey was to investigate general domestic plant use, we did not focus here on rare or single-use species. One exception is the epiphyte Begonia glabra, a primary forest species that occurs in low densities. We selected this species, because it is, according to key-informants, a signicant ingredient of many recipes. Additional information concerning plants used for child care was captured through free-listing, i.e. women were stimulated to cite all other (non-photograph) species used within the home context. Finally, we also asked in-depth questions dealing with local concepts of traditional and western medicines and healing practices. Supplementary data were obtained from an ethnobotanical study (including a market survey) conducted by the second author in 2006 in Paramaribo and several Saramaccan Maroon communities (van Andel et al., 2007). We focused on plants used for children less than 2 years old, thus including the neonatal period, which is generally dened by neonatologists as the rst 28 days of life (Winch et al., 2005). We joined and analyzed all data from the explorative, household and market surveys. We counted for each plant species and use an overall citation score (equal to overall use report), which we dene here as the sum of reports of respondents who assigned a given plant species to a particular use. We recorded vernacular names of plants used,
3.1. Diversity of species and uses A total of 178 plant species belonging to 64 families were used in child care. For some species we were unable to link a scientic name to one vernacular name. Species names, voucher numbers, uses and number of respondents reporting each use are listed in Table 1. Most prominent families were Fabaceae (17 species) and Asteraceae (12). Approximately 33% of all species cited in the surveys for medicinal and/or magical purposes (see Section 3.3) were used in child care. Most plant species cited by key informants and during free-listing were common in ruderal and anthropogenic habitats, such as secondary forest and scrubland. Usually, mothers collected plants in the immediacy of their houses, the village, their agricultural elds or on their way to the gold mines (several kilometers outside the village), where they sold food to miners. Folk healers and other key informants often collected less common species from deeper in the forest. Cultivation of plants used in child care was not common in Brownsweg, because, according to informants, most plants were still widely available from the surrounding areas. All 31 plant species shown during the photograph-based interviews in the household survey were used for child care. Four species were cited by more than 50% of the 124 respondents, i.e. Stachytarpheta cayennensis (Rich.) Vahl/Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl (locally considered as one folk species, Verbenaceae), Waltheria indica L. (Malvaceae) and Rolandra fruticosa (L.) Kuntze (Asteraceae). Many species were mentioned by less than three informants, possibly indicating a more idiosyncratic knowledge for these plants. More than half of all plants were cited for more than one child care-related purpose. We recorded most uses for Stachytarpheta cayennensis and Stachytarpheta jamaicensis, along with Gossypium barbadense L. (Malvaceae), Piper marginatum Jacq. (Piperaceae) and Unxia camphorata L.f. (Asteraceae), Anacardium occidentale L. and Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. King & H. Rob. These species were also frequently cited by respondents. Hence, they could appear as panaceas with a broad diffusion of knowledge among the community. 3.2. Plant use categories Overall, we identied more than 42 uses related to child care during the interviews (Table 1). The most frequently mentioned uses (> 100 of the 1485 overall use reports) were tranga wiwiri (346 citations and 77 species), general health promotion (312 cit. and 86 spp.), zuurte (191 cit. and 30 spp.) and magical purposes (107 cit. and 39 spp.). These categories also comprise a high number of species (30). Other less cited uses involved skin disorders such as pustules and itch (68 cit. and 17 spp.) and kowru bere (41 cit. and 19 spp.). Our respondents assigned symptoms as difcult
Table 1 Plants used for child care in Maroon Saramaccan communities in Suriname. Family Acanthaceae (ACAN) Species (voucher no.)a Justicia calycina (Nees) V.A.W. Graham (SRU0939) Justicia pectoralis Jacq.* (SRU0712) Vern. name (language)b Daanda (Sar) Papa uwi (Sar) Usec Start to walk soon/rapidly Asthma Start to walk soon/rapidly No. cit.d 1 1 4 Used part Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Application and preparation modee Baby gently whipped with plant Crushed and sap drunk Baby bathed with decoction; the following added: Myrciaria oribunda (MYRT), Eugenia sp. (MYRT) (SRU0856) or dry leaves of Musa sp. (MUSA) Baby bathed with decoction; the following added: Myrciaria oribunda (MYRT) or Eugenia sp. (MYRT) (SRU0856) Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of bath water drunk Baby bathed with decoction S. Ruysschaert et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 121 (2009) 148170 Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction; crushed in water with Struchium sparganophorum (ASTE) or Bixa orellana (BIXA) and pimba, mixture sprinkled on baby and parents when they come for the rst time outside with baby after birth Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with water maceration Face and hands of baby massaged with leaves Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with water maceration Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction and, if desired, small amount of bath water drunk Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Decoction prepared with Ertela trifolia (RUTA) and drunk Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of bath water drunk; decoction could alternatively be prepared with Piper marginatum (PIPE); crushed and sap put in mouth Baby bathed with decoction Crushed and sap put in mouth Baby bathed with decoction; decoction drunk Decoction prepared with Gossypium barbadense (MALV) and drunk Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction 151
Tranga wiwiri
Whole plant
Justicia secunda Vahl* (SRU0638)
Brudu uwi (Sar)
Anaemia Start to walk soon/rapidly
1 1 1 2 1 1
Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant
Adiantaceae (ADIA)
Adiantum fuliginosum Fe (KVK0247) Pityrogramma calomelanos (L.) Link (KVK0093)
Bibi uwi (Sar) Wti bka (Sar)
General health promotion General health promotion Ogri-ai Ward off evil
Amaranthaceae (AMAR)
Amaranthus blitum L. (KVK0099) Amaranthus dubius Mart. ex. Thell. (KVK0097) Cyathula prostrata (L.) Blume (TVA5435) Pfafa glomerata (Spreng.) Pedersen (SRU0713)
Mbowa (Sar) Klarun (Sr) Temeku (Sar) Kondolinga (Sar)
General health promotion Ogri-ai General health promotion Tranga wiwiri Cleanse baby General health promotion Start to walk soon/rapidly Tranga wiwiri
1 1 1
Leaves Leaves Leaves Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Leaves Young leaves Leaves (Young) leaves Leaves (Young) leaves
1 2 4 3 1 1 1 11 1 46
Anacardiaceae (ANAC)
Anacardium occidentale L. (SRU1014)
Kasyu (Sr)
Abdominal pain Cleanse baby Dry navel General health promotion Kowru bere Purgative
Smooth skin Stimulate appetite Zuurte Annonaceae (ANNO) Annona muricata L. (TVA5133) Alukutu wi uwi (Sar) Bowel cramps Decrease crying General health promotion
1 1 2 1 5 1
Young leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves
Table 1 (Continued ) Family Species (voucher no.)a Vern. name (language)b Usec Ogri-ai No. cit.d 10 Used part Leaves Application and preparation modee Mixed in water with Peperomia pellucida (PIPE) and blauwsel, baby bathed with this mixture; the following added too: Struchium sparganophorum (ASTE) or leaves of Capsicum frutescens (SOLA), salt, grains of Oryza sativa (POAC), alcohol or water of Cocos nucifera (AREC) fruits Baby bathed with decoction prepared with Commelina erecta (COMM) Baby bathed with decoction Mixed in water with Peperomia pellucida (PIPE) or Struchium sparganophorum (ASTE) and blauwsel, herbal bath is put at sunrise in front of the door with machete on top of it, baby bathed with this mixture Mixed in water with Peperomia pellucida (PIPE), leaves of Crescentia cujete (BIGN), Campomanesia aromatica (MYRT) or C. grandiora (MYRT), blauwsel, salt and grains of Oryza sativa (POAC) or bread, baby bathed with this mixture during 1 day Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk Mixed with blauwsel and oil of Cocos nucifera (AREC); body of baby rubbed with this mixture Baby bathed with decoction Young unfolded leaves mixed with Peperomia pellucida (PIPE) and Clidemia hirta (MELA) or Rhynchanthera grandiora (MELA) Put young unfolded leaves around neck of baby till it drops Put young unfolded leaves around neck of baby till it drops Dry leaves mixed with dry leaves of Musa sp. (MUSA), fruits (without seeds) of Arachis hypogaea (FABA) and broom of Oryza sativa (POAC) culms, feet of baby bathed with mixture three times a day Baby bathed with decoction of young unfolded leaves Young unfolded leaves put around neck of baby till it drops Young unfolded leaves put around neck of baby till it drops Baby bathed with decoction; Eleusine indica (POAC), Rolandra fruticosa (ASTE) or Unxia camphorata (ASTE) added Three bundles mixed with three bundles of Eleusine indica (POAC), Rolandra fruticosa (ASTE), Paspalum conjugatum (POAC), Stachytarpheta cayennensis (VERB) or S. jamaicensis (VERB), Imperata contracta (POAC), dry leaves of Musa sp. (MUSA) and one dondersteen
152
Start to walk soon/rapidly Tranga wiwiri Ward off evil
1 1 1
Leaves Leaves Leaves
sp. (unidentied)
Gan alukutu uwi (Sar)
Ogri-ai
Leaves
Xylopia frutescens Aubl.* (SRU0720)
Kndje (Sar)
General health promotion Refreshment Tranga wiwiri Common cold Fever
2 1 2
Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves
Apiaceae (APIA)
Eryngium foetidum L. (KVK0085)
Muj kwintu (Sar)
Leaves, roots Leaves
Araceae (ARAC) Arecaceae (AREC)
Philodendron scandens K. Koch & Sello (IVL0029) Cocos nucifera L. Euterpe oleracea Mart. (IVL0148)
Ay uwi (Sar) Kokospalm (Nl) Pina (Sr)
Tranga wiwiri Combination only General health promotion 6 1
Oil, watery juice in fruit Leaves
Growth promotion Ward off evil Mauritia exuosa L. f. Muus (Sar) Start to crawl/walk soon/rapidly
1 1 1
Maximiliana maripa (Corra) Drude (IVL0149)
Maripa (Sar)
General health promotion Growth promotion Ward off evil
1 1 1 3
Leaves Leaves Leaves Wood, leaves, roots Wood
Aristolochiaceae (ARIS)
Aristolochia cf. consimilis Mast. (SRU0943)
Loango tetey (Sar)
Tranga wiwiri
Ward off evil
Asteraceae (ASTE)
Acmella uliginosa (Sw.) Cass. (SRU1021) Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. King & H. Rob.* (SRU0714)
Womi totobia (Sar) Felu uwi (Sar)
Epilepsie General health promotion Diarrhoea Epilepsie General health promotion Growth promotion
1 1 1 1 7 1
Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Leaves or whole plant Leaves
Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction; Unxia camphorata (ASTE) added Baby bathed with decoction; Stachytarpheta cayennensis (VERB), S. jamaicensis (VERB) or Unxia camphorata (ASTE) added Baby bathed with decoction; decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk; the following added: Oryctanthus alveolatus (LORA), O. orulentus (LORA), Phthirusa pyrifolia (LORA), P. stelis (LORA), Stachytarpheta cayennensis (VERB) or S. jamaicensis (VERB) (if so, decoction is not drunk) Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Heated and crushed with salt, sap put in mouth; crushed with salt and oil of Cocos nucifera (AREC), 1 teaspoon drunk; baby bathed with decoction Crushed and sap rubbed on face baby; baby bathed with decoction Mixed with blauwsel in warm water; baby bathed with this mixture Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction prepared with Stachytarpheta cayennensis (VERB) or S. jamaicensis (VERB) and Unxia camphorata (ASTE) Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction, small amount of bath water drunk too Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction, small amount of bath water drunk too; the following added: Paspalum conjugatum (POAC), Eleusine indica (POAC), Campomanesia aromatica (MYRT) or C. grandiora (MYRT), unxia camphorata (ASTE), Cymbopogon citratus (POAC), Lippia alba (VERB), Trema micrantha (ULMA), Vismia sp. (HYPE), Cecropia sciadophylla (CECR) and/or Cupania hirsuta (SAPI)
Itch Kowru bere Nappy rash Pustules Refreshment Start to crawl/walk soon/rapidly
2 1 1 4 1 3
Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Leaves or whole plant
Tranga wiwiri Zuurte Clibadium surinamense L./C. sylvestre (Aubl.) Baill. (SRU0639/SRU0916) Neku wiwiri (Sr) Itch Pustules Lice infestations Common cold
15 4 1 1 1 3
Whole plant Whole plant Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves
Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.* (SRU0718)
Todobia (Sar)
Epilepsie Ogri-ai Zuurte General health promotion
2 1 1 1
Leaves Whole plant Whole plant Leaves
Helianthus sp.
Zonnebloem (Nl)
Mikania cordifolia (L. f.) Willd. (SRU0944)
Ak neku (Sar)
Pustules General health promotion Kowru bere Pustules Tranga wiwiri Ward off evil General health promotion
1 5 1 2 1 32
Leaves Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant
Mikania psilostachya DC. (TVA5232) Rolandra fruticosa (L.) Kuntze (SRU0717)
Asako (Au) Broko pangi (Sr)
153
Table 1 (Continued ) Family Species (voucher no.)a Vern. name (language)b Usec Kowru bere No. cit.d 1 Used part Whole plant Application and preparation modee Baby bathed with decoction prepared with Unxia camphorata (ASTE) and Cecropia sciadophylla (CECR) Baby bathed with decoction prepared with Rolandra fruticosa (ASTE) Decoction prepared with Stachytarpheta cayennensis (VERB) or S. jamaicensis (VERB) and Unxia camphorata (ASTE) drunk Baby bathed with decoction, small amount of bath water drunk too; the following added: Stachytarpheta cayennensis (VERB) or S. jamaicensis (VERB), Unxia camphorata (ASTE), Paspalum conjugatum (POAC), Eleusine indica (POAC), dry leaves of Musa sp. (MUSA), Rolandra fruticosa (ASTE), Imperata contracta (POAC), Aristolochia cf. consimilis (ARIS), Cecropia sciadophylla (CECR) and/or dondersteen Crushed in water with Struchium sparganophorum (ASTE) and pimba, mixture sprinkled on baby and parents when they come for the rst time outside with baby after birth Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction prepared with Costus spiralis (COST) Mixed with Peperomia pellucida (PIPE), blauwsel and salt, machete is put on top of herbal bath, baby bathed with this mixture during 1 day after passing him/her three times between the legs; recipe see under Annona muricata (ANNO) Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Recipe see under Pityrogramma calomelanos (ADIA) and Annona muricata (ANNO) Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction, small amount of bath water drunk Baby bathed in water maceration Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk; the following added: Cecropia sciadophylla (CECR), Gossypium barbadense (MALV), Paullinia pinnata (SAPI), Cecropia sciadophylla (CECR), Stachytarpheta cayennensis (VERB) or S. jamaicensis (VERB), Bixa orellana (BIXA), Cymbopogon citratus (POAC), Siparuna guianensis (SIPA); decoction prepared with Vismia macrophylla (HYPE) drunk Decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk, decoction prepared with Cecropia sciadophylla (CECR) and Vismia macrophylla (HYPE) Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk if desired; recipe see under Rolandra fruticosa (ASTE), Chromolaena odorata (ASTE) and Helianthus sp. (ASTE); the following added too: Cecropia sciadophylla (CECR) and Waltheria indica (MALV)
154
Pustules Smooth skin
1 1
Whole plant Whole plant
Tranga wiwiri
35
Whole plant
Ward off evil
Whole plant
Struchium sparganophorum (L.) Kuntze (KVK0110)
Seigotro (Sar)
Epilepsie General health promotion Ogri-ai
1 2 8
Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant
Purgative Tranga wiwiri Ward off evil Tilesia baccata (L. f.) Pruski* (TKP0007) Sukrutanta (Sr) Kowru bere Start to walk soon/rapidly Tranga wiwiri Ward off evil Abdominal pain
1 3 1 1 2 2 1 10
Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant
Unxia camphorata L. f.* (SRU0617)
Bambta (Sr)
Decrease appetite Diarrhoea
2 1
General health promotion
12
Whole plant
Growth promotion
Whole plant
Itch Kowru bere
1 9
Purgative Pustules
1 21
Smooth skin Tranga wiwiri Worm infection Zuurte
2 6 1 4
Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant
Baby bathed with decoction prepared with Vismia sp. (HYPE), Rolandra fruticosa (ASTE) and Stachytarpheta cayennensis (VERB) or S. jamaicensis (VERB) Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk if desired; the following added: Rolandra fruticosa (ASTE), Cecropia sciadophylla (CECR), Vismia macrophylla (HYPE), Stachytarpheta cayennensis (VERB) or S. jamaicensis (VERB), Bixa orellana (BIXA), Cymbopogon citratus (POAC) and/or Siparuna guianensis (SIPA) Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk if desired; the following added: Cecropia sciadophylla (CECR), Gossypium barbadense (MALV) and Paullinia pinnata (SAPI) Baby bathed with decoction; see recipe under Rolandra fruticosa (ASTE) See recipe under Rolandra fruticosa (ASTE) and Aristolochia cf. Consimilis (ARIS) Decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction; the following added: Stachytarpheta cayennensis (VERB) or S. jamaicensis (VERB), Bixa orellana (BIXA), Cymbopogon citratus (POAC), Siparuna guianensis (SIPA); decoction prepared with Euphorbia hirta (EUPH) and small amount of bath water drunk Decoction drunk Combinations only Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Mixed with oil of Carapa guianensis (MELI), body of baby rubbed with mixture Baby bathed with decoction prepared with Lantana camara (VERB) and Renealmia spp. (ZING) Recipe see under Unxia camphorata (ASTE) Recipe see under Unxia camphorata (ASTE) Mixed with Peperomia pellucida (PIPE) and blauwsel, machete is put on top of herbal bath, baby bathed with this mixture during 1 day after passing him/her three times between the legs Baby bathed with decoction Recipe see under Pityrogramma calomelanos (ADIA) Recipe see under Unxia camphorata (ASTE) Baby bathed with decoction of dry leaves
Begoniaceae (BEGO) Bignoniaceae (BIGN)
Begonia glabra Aubl.* (SRU0780) Crescentia cujete L. (TVA4734) Macfadyena unguis-cati (L.) A.H. Gentry (SRU0948) Tabebuia serratifolia (Vahl.) G. Nicholson (KVP0050) Bixa orellana L. (KVP0013) Cordia curassavica (Jacq.) Roem & Schult. (TVA4971) Cordia schomburgkii DC. (KVK0090)
Kowru ati (Sr) Gan kja (Sar) Awawe ansa (Sar) Gn-ati (Sar) Kuswe (Sr) Kow uwi (Au) Blaka-uma (Sr)
General health promotion Ogri-ai Combination only Tranga wiwiri General health promotion Parasites infection skin General health promotion Abdominal pain Kowru bere Ogri-ai
Whole plant Whole plant Leaves Leaves Fruit Leaves
Bixaceae (BIXA) Boraginaceae (BORA)
1 1 1
Cordia sp. (KVK0089)
Llti (Sar)
Tranga wiwiri Ward off evil Zuurte General health promotion
1 1 1 1
155
156
Table 1 (Continued ) Family Cecropiaceae (CECR) Species (voucher no.)a Cecropia obtusa Trcul (IVL0008) Vern. name (language)b Muye papantii Usec Abdominal pain General health promotion Growth promotion Kowru bere Purgative Pustules Tranga wiwiri Zuurte Growth promotion Abdominal pain Bowel cramps Diarrhoea General health promotion No. cit.d 2 7 1 1 2 1 4 1 Used part Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Application and preparation modee Recipe see under Unxia camphorata (ASTE) Baby bathed with decoction; Vismia sp. (HYPE) or Unxia camphorata (ASTE) added Baby bathed with decoction prepared with Waltheria indica (MALV) Baby bathed with decoction prepared with Unxia camphorata (ASTE) Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk if desired See recipe under Unxia camphorata (ASTE) Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk Recipe see under Unxia camphorata (ASTE) Decoction drunk Recipe see under Unxia camphorata (ASTE) Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk if desired; Unxia camphorata (ASTE) added Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk if desired; Waltheria indica (MALV) added Recipe see under Unxia camphorata (ASTE) Baby bathed with decoction; fruits of Arachis hypogaea (FABA) (without seeds) added Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk if desired; Rolandra fruticosa (ASTE) and dry leaves of Musa sp. (MUSA) added Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Mixed with water and juice of Citrus aurantifolia (RUTA), baby bathed with this mixture Baby bathed with decoction Mixed with blauwsel and one teaspoon of salt, baby bathed with this mixture during 7 days, three times a day Baby bathed with decoction; fruits of Arachis hypogaea (FABA) (without seeds) added or leaves of Annona muricata (ANNO) added Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Crushed in water with pimba, baby bathed in mixture Baby bathed with decoction Crushed in water with Saccharum ofcinale (POAC), 1 teaspoon taken three times a day Baby bathed with decoction prepared with Struchium sparganophorum (ASTE) Baby bathed with decoction prepared with Piper marginatum (PIPE)
Cecropia peltata L. (TVA4868) Cecropia sciadophylla Mart.* (IVL0074)
Uma busi papaya (Sr) Womi papantii (Sar)
1 1 1 12
Growth promotion
Leaves
Kowru bere Start to crawl/walk soon/rapidly Stimulate slimming Tranga wiwiri
3 2 4 18
Chrysobalanaceae (CHRYS) Combretaceae (COMB) Commelinaceae (COMM)
Parinari campestris Aubl. (SRU1004) Terminalia amazonia (J.F. Gmel.) Exell (SRU1003) Commelina erecta L.* (TKP0030)
Fungu pu (Sr) A nango sti (Sar) Gd-dd-mi-dd (Sar)
General health promotion Tranga wiwiri Epilepsie Fever Ogri-ai
1 1 2 1 1
Leaves Leaves Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant
Start to walk soon/rapidly
Whole plant
Tripogandra serrulata (Vahl) Handlos (TKP0032)
B gd-dd-mi-dd (Sar)
Tranga wiwiri Epilepsie Ward off evil
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant
Convolvulaceae (CONV) Costaceae (COST)
Ipomoea sp. Costus spiralis (Jacq.) Roscoe var. spiralis* (TKP0086)
Kusa batta tati (Sar) Sangaaf (Sar)
Tranga wiwiri Asthma General health promotion Tranga wiwiri
Crassulaceae (CRAS)
Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Kurz (TVA5422) Melothria pendula L. (TVA5464) Cyperus prolixus L. (TVA5554) Scleria secans (L.) Urb. (SRU0699) Lindsaea sp.* (KVK0105)
Wonderblad (Sr)
Asthma
Leaves
Heated on low re, sap squeezed, mixed with melasse (juice of Saccharum ofcinale (POAC)) and juice of Citrus aurantifolia (RUTA) and drunk Decoction drunk Crushed in water, baby bathed with mixture Child gently whipped with plant Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction Decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk S. Ruysschaert et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 121 (2009) 148170 Mixed with Peperomia pellucida (PIPE), blauwsel and salt, machete is put on top of herbal bath, baby bathed with this mixture during 1 day after passing him/her three times between the legs Unknown Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction Decoction prepared with salt and drunk, one teaspoon in morning and evening, 1 L made Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk if desired; Unxia camphorata (ASTE) added Crushed in water with juice of Citrus aurantifolia (RUTA) and drunk Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk; crushed with juice of Citrus aurantifolia (RUTA), body of baby rubbed with mixture Baby bathed with decoction prepared with Eleusine indica (POAC); crushed in alcohol, body of baby rubbed with mixture Baby bathed with decoction; crushed with Portulaca oleracea (PORT), body of baby rubbed with mixture Baby bathed with decoction prepared with Saccharum ofcinale (POAC) Baby bathed with decoction or water maceration Crushed in alcohol, body of baby rubbed with mixture
Cucurbitaceae (CUCU) Cyperaceae (CYPE)
Busi komkomro (Sr) Gan anduu (Au) Kingesi (Sar) Bibi uwi (Sar)
Zuurte Refreshment Start to crawl/walk soon/rapidly Epilepsie General health promotion 1 1 1 1 1 4 1
Whole plant Rhizome Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves
Dennstaedtiaceae (DENN)
Dilleniaceae (DILL)
Davilla kunthii A.St.-Hil.* (KVK0079)
Faya tatai (Au)
Decrease crying General health promotion Tranga wiwiri Ward off evil
Ebenaceae (EBEN)
Diospyros guianensis (Aubl.) Grke (SRU0083)
Blaka-uma (Sr)
Euphorbiaceae (EUPH)
Diospyros cf. cavalcantei Sothers (GBA0064) Aparisthmium cordatum (Juss.) Baill. (TVA5319) Croton matourensis Aubl. (SRU1008) Croton trinitatis Millsp. (KVK0086)
Baka pu (Sar) Busi kuswe (Sr) Matumb du (Sar) Pik nng lelet (Sar)
Growth promotion Tranga wiwiri General health promotion General health promotion Start to crawl/walk soon/rapidly Tranga wiwiri Zuurte Epilepsie Abdominal pain General health promotion Good study (later) Tranga wiwiri Zuurte
Unknown Leaves
1 1 1 5 1 1 2 1 1 1 7
Leaves Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant
Euphorbia hirta L.* (SRU0715)
Bbi bbi (Sr)
Euphorbia thymifolia L.* (SRU0620)
Tyembe uwi (Sar)
Asthma Epilepsie
1 2
Fever
Whole plant
Whole plant
Growth promotion Start to walk soon/rapidly Ward off evil
1 1 1
157
Table 1 (Continued ) Family Species (voucher no.)a Vern. name (language)b Usec Zuurte No. cit.d 3 Used part Whole plant Application and preparation modee Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk; three plants put at bottom of pot, Gossypium barbadense (MALV) added and baby bathed with decoction of this mixture; decoction prepared with Uncaria guianensis (RUBI) and Serjania paucidentata (SAPI) or Paullinia pinnata (SAPI), one teaspoon of decoction taken three times a day Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Mixed in warm water with juice of Citrus spp. (RUTA) and drunk Mixed in warm water with juice of Citrus spp. (RUTA) and drunk Baby bathed with decoction of dry leaves Combinations only Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction; head of baby gently whipped with branch Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction or water maceration Baby bathed with decoction Decoction prepared with juice of Citrus aurantifolia (RUTA) and drunk Mixed with Pseudopiptadenia suaveolens (FABA) and Renealmia spp. (ZING) Mixed with Parkia pendula (FABA) or P. ulei (FABA) and Renealmia spp. (ZING) Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Crushed and macerated in water, baby bathed with mixture Decoction drunk Infusion of dried owers drunk Mixed with Lippia alba (VERB), baby bathed with mixture Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction or water maceration; baby bathed with decoction prepared with piper Marginatum (PIPE), Cymbopogon citratus (POAC) and Psidium guajava (MYRT)
158
Jatropha curcas L./J. gossipyfolia L. (KVK0240/SRU0915)
Poka (Sar)
Epilepsie Purgative
1 1 3 1
Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Oil Oil Leaves Fruits Bark Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Leaves Bark Bark Bark Bark Bark Leaves Flowers Whole plant Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves
Maprounea guianensis Aubl. (KVK0080) Ricinus communis L. (KVK0242)
Kisangula (Sar) Kastroli (Sr
General health promotion Tranga wiwiri Purgative Ward off evil
Fabaceae (FABA)
Acacia tenuifolia (L.) Willd. (TVA4504) Arachis hypogaea L. Copaifera guianensis Desf. (IVL0080) Hymenaea courbaril L. (SRU0706A) Inga lateriora Miq. (SRU0877) Inga sp. Mimosa myriadenia (Benth.) Benth. (KVP0080)
Wacht-een-beetje (Nl) Pinda (Nl) Kupawa (Sar) Loksi (Sr) Waki uwi (Sar) Waki (Sar) Akalamaka (Sar)
General health promotion Start to walk soon/rapidly Start to crawl/walk soon/rapidly Tranga wiwiri Tranga wiwiri Tranga wiwiri General health promotion Start to walk soon/rapidly Tranga wiwiri General health promotion Start to walk soon/rapidly Tranga wiwiri Asthma Epilepsie Epilepsie Fever General health promotion Ward off evil
4 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1
Mimosa pudica L.* (KGP0022)
Smi (Sar)
Mucuna sloanei Fawc. & Rendle (TVA5183) Parkia pendula (Willd.) Benth. ex Walp./P. ulei (Harms.) Kuhlm. (SRU0965/SRU0318) Pseudopiptadenia suaveolens (Miq.) Grimes (ARV0042)
Kokomandialu (Par) Kwatakama (Sr) Pikinmisiki (Sar)
1 2
2 1
Senna chrysocarpa (Desv.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby (TVA5323) Senna occidentalis (L.) Link (TKP0071)
Fey nga wiwiri (Sr) Komanti sangu (Sar)
Zuurte Zuurte Ogri-ai General health promotion Tranga wiwiri Geelzucht (jaundice) Fever
1 4 3 1
Senna quinquangulata (Rich.) Irwin & Barneby (KVK0109) Senna reticulata (Willd.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby* (TKP0011) Tamarindus indica L.
Amataw (Sar)
Nyufodu (Au) Tamarinde (Nl)
Measles, rubella, varicella
Leaves
Baby bathed with decoction or water maceration; baby bathed with decoction prepared with Piper marginatum (PIPE), Cymbopogon citratus (POAC) and Psidium guajava (MYRT) Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction See recipe under Unxia camphorata (ASTE) See recipe under Unxia camphorata (ASTE) Baby bathed with decoction See recipe under Unxia camphorata (ASTE) Baby bathed with decoction; Vismia sp. (HYPE) added Baby bathed with decoction; Siparuna guianensis (SIPA) added; see recipe under Rolandra fruticosa (ASTE) Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction; Vismia macrophylla (HYPE) added Plant without owers boiled in 1-L water and tea drunk twice a day, juice of Citrus aurantifolia (RUTA) added Baby bathed with decoction; Cymbopogon citratus (POAC) and Lippia alba (VERB) added and small amount of decoction drunk Decoction prepared with Lantana camara (VERB) drunk Mixed with Piper peltatum (PIPE), Aciotis purpurascens (MELA) and Ocimum campechianum (LAMI), baby bathed with mixture Mixed with Piper marginatum (PIPE), blauwsel and salt, baby bathed with mixture during 1 day See recipe under Hyptis recurvata (LAMI) Baby bathed with decoction Baby put on its back on jute bag, bulb put in both hands, two bulbs mixed with vinegar and salad oil, body of baby rubbed with mixture, baby may not be left up Decoction prepared with salt drunk Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction
Gentianaceae (GENT) Hypericaceae (HYPE)
Coutoubea ramosa Aubl. (KVK0108) Vismia cayennensis (Jacq.) Pers. (SRU0871) Vismia guianensis (Aubl.) Choisy (SRU0816) Vismia macrophylla Kunth* (KVK0075)
Bita (Sr) Wti baka pinya pu (Sar) B baka pindj pu (Sar) Gan b baka pindj pu (Sar)
General health promotion Tranga wiwiri General health promotion Abdominal pain Diarrhoea General health promotion Kowru bere Tranga wiwiri General health promotion
1 1
Whole plant Leaves Leaves
1 1 3 1 7 7
Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves
Vismia sp.
Pikin b baka pindj pu (Sar)
Start to walk soon/rapidly Tranga wiwiri Lamiaceae (LAMI) Hyptis lanceolata Poir. (KVK0076) Djnfja (Sar) Asthma
1 7
Leaves Leaves Whole plant
Common cold
Whole plant
Kowru bere Hyptis recurvata Poit. (SRU1032) Ton uwi (Sar) Ward off evil
1 1
Ocimum campechianum Mill. (GBA0073)
Bonu uwi (Sar)
Ogri-ai Ward off evil
1 1
Whole plant Whole plant Bark Bulb
Lauraceae (LAUR) Liliaceae (LILI)
sp. (TVA4791) Allium cepa L.
Kaneelbast (Nl) Ayun (Sr)
Ward off evil Epilepsie
Loganiaceae (LOGA)
Spigelia anthelmia L. (SRU0710)
Adongoman (Sar)
Worm infection Zuurte General health promotion
2 1 1
Loranthaceae (LORA)
Oryctanthus alveolatus (Kunth) Kuijt/O. orulentus (Rich.) Tiegh/Phthirusa pyrifolia (Kunth) Eichler/P. stelis (L.) Kuijt (TKP0085/TKP0054/SRU0811/TKP0043)
Fowru doti (Sr)
Growth promotion Start to walk soon/rapidly Tranga wiwiri
1 1 1
Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction prepared with Chromolaena odorata (ASTE) Baby bathed with decoction
159
160
Table 1 (Continued ) Family Lycopodiaceae (LYCO) Malpighiaceae (MALP) Species (voucher no.)a Lycopodiella cernua (L.) Pic.-Ser. Byrsonima crassifolia (L.) Kunth (SRU1006) Stigmaphyllon sinuatum (DC.) A. Juss. (SRU0908) Gossypium barbadense L. (TVA5165) Matu apa (Sar) Djangaftu tati (Sar) Be mu uwi (Sar) Vern. name (language)b Usec Ogri-ai General health promotion Tranga wiwiri Abdominal pain Bowel cramps Cleanse baby Ear infection Epilepsie Fever General health promotion Nappy rash Purgative Pustules Smooth skin Tranga wiwiri Ward off evil Zuurte No. cit.d 1 1 4 2 1 2 Used part Whole plant Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Fruits Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Application and preparation modee Mixed with one egg, baby bathed with mixture during 7 days, three times a day Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction See recipe under Unxia camphorata (ASTE) See recipe under Annona muricata (ANNO) Baby bathed with decoction Young fruits slightly heated and squeezed, juice dripped in ear Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk if desired See recipe under Unxia camphorata (ASTE) Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk if desired; leaves of Piper aduncum (PIPE) added (if so, not drunk); see recipe under Euphorbia thymifolia (EUPH) Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk if desired; Unxia camphorata (ASTE) added Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk if desired; Cecropia sciadophylla (CECR) added Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk if desired Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk if desired Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk if desired Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction; Lantana camara (VERB) and Psychotria cf. Hoffmannsegiana (RUBI) added See recipe under Hyptis recurvata (LAMI) See recipe under Euterpe oleracea (AREC) Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction See recipe under Euterpe oleracea (AREC) Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction
Malvaceae (MALV)
4 1 9 1 13 1 1 3 1 16
Waltheria indica L.* (SRU0629)
Dususuma (Sar)
10
Whole plant
Growth promotion
49
Whole plant
Pustules Smooth skin Tranga wiwiri Ward off evil Zuurte Marantaceae (MARA) Ischnosiphon puberulus Loes. (KVK0088) Pikin babadua (Sar) General health promotion
4 5 11 1 2 1
Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Leaves
Melastomataceae (MELA)
Aciotis purpurascens (Aubl.) Triana (TKP0064) Clidemia hirta (L.) D. Don (KVP0038) Miconia cf. prasina (Sw.) DC. (SRU0810) Nepsera aquatica (Aubl.) Naudin (SRU0868) Rhynchanthera grandiora (Aubl.) DC. (SRU0907) sp. (SRU0869)
Bmiindj uwi (Sar) Spu uwi (Sar) Matapi (Sar) Atabuli (Sar)
Ward off evil General health promotion Tranga wiwiri Tranga wiwiri Zuurte General health promotion Tranga wiwiri Tranga wiwiri
1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1
Whole plant Leaves Leaves Whole plant Whole plant Leaves Leaves Leaves
Duku (Sar)
Matapi (Sar)
Tibouchina aspera Aubl.* (KGP0014) Tibouchina grandiora Cogn. (SRU0716) Meliaceae (MELI) Carapa guianensis Aubl.
Bonbongaasa (Sar) Wasduku (Sar) Krapa (Sr)
Tranga wiwiri Tranga wiwiri Dandruff Geelzucht (jaundice) General health promotion Parasites infection skin Ward off evil Zuurte General health promotion Tranga wiwiri Ward off evil General health promotion
1 2
Leaves Leaves Oil Oil Oil Oil Oil Oil Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves
Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction Head baby rubbed with oil Mixed with juice of Citrus aurantifolia (RUTA) and drunk One teaspoon taken See recipe under Bixa orellana (BIXA) Body of baby rubbed with oil Body of baby rubbed with oil Baby bathed with water maceration Baby bathed with water maceration Crushed and put on forehead of baby; crushed and put in small piece of cloth as tapu Baby bathed with decoction of dry leaves; Paspalum conjugatum (POAC) or Psychotria cf. Hoffmannsegiana (RUBI) added Baby bathed with decoction; Justicia pectoralis (ACAN) added; fruits (without seeds) of Arachis hypogaea (FABA) added and small amount of decoction drunk; see recipe under Mauritia exuosa (AREC) Baby bathed with decoction of dry leaves; Eleusine indica (POAC) and Solanum subinerme (SOLA) added; see recipe under Rolandra fruticosa (ASTE) Baby bathed with decoction or cold water maceration Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction prepared with Unxia camphorata (ASTE) See recipe under Annonaceae sp. (ANNO) Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction prepared with Justicia pectoralis (ACAN) Baby bathed with decoction; Justicia pectoralis (ACAN) added Baby bathed with decoction See recipe under Tamarindus indica (FABA) Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction See recipe under Tamarindus indica (FABA) Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction
Guarea gomma Pulle (KVK0111)
Kdjo udu (Sar)
1 1 1 4
Musaceae (MUSA)
Musa sp. (TVA5122)
Banenblad (Nl)
Leaves
Tranga wiwiri
11
Leaves
Myristicaceae (MYRI) Myrtaceae (MYRT)
Virola cf. surinamensis (Rol ex Rottb.) Warb. (SRU0990) Campomanesia aromatica (Aubl.) Griseb./C. grandiora (Aubl.) Sagot (SRU0842/KVK0243)
Babun udu (Sr) Adoja (Sr)
Start to walk soon/rapidly Decrease appetite
1 1
Leaves Leaves
General health promotion Ogri-ai Refreshment Tranga wiwiri Start to walk soon/rapidly Tranga wiwiri Zuurte Fever General health promotion Tranga wiwiri Viral infections Tranga wiwiri Cleanse baby
1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1
Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Whole plant
Eugenia sp./Myrciaria oribunda (West ex Willd.) O. Berg (SRU0856/KVP0083)
Logoso futu (Sar)
Psidium guajava L. (TVA5129)
Guyaba uwi (Sar)
Onagraceae (ONAG)
Syzygium malaccense (L.) Merr. & L.M. Perry (TVA1149) Ludwigia erecta (L.) Hara/L. nervosa (Poir.) Hara/L. octovalvis (Jacq.) Raven (SRU0901/KVK0084/KVP0018) Passiora foetida L. (KGP0016) Sesamum orientale L. (TVA5496) Phyllanthus urinaria L. (SRU0865)
Pomerak (Sr) Kontaka futu (Sar)
General health promotion Passioraceae (PASS) Pedaliaceae (PEDA) Phyllanthaceae (PHYL) Snekimarkusa (Sr) Abongra (Sr) Fini bita (Sr) Pustules Smooth skin General health promotion
2 1
Whole plant Whole plant Oil
Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Body of baby rubbed with oil; oil of Cocos nucifera (AREC) added Baby bathed with decoction 161
Whole plant
162
Table 1 (Continued ) Family Piperaceae (PIPE) Species (voucher no.)a Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth* (SRU0626) Vern. name (language)b Konsaka wiwiri (Sr) Usec Body pain Epilepsie Eye infection General health promotion Ogri-ai No. cit.d 1 1 1 2 53 Used part Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Application and preparation modee Mixed with oil of Cocos nucifera (AREC), body baby rubbed with mixture Baby bathed with decoction Plants squeezed and juice dripped in eyes Baby bathed with decoction; see recipe under Euterpe oleracea (AREC) Mixed in water with blauwsel, baby bathed with mixture and a small amount of the bath water drunk; Begonia glabra (BEGO) added; see recipe under Annona muricata (ANNO); salt, sugar, one small coin and sand can also be added Baby bathed with water maceration Decoction drunk with some salt Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction; leaves of Gossypium barbadense (MALV) added; baby bathed with decoction prepared with Portulaca oleracea (PORT), small amount of decoction drunk, two times a day Baby bathed with decoction or water maceration
Piper aduncum L. (TVA5182/)
Gaama udu anu (Au)
Ward off evil Worm infection Zuurte Zuurte
2 1 1
Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Leaves
Piper arboreum L./P. bartlingianum (Miq.) C. DC./P. cf. avellanum L.C. Rich./P. hispidum Swartz (SRU0985/GBA0003/SRU0986/SRU0884) Piper marginatum Jacq.* (TKP0009)
Kulakatenga (Au)/
Whole plant
Malmblmb (Sar)
Abdominal pain Cleanse baby Common cold Diarrhoea Fever
3 1 1 4 2
Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves
General health promotion Kowru bere Ogri-ai Purgative Refreshment Tranga wiwiri Viral infections Ward off evil Abdominal pain Common cold
2 7 1 1 1 1
Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves
Piper peltatum L. (KVK0238) Poaceae (POAC) Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf (TVA4839)
Gan malmblmb (Sar) Strungrasi (Sr)
1 1 2
Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk; see recipe under Tamarindus indica (FABA) Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk See recipe under Ocimum campechianum (LAMI) Baby bathed with decoction prepared with Anacardium occidentale (ANAC) Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction prepared with Costus spiralis (COST) See recipe under Tamarindus indica (FABA) See recipe under Hyptis recurvata (LAMI) Baby bathed with decoction prepared with Unxia camphorata (ASTE) and Siparuna guianensis (SIPA) Baby bathed with decoction; Lippia alba (VERB) and Hyptis lanceolata (LAMI) added and decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction prepared with Siparuna guianensis (SIPA) several times a day, small amount of decoction drunk too; see recipe under Tamarindus indica (FABA) Baby bathed with decoction; recipe see under Rolandra fruticosa (ASTE)
Fever
Leaves
Leaves
Kowru bere Viral infections Zuurte Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. (KVK0091) Masiksik (Sar) Fever General health promotion
Leaves Leaves Leaves Whole plant Whole plant
1 1 23
Whole plant
Tranga wiwiri
29
Whole plant
Imperata contracta (Kunth) Hitchc. (SRU0938) Olyra cf. latifolia L. (TVA5523) Orthoclada laxa (Rich.) P. Beauv. (SRU0945) Oryza sativa L. Paspalum conjugatum P.J. Bergius (KVP0017)
S uwi (Sar) Dagu-alesi (Sr) Dagu-alesi (Sr) Alesi (Sr) Pppu ahn (sar)
Tranga wiwiri Growth promotion General health promotion Combination only General health promotion
Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant
Baby bathed with decoction prepared with Unxia camphorata (ASTE) and Siparuna guianensis (SIPA) See recipe under Tamarindus indica (FABA) Baby bathed with decoction prepared with Unxia camphorata (ASTE) and Siparuna guianensis (SIPA) Baby bathed with decoction prepared with Euphorbia thymifolia (EUPH) Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk if desired; dondersteen (put at bottom of pot) and old traditional skirt added; see for recipe under Rolandra fruticosa (ASTE) Baby bathed with decoction prepared with fruits (without seeds) of Arachis hypogaea (FABA) and small amount of decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk if desired; Aristolochia cf. Consimilis (ARIS) added; recipe see under Rolandra fruticosa (ASTE) and Musa sp. (MUSA) Baby bathed with decoction; recipe see under Rolandra fruticosa (ASTE) Unknown Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction; dry leaves of Musa sp. (MUSA) added; recipe see under Rolandra fruticosa (ASTE) Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction; see recipe under Rolandra fruticosa (ASTE) See recipe under Costus spiralis (COST) Drunk Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction prepared with Euphorbia thymifolia (EUPH) Put in mouth Baby bathed with decoction Heated on low re and put around neck baby Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction; see recipe under Piper Aduncum (PIPE) Baby bathed with decoction; see recipe under Euphorbia thymifolia (EUPH) Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk; mixed with oil of Cocos nucifera (AREC), body of baby rubbed with mixture Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk
16
Start to crawl/walk soon/rapidly Tranga wiwiri Saccharum ofcinale L. (TVA1878) Keni (Sr?) Asthma Common cold General health promotion Growth promotion Mouth infection Polygonaceae (POLY) Portulacaceae (PORT) Coccoloba mollis Casar. (SRU0495) Coccoloba sp. (SRU0987) Portulaca oleracea L. (KVK0098) Bauli (Sar) Lapati (Sar?) Bemb (Sar) General health promotion Start to talk soon/rapidly Bowel cramps Dry navel Fever General health promotion Growth promotion
2 21 1
Whole plant Whole plant Stem Juice (melasse) Stem Stem Juice (melasse) Leaves Leaves Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant
1 1
1 2 1 1 4 6
Tranga wiwiri Zuurte
3 2
163
164
Table 1 (Continued ) Family Rubiaceae (RUBI) Species (voucher no.)a Borreria verticillata (L.) G. Mey (KGP0015) Duroia aquatica (Aubl.) Bremek. (TVA4806) Vern. name (language)b Knopowiwiri (Sr) Mamadosu (Sa) Usec Tranga wiwiri Zuurte General health promotion Ward off evil Isertia parviora Vahl/Ixora sp. (KVK0092/KVK0213) Psychotria capitata Ruiz & Pav. (KVK0106) Psychotria cf. hoffmannsegiana (Willd. ex Roem. & Schult.) Mll. Arg. (SRU0875) Psychotria sp. (KVK0103) Uncaria guianensis (Aubl.) J.F. Gmel. (SRU0107) Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle (TVA4773) Ertela trifolia (L.) Kuntze (KVK0161) Dettol (Sr) Daanda uwi (Sar) A kami kin (Sar) Tranga wiwiri Start to walk soon/rapidly General health promotion 1 1 1 No. cit.d Used part Whole plant Whole plant Bark Bark Leaves Whole plant Whole plant Application and preparation modee Baby bathed with decoction Unknown Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction Decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction; leaves of Musa sp. (MUSA), Lantana camara (VERB) or Ischnosiphon puberulus (MARA) added Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction See recipe under Euphorbia thymifolia (EUPH) Decoction drunk; baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk Decoction prepared with Anacardium occidentale (ANAC) drunk Baby bathed with decoction Decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction Decoction drunk Decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction and small amount drunk if desired; see recipe under Rolandra fruticosa (ASTE) Baby bathed with decoction; Unxia camphorata (ASTE) added See recipe under Unxia camphorata (ASTE) Baby bathed with decoction See recipe under Unxia camphorata (ASTE) Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk See recipe under Euphorbia thymifolia (EUPH) See recipe under Euphorbia thymifolia (EUPH) Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Mixed with rum or other alcohol; mixed with blauwsel and salt, baby bathed with mixtures Mixed with water and pimba and drunk Broom made of species and used to sprinkle a mixture of water, blauwsel and salt on baby, while talking Baby bathed with decoction; decoction prepared with Lippia alba (VERB) and drunk Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk
A santi (Sar) Popokainangra (Sr) Lemmetje (Sr) Komisa (Sar)
General health promotion Start to walk soon/rapidly Zuurte Combination only Abdominal pain Cleanse baby Fever General health promotion Inuenza Pustules Stimulate appetite Tranga wiwiri
2 2
Leaves Leaves
Rutaceae (RUTA)
1 1 1 2 1 1 1 13
Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Leaves
Sapindaceae (SAPI)
Cupania hirsuta Radlk. (SRU0783)
Gawent (Sar)
Tranga wiwiri Paullinia pinnata L. (TVA4907) Fey nga wiwiri (Sr) Abdominal pain General health promotion Pustules Tranga wiwiri Zuurte Zuurte Start to walk soon/rapidly Tranga wiwiri Fever Mouth infection Ogri-ai
12 1 2 1 4
Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant
Serjania paucidentata DC. (SRU0670B) Vouarana guianensis Aubl. (TVA4939) Scrophulariaceae (SCRO) Scoparia dulcis L.* (SRU0612)
Fey nga wiwiri (Sr) Singabaasi (Sar) Limba konde (Sar)
1 2 2 1 1
Stimulate appetite Zuurte
2 7
Siparunaceae (SIPA)
Siparuna guianensis Aubl.* (SRU0618)
Febe pu (Sar)
Abdominal pain
Leaves
Common cold Fever
1 9
Leaves Leaves
10
Leaves
Kowru bere Refreshment Tranga wiwiri Zuurte
2 1 4 1
Baby bathed with decoction prepared with Cymbopogon citratus (POAC) and Unxia camphorata (ASTE) Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk; Cymbopogon citratus (POAC) added Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk if desired; Vismia sp. (HYPE) added Baby bathed with decoction; Cymbopogon citratus (POAC) and Unxia camphorata (ASTE) added Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction prepared with Cymbopogon citratus (POAC) and Unxia camphorata (ASTE) Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Eaten Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction prepared with Eleusine indica (POAC) and dry leaves of Musa sp. (MUSA) Baby bathed with decoction; see recipe under Rolandra fruticosa (ASTE) Baby bathed with decoction Mixed with poba (gun powder) and swiet sopi (alcohol), legs of baby rubbed with mixture during 3 days Decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction; Psychotria cf. Hoffmannsegiana (RUBI) and Ischnosiphon puberulus (MARA) added Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk; steam bath; decoction prepared with Hyptis lanceolata (LAMI) and drunk Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk if desired Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk; hyptis Lanceolata (LAMI) and Cymbopogon citratus (POAC) added Decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction; Stachytarpheta cayennensis (VERB) or S. jamaicensis (VERB) added Baby bathed with decoction prepared with leaves of Citrus aurantifolia (RUTA) See recipe under Senna occidentalis (FABA) See recipe under Scoparia dulcis (SCRO) Baby bathed with decoction; Stachytarpheta cayennensis (VERB) or S. jamaicensis (VERB) added
Solanaceae (SOLA)
Capsicum frutescens L. (TVA5460) Solanum americanum Mill.* (SRU0707A) Solanum leucocarpon Dunal (SRU0619) Solanum stramoniifolium Jacq. (TKP0048) Solanum subinerme Jacq.* (KGP0012)
Rode peper (Nl) Gma uwi (Sar) Agbpu (Sar) Matung mak (Sar) Matung mak (Sar)
Combination only Decrease crying Measles Asthma Fever General health promotion Tranga wiwiri
1 1 1 1 1
Whole plant Whole plant Fruits Leaves Leaves Leaves
Ulmaceae (ULMA)
Trema micrantha (L.) Blume (SRU0863)
Piiktu pu (Sar)
General health promotion Tranga wiwiri
2 2 1
Urticaceae (URTI)
Laportea aestuans (L.) Chew (KVP0091)
Az uwi (Sar)
Verbenaceae (VERB)
Lantana camara L.* (SRU0627)
Makamaka (Sar)
Diarrhoea Fever General health promotion
1 1 6
Kowru bere
Whole plant
Refreshment Tranga wiwiri Lippia alba (Mill.) N.E. Br.* (GBA0070) Pipi pu (Sar) Common cold
1 3 3
Whole plant Leaves Whole plant
Diarrhoea General health promotion Kowru bere Ogri-ai Stimulate appetite Tranga wiwiri
1 3 1 1 1 1
Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant
165
Table 1 (Continued ) Family Species (voucher no.)a Stachytarpheta cayennensis (Rich.) Vahl*/S. jamaicensis (L.) Vahl* (SRU1013/SRU0622) Vern. name (language)b Alata lbu (Sar)/ Usec Abdominal pain No. cit.d 3 Used part Whole plant Application and preparation modee Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk; Unxia camphorata (ASTE) and Bixa orellana (BIXA) added Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk; the following added: Chromolaena odorata (ASTE), Helianthus sp. (ASTE), Unxia camphorata (ASTE), Bixa orellana (BIXA), Lippia alba (VERB), Cecropia obtusa (CECR) or Vismia sp. (HYPE) Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk Baby bathed with decoction prepared with Unxia camphorata (ASTE) and Bixa orellana (BIXA) Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk See recipe under Chromolaena odorata (ASTE) Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk if desired; see recipe under Rolandra fruticosa (ASTE) Baby bathed with decoction and small amount of decoction drunk; Unxia camphorata (ASTE) and Bixa orellana (BIXA) added Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Mixed with dram (strong alcohol) and mint water, mixture drunk See recipe under Parkia pendula (FABA), P. ulei (FABA) and Pseudopiptadenia suaveolens (FABA) Baby bathed with decoction See recipe under Parkia pendula (FABA), P. ulei (FABA) and Pseudopiptadenia suaveolens (FABA) Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction Baby bathed with decoction
166
Anaemia Cleanse baby Diarrhoea Epilepsie Fever Geelzucht (jaundice) General health promotion
1 2 2 1 1 1 19
Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant
Growth promotion Kowru bere Nappy rash Purgative Pustules Smooth skin Start to walk soon/rapidly Tranga wiwiri
4 1 2 1 2 2 1 36
Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant
Zuurte
66
Whole plant
Viscaceae (VISC)
Zingiberaceae (ZING)
Phoradendron perrottetii (DC.) Eichler (TVA5476) Struthanthus syringifolius (Mart.) Mart. (TVA5468) Aframomum melegueta (Roscoe) K. Schum. (TVA5304) Renealmia alpinia (Rottb.) Maas (TVA4747)
Kantyankama (Au) Pikin fowru-doti (Sr) Nengre kondre pepre (Sar) Masusa (Sr)
Tranga wiwiri Tranga wiwiri Stuttering Epilepsie General health promotion 1 3 1 3 1 1 1 1
Leaves Leaves Seeds Leaves Rhizome, leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves
Renealmia guianensis Maas (SRU0900)
Pikin masusa (Sr)
Epilepsie Purgative Refreshment Tranga wiwiri
Unidentied
Konkoni bobi wata (Sr)
Tranga wiwiri
a Species locally considered as one folk species with the same vernacular name and uses are separated by /. Collectors: SRU = S. Ruysschaert; TVA = T. van Andel, KVP = K. Van de Putte, KVK = K. Van Kerckhove, GBA = G. Bavay, IVL = I. Van der Linden; ARV = A. Vermeulen, KGP = K. Gajapersad, TKP = T. Koppert. Plants were mainly identied by S. Ruysschaert and T. van Andel at the herbarium of Ghent University (GENT) and at the Utrecht University Branch of the National Herbarium of The Netherlands (NHN-U); Scientic plant names were authenticated by Prof. P.J.M (NHN-U) and the rst author. b Languages: Sar = Saramaccan, Sr = Sranan tongo, Au = Aucan, Nl = Dutch: Par = Paramaccan; only the most common vernacular names (used by Saramaccan Maroons) are given. c Combination only: plants only mentioned to be used in combination with other species. d Number of respondents who cited the given species in a plant remedy (as the principle plant or in combination with other species. e Variations in application and preparation modes are separated by semicolons.
167
breathing and pressure on the chest to bezetting or astma (10 cit. and 9 spp.). The condition epilepsie (31 cit. and 19 spp.) was recognized as ts and shaking. As we cannot be sure whether these symptoms are really related to the medical terms asthma and epilepsy, we decided to cite the local terms in small capitals, thus respecting local perceptions. Plants used as tranga wiwiri (leaves that make you strong in Sranan Tongo (ST), lingua franca in Suriname) were, according to respondents, employed to strengthen the child. These species play an important role in the daily life of both children and adults to strengthen body and mind, particularly when one feels tired or suffers from a general malaise. They are thought to make the baby more active and better protected against malevolent inuences. Consequently, these plants have a signicant preventive function, which is also reected in the uses general health and growth promotion and start to crawl/walk soon. Respondents recognized the condition zuurte (Dutch (D) locally also known as suri (ST) or atita (Saramaccan, Sar)) by the type of faeces of the baby. The infant produces faeces in the form of small balls (similar to okra seeds, Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench, Malvaceae) and consequently suffers from nappy rash. The Surinamese authors Sedoc (1992) and Heyde (1995) dened zuurte as a disorder in the metabolism of poisonous substances in children. Although this condition is difcult to match with a formal medical equivalent, it seems to refer to bowel disorders in young babies. Key informants and women in household survey associated kowru bere (ST; kou, D; cold in the belly) of babies with constipation and related problems of the digestive system (such as intestinal cramps). Respondents generally considered kou as a broad disease concept with as main symptom obstruction, i.e. of faeces, mucus, blood clots in uterus or vascular system, etc. Respondents preferred to use laxatives (kowru dresies) to stimulate the ow again and to relieve kou symptoms and drive it out of the body. Women used vaginal steam baths to clean the uterus after childbirth to prevent kowru bere. This dangerous illness, caused by dirty blood left in the uterus after delivery, could lead to severe abdominal pains, fever and ultimately death. In this context, kowru bere seems to be associated with serious uterine infections and puerperal fever (van Andel et al., 2007). Saramaccans interviewed by Odonne et al. (2007), explained that one of the reasons why the digestive function of the organism is altered is that kou has penetrated the belly. Fleury (1991, cited by Odonne et al., 2007) stated that cold is an important concept within the Saramaccan medicinal belief system. It is perceived as a foreign element with its own dynamics, whose penetration is feared especially during the night. When cold is inside the body, it can turn blood into water, eventually invading the whole body, causing a wide range of symptoms. Remedies that drive cold out of the body must therefore be used against it. Laxatives and vaginal steam baths can be considered as such remedies. Generally, mothers cited rather few curing plant remedies (<33 cit. and <16 spp.) for common symptoms such as fever, pain (including body pain and abdominal pain), common cold and diarrhoea. When confronted with the latter illness symptoms in their family, mothers usually visited the primary health care centre before considering the use of herbal remedies, particularly when these symptoms lasted for a few days. Women also consulted the primary health care workers for vaccination of their children. The category viral infections (such as measles) comprised only seven species and citations. However, our respondents reported the use of about 17 species for pustules and itch, which can be related to the latter viral infections. Mothers considered these symptoms as skin disorders and treated it with species that they also used against nappy rash.
3.3. Child care within a magical framework We classied plant use as magical (i.e. spiritual, supernatural) when a condition has, according to respondents, a clear spiritual origin. As the knowledge of supernatural care is often considered as a family secret in Suriname (and therefore not easily communicated to outsiders), we assume that the number of species we recorded for spiritual purposes is an underestimation. Most mothers interviewed knew which plants could be used for magical purposes. However, the specic knowledge of recipe compositions usually pertains to the domain of traditional healers. All cited magical uses related to child care involved protection against evil, which is a central issue within the Maroon believe system. Evil forces can cause harm in all aspects of human life. According to respondents, babies and small children are particularly vulnerable to evil powers. Protective charms (tapu, ST) are usually prepared to ward off all kinds of malevolence sources. A tapu can be created or maintained by rituals, prayers, herbal baths or amulets. They can be drunk, rubbed on the body or carried around in pocket. Many Maroon children wore around their wrist or waist pieces of coloured rope or clothes with several knots (often containing or impregnated with plant mixtures) as a protection against evil forces. A feared and frequently cited evil-caused illness was ogri-ai (ST, evil eye). This condition occurs when a person looks too long or too strongly at a child or admires it too much. It does not necessarily need to be a negative glance of an envious person, but simply a too intense look can be enough. Respondents believed it particularly affects newborns, although older children and adults can also suffer from it. Common symptoms are diarrhoea, excessive crying and feeding problems. The folk illness evil eye is not a specic Maroon belief, but represents an example of a complex medicalanthropological system, which is common and often deeply rooted in African, Hispanic, Indian and European traditions (e.g. De Zoysa et al., 1998; Pieroni, 2002; Ticktin and Dalle, 2005; Martinez, 2008). It typically affects children, mostly newborns, who are weaker than adults and who are more likely to become ill when exposed to a (more) powerful energy (Martinez, 2008). Crossculturally, it is considered both an illness in itself and a cause of other illnesses (e.g. De Zoysa et al., 1998; Geissler et al., 2002). It is well known from literature that folk illnesses usually do not have a direct one-to-one correspondence with discrete diseases within the biomedical system (Vandebroek et al., 2008). We found that evil eye is related to diverse symptoms such as diarrhoea, crying and feeding problems, which could have several clinical causes. In a study on Mexican folk illnesses, it was found that evil eye symptoms were worthy of medical attention and possible life threatening if not treated (Baer and Bustillo, 1993). Follow-up research into the relationships between folk illnesses and biomedical diagnoses is necessary to improve culturally sensitive health care. The high importance of magic-related plant remedies can be explained by the strong presence in the everyday life of the traditional winti religion. winti has been described as a family-based religion, with strong implications in the sociocultural perception of the environment. In this religion, plants play a very important role as part of all rituals, recipes, etc., also including herbal remedies used in child care to ward off evil forces (Sedoc, 1992; Stephen, 1998). Because these species and rituals may vary according to communities and people (Stephen, 1998), this results in a wealth of magical plant use diversity. 3.4. Preparation and administration of remedies We recorded over 400 preparations for child care treatments (Table 1). The majority involved the mixing of two or more plant
168
species. Over 20% required additional ingredients, such as pimba (ST, kaolin), dondersteen (D, magic stone), temremankreti (ST, chalk) or blauwsel (D, Reckitt blue). Complex multiple species preparations with non-plant ingredients were predominantly employed for magical purposes. blauwsel was originally used to preserve the white colour of laundry. Since the slavery period in Suriname, important magical connotations have been assigned to this blue dye. Currently, it still is a signicant ingredient of preventive and curative cures to ward off evil. blauwsel is applied in herbal baths or directly on the skin of young children, behind the ears or on the bottoms. Approximately 90% of the treatments were applied externally, predominantly as herbal baths. On a total of 1485 use reports, 1358 involved bathing. Mothers often let their babies drink a small amount of the bath water to enhance the positive effects of the bath. Herbal baths were most often prepared by boiling plant material in water or pouring boiled water on the plants. Children were then bathed with this decoction after cooling the liquid. Other herbal bath preparations involved maceration in ambient temperature water. Non-plant ingredients could be added to these mixtures, which are then put in the sun to warm up. Other less cited applications were beverages (teas and cold water infusions) and body scrubs. 3.5. Herbal baths During interviews, mothers expressed their concern about the health of their children and indicated that babies are most vulnerable during the rst few months of their life. This was the main reason why over 70% of the women started bathing their babies several times a day with plant mixtures after birth. Many mothers continued these baths until or even after the child started to walk. These herbal baths are not used in the rst place to cleanse or refresh the baby. Women repeatedly stressed these practices were especially necessary to fortify the fragile bodies of their babies and to maintain their general health condition. Young mothers have learned the practice of bathing their babies from their (grand) mothers. There was a high consensus on the chronology of plant use among households (Table 2). The (young) leaves of the cashew tree Anacardium occidentale were most frequently used in a babies rst bath (starting immediately or within a few days after birth and lasting up to a week). Cashew leaves were sometimes replaced or alternated with cotton leaves (Gossypium barbadense). The main purpose of these rst baths (combined with small sips of bath water) was to cleanse the belly. According to respondents, the purging effect of the bath water caused a rapid excretion of meconium and stools became healthier. For the second bathing phase, four plant species were most frequently reported (in single or multiple species recipes): Gossypium barbadense (as continuation of the rst baths), Rolandra fruticosa and the grasses Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. and Paspalum conjugatum P.J. Bergius. Finally, from a couple of weeks after birth onwards (third phase), species like Stachytarpheta cayennensis, Stachytarpheta jamaicensis and Cupania hirsuta Radlk. became more important. During this last phase, mothers started to use other
Table 2 Chronology and reasons for regular bathing of newborns. Birth to 1 week Anacardium occidentale Gossypium barbadense 12 weeks Gossypium barbadense Rolandra fruticosa Eleusine indica Paspalum conjugatum Purgative, zuurte, tranga wiwiri, general health promotion
and more diversied species, depending on their personal experiences and preferences and the specic use purposes. However, the focus remained on tranga wiwiri and general health promotion. Remarkably, magic plants did not seem to be essential in the regular child bathing sequence. Apart from blauwsel, herbal baths (predominantly with Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth, Piperaceae) to ward of evil were generally only applied a few times a year. Herbal baths for newborns share several botanical ingredients with the vaginal steam baths used by Maroon mothers after delivery (van Andel et al., 2008). However, there are striking differences in composition between these treatments. While a newborn baby is bathed rst with Anacardium occidentale or Gossypium barbadense, a new mothers rst bath after delivery contains Mangifera indica L. as the dominant ingredient. Although sometimes the same decoction is used for bathing both mother and child, our respondents stressed the differences in effect. For the baby, the baths served as a purgative, and for the mother to cleanse uterus and vagina after birth. Bathing babies with herbal mixtures is quite a common practice in many cultures (Hilgert and Gil, 2007; Zumsteg and Weckerle, 2007), but the specic purposes are not always clear. In traditional Chinese communities, herbal baths are not only seen as a remedy to cure diseases, but also as an important way to make babies healthy and strong (Li et al., 2006). Traditional birth attendants practicing in Surinames interior, interviewed by ProHealth (2005), reported that babies get a herbal bath and drink after birth, but only a limited number of them explained bathing was meant to strengthen the newborn. Grenand et al. (2004) recorded some plant species used in baths by Amerindians in French Guiana to strengthen infants and keep them lively. Additionally, they cited the use of herbal baths to make children start walking earlier and to stimulate their sense of balance, muscular development and resistance to diseases. Thomas (2008) also described how Trinitario Amerindians prepared herbal baths for making children walk more rapidly. These observations (among non-Maroon groups) show that this bathing practice could probably be more important for child development than previously thought, although their pharmacological implications are yet to be proven. 3.6. Preventive medicine Our results show that health promotion and disease prevention were more common in child care than curing remedies for dangerous and potentially life-threatening conditions like diarrhoea and respiratory infections (WHO, 1997; UNICEF, 2007). Hence, plant use seemed not just an answer to illness, but a way to tackle the omnipresence of threat to the childrens vulnerable bodies. We believe that this predominance of preventive plant use can be explained in (at least) two ways. First, the ethnomedical system of Surinamese Maroons is mainly focused on the well-being of body and mind. Enhancing and maintaining this personal wellbeing (both physical and spiritual) during the different stages of life is a major common concern. This is related to many African belief systems, where good health is holistically addressed and extends to the persons social environment (e.g. Cocks and Mller, 2002;
2 weeks to 1 month Stachytarpheta cayennensis Stachytarpheta jamaicensis Cupania hirsuta Start use multiple species zuurte, tranga wiwiri, general health promotion
Till walking age or after that Multiple species
Purge meconium, cleanse belly (purgative)
tranga wiwiri, general health promotion and other use purposes
169
Geissler et al., 2002). This holistic concept is also found in the panCaribbean Creole medicinal system (Longuefosse and Nossin, 1996). Mothers in our survey constantly feared for their infants well-being and considered it therefore very important to protect them with strengthening and general health stimulating herbs. This perceived need to give babies a good start in life stimulates the use of preventive plant mixtures. Within this context, the practice of herbal bathing could be considered as a general cleansing, purging and strengthening of body and mind. Second, our respondents have quite easy access to primary health care services. Basic pharmaceuticals (like paracetamol) are cheap and available, which could partly reduces the necessity of curative herbal remedies, but still this has to be proven. 4. Conclusions Our results reect that a major concern of Saramaccan people is to keep their children healthy and strong. Plant use for child care is a common practice and has a strong magical connotation. This is also evidenced by the quantity of herbs sold on the markets in Paramaribo (van Andel et al., 2008). About 62% of the plant species used in child care was traded at the medicinal plant markets in Paramaribo. Some species were exclusively sold for their use in child health. More than 400 kg of plants for pregnancy and child care use were offered for sale on an average day in Paramaribo (van Andel et al., 2007). More research is needed to examine how contemporary Maroon plant use reects actual health problems in young children in the Surinamese interior. In our study, traditional health care appeared to be complementary to biomedical health care for health promotion, disease prevention and folk illnesses, such as ogri-ai. However, more studies are necessary to clarify the exact contribution of traditional medicine in treating child health conditions. It would be interesting to perform a study like McDade et al. (2007) to see if a better health index is correlated with a higher plant use in traditional child care in Brownsweg and other Maroon communities. These results should then be incorporated in child health programmes to encourage converging western and traditional health care in promoting child health and development. Unlike many other ethnobotanical research, we have nearly no reasons to believe that plant knowledge related to child care is being lost. The huge number of recorded species, use reports and market values strengthens the lasting importance and widespread use of plant-based remedies for child health. This traditional knowledge is still transferred to next generations, as it is considered a significant part of Maroon culture and necessary for child health. We assume, however, that knowledge of plant use to cure physical illnesses and related symptoms (such as fever and diarrhoea) would be formerly more profound in the surveyed communities, when allopathic medicine was much less available. Some respondents told us that their predecessors had greater plant pharmacopeias and that there were conditions for which they had once employed more plant species (e.g. preparations to dry the navel of newborns). Hence, it would be interesting to compare our results with data from more isolated Maroon communities where Western medicine and inuences are still limited. Acknowledgements We thank all our Surinamese respondents for sharing their knowledge with us. We extend a special word of thanks to Lilin Jona, who assisted us during the household survey in Brownsweg as interpreter. Also, we would like to thank K. Van de Kerckhove for her help with the 2005 eldwork. This research was partly con-
ducted within the framework of a cooperation agreement between the Center of Agricultural Research in Suriname (CELOS) and Ghent University. We are grateful to CELOS and J. Leidsman for making this research possible by introducing us to the communities and provide some logistic support. We would like to thank the Community Development Fund Suriname (CDFS) for making their population map of Brownsweg kindly available to us. We owe much gratitude to all plant specialists and herbaria who assisted in plant identication, in particular the staff of the National Herbarium of the Netherlands. We would also like to thank H. Rijpkema and S. Groenendijk for providing us the base-map of the study area. We thank the reviewers for their useful comments and contributions to the quality of this manuscript. This research was funded by BOF Ghent University, the Netherlands Organisation for Scientic Research (NWO), Leopold III Fund, VLIR-IUS and CWO Faculty of Bio-Engineering (Ghent University). References
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Journal of Ethnopharmacology 121 (2009) 148170

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S. Ruysschaert et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 121 (2009) 148170

S. Ruysschaert et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 121 (2009) 148170

Justicia secunda Vahl* (SRU0638)

Brudu uwi (Sar)

Anaemia Start to walk soon/rapidly

Adiantum fuliginosum Fe (KVK0247) Pityrogramma calomelanos (L.) Link (KVK0093)

Bibi uwi (Sar) Wti bka (Sar)

Mbowa (Sar) Klarun (Sr) Temeku (Sar) Kondolinga (Sar)

Anacardium occidentale L. (SRU1014)

Young leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves

Start to walk soon/rapidly Tranga wiwiri Ward off evil

Leaves Leaves Leaves

Gan alukutu uwi (Sar)

S. Ruysschaert et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 121 (2009) 148170

Xylopia frutescens Aubl.* (SRU0720)

General health promotion Refreshment Tranga wiwiri Common cold Fever

Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves

Eryngium foetidum L. (KVK0085)

Muj kwintu (Sar)

Leaves, roots Leaves

Araceae (ARAC) Arecaceae (AREC)

Ay uwi (Sar) Kokospalm (Nl) Pina (Sr)

Tranga wiwiri Combination only General health promotion 6 1

Oil, watery juice in fruit Leaves

Leaves Leaves Leaves

Maximiliana maripa (Corra) Drude (IVL0149)

General health promotion Growth promotion Ward off evil

Leaves Leaves Leaves Wood, leaves, roots Wood

Aristolochia cf. consimilis Mast. (SRU0943)

Loango tetey (Sar)

Ward off evil

Womi totobia (Sar) Felu uwi (Sar)

S. Ruysschaert et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 121 (2009) 148170

Whole plant Whole plant Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves

Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.* (SRU0718)

Epilepsie Ogri-ai Zuurte General health promotion

Leaves Whole plant Whole plant Leaves

Mikania cordifolia (L. f.) Willd. (SRU0944)

Mikania psilostachya DC. (TVA5232) Rolandra fruticosa (L.) Kuntze (SRU0717)

Asako (Au) Broko pangi (Sr)

Pustules Smooth skin

Whole plant Whole plant

S. Ruysschaert et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 121 (2009) 148170

Ward off evil

Struchium sparganophorum (L.) Kuntze (KVK0110)

Epilepsie General health promotion Ogri-ai

Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant

Unxia camphorata L. f.* (SRU0617)

Decrease appetite Diarrhoea

Whole plant Whole plant

General health promotion

Itch Kowru bere

Whole plant Whole plant

Whole plant Whole plant

Smooth skin Tranga wiwiri Worm infection Zuurte

Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant

S. Ruysschaert et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 121 (2009) 148170

Begoniaceae (BEGO) Bignoniaceae (BIGN)

Whole plant Whole plant Leaves Leaves Fruit Leaves

Bixaceae (BIXA) Boraginaceae (BORA)