UNIVERSITY SINERGIJA

FACULTY OF SECURITY AND PROTECTION

BANJA LUKA






Seminar work in english
THEME: Global warming








Mentor: Student:


Banja Luka, april 2010.


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Contents:

1. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 3
2. Global warming .............................................................................................................. 4
2.1. The Greenhouse EIIect ............................................................................................. 5
2.1.1. Greenhouse gases .............................................................................................. 6
2.1.1.1. Carbon dioxide........................................................................................... 7
2.1.1.2. Methane ..................................................................................................... 8
2.1.1.3. Nitrous oxide (N2O) .................................................................................. 9
2.2. Climate models ........................................................................................................ 9
2.3. Attributed and expected eIIects .............................................................................. 11
2.4. Responses to global warming ................................................................................. 12
3. Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 15
4. Literature ...................................................................................................................... 16




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Introduction
Global warming is when the earth heats up (the temperature rises). It happens when
greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, water vapor, nitrous oxide, and methane) trap heat and
light Irom the sun in the earth`s atmosphere, which increases the temperature. This hurts
many people, animals, and plants. Many cannot take the change, so they die. Global warming
is aIIecting many parts oI the world. It makes the sea rise, and when the sea rises, the water
covers many low land islands. This is a big problem Ior many oI the plants, animals, and
people on islands. The water covers the plants and causes some oI them to die. When they
die, the animals lose a source oI Iood, along with their habitat. Although animals have a
better ability to adapt to what happens than plants do, they may die also. When the plants and
animals die, people lose two sources oI Iood, plant Iood and animal Iood. They may also lose
their homes. As a result, they would also have to leave the area or die. This would be called
a break in the Iood chain, or a chain reaction, one thing happening that leads to another and so
on.



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oba warming
Global warming reIers to an increase in the Earth`s average surIace air temperature.
Global warming and cooling in themselves are not necessarily bad, since the Earth has gone
through cycles oI temperature change many times in its 4.5 billion years. However, as used
today, global warming usually means a Iast, unnatural increase that is enough to cause the
expected climate conditions to change rapidly and oIten cataclysmically.
Our planet is warmed by radiant energy Irom the sun that reaches the surIace through the
atmosphere. As the surIace warms, heat energy refects back toward space; meanwhile, gases
in the atmosphere absorb some oI this energy and reradiate it near the surIace. This is oIten
called the greenhouse eIIect, named Ior the way heat increases inside a glass enclosure. In the
greenhouse eIIect around Earth, the atmosphere can be visualized as a blanket that is made
thicker by the action oI a small amount oI water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, ozone,
nitrous oxide, other gases, and soot; it thus holds in more heat, Iorcing air temperature higher.
The scientifc term Ior this action is, in Iact, 'Iorcing.
On an average day, this eIIect is caused by water vapor and clouds (75 percent) and
carbon dioxide (20 percent), with the rest Ithe heating caused by other gases. Relatively small
additions oI carbon dioxide and methane Iorce more heat, and that heat allows the air to hold
more water vapor, creating a Ieedback loop that magnifes the eIIect. Although water vapor is
naturally prevalent in the atmosphere, it does not trap as much heat per molecule as carbon
dioxide and methane. Also, water vapor molecules cycle through the atmosphere in only a
Iew days, a brieI period compared to the residence time oI CO2, which persists Ior many
decades and creates some warming even aIter as long as three hundred years. Dust and
aerosol chemicals in the air cause some cooling (negative Iorcing); they are also very short
lived. Even though the gases are measured only in parts per million (ppm) or billion (ppb),
they have been powerIully, and naturally, infuencing the Earth`s temperature Ior millions oI
years. Without them, instead oI an average air temperature oI about 58F (14.5C), the Earth
would be below the Ireezing point. LiIe as we know it now would be impossible. Earth`s
temperature is also subject to natural Iorcing cycles Irom solar radiation and the movement oI
the planet around the sun. Scientists think these cycles, which have leIt a visible signature
extending back millions oI years, are what led to past ice ages and the warming that ended
them. Currently, we are in a period between major ice ages. The last great glaciation, when
temperatures were about 10to 12F (6to7C) cooler than today, began Iading away about


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18,000 yearsago. The initial transition out oI the ice age was unstable,with many rapid
temperature shiIts. As temperatures warmed, climate was aIIected.
During most oI the more recent past (say, 10 000-11 000 years), the concentration oI
greenhouse gases remained relatively stable, and so did the Earth`s temperature and climate.
This was the time when humans developed civilizations and learned how to build cities, grow
Iood, and invent machines. It is possible that early Iarming and Iorest clearing had a warming
eIIect on the Earth beginning fve thousand to eight thousand years ago. There are also a Iew
examples oI natural temperature shiIts, such as the Medieval Warm Period, which was
Iollowed by the Little Ice Age in the fIteenth through eighteenth centuries. These were
possibly not global in extent, and there is scientifc disagreement over their causes which
seem to have included periods oI solar radiation increase and decrease and volcanic eruptions.
The Greenhouse Effect
The greenhouse eIIect is the rise in temperature that the Earth experiences because certain
gases in the atmosphere (water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and methane, Ior
example) trap energy Irom the sun. Without these gases, heat would escape back into space
and Earth`s average temperature would be about 60F colder. Because oI how they warm our
world, these gases are reIerred to as greenhouse gases.



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The greenhouse eIIect is important. Without the greenhouse eIIect, the Earth would not be
warm enough Ior humans to live. But iI the greenhouse eIIect becomes stronger, it could
make the Earth warmer than usual. Even a little extra warming may cause problems Ior
humans, plants, and animals.
The "greenhouse eIIect" is named by analogy to greenhouses but this is a misnomer. The
greenhouse eIIect and a real greenhouse are similar in that they
both limit the rate oI thermal energy Ilowing out oI the system,
but the mechanisms by which heat is retained are diIIerent. A
greenhouse works primarily by preventing absorbed heat Irom
leaving the structure through convection, i.e. sensible heat
transport. The greenhouse eIIect heats the earth because
greenhouse gases absorb outgoing radiative energy and re-emit some oI it back towards earth.
A greenhouse is built oI any material that passes sunlight, usually glass, or plastic. It
mainly heats up because the sun warms the ground inside, which then warms the air in the
greenhouse. The air continues to heat because it is conIined within the greenhouse, unlike the
environment outside the greenhouse where warm air near the surIace rises and mixes with
cooler air aloIt. This can be demonstrated by opening a small window near the rooI oI a
greenhouse: the temperature will drop considerably. It has also been demonstrated
experimentally (R. W. Wood, 1909) that a "greenhouse" with a cover oI rock salt (which is
transparent to inIra red) heats up an enclosure similarly to one with a glass cover. Thus
greenhouses work primarily by preventing convective cooling.
In the greenhouse eIIect, rather than retaining (sensible) heat by physically preventing
movement oI the air, greenhouse gases act to warm the Earth by re-radiating some oI the
energy back towards the surIace. This process exists in real greenhouses, but is comparatively
unimportant there.
Greenhouse gases
Greenhouse gases are chemical compounds that contribute to the greenhouse eIIect. When
in the atmosphere a greenhouse gas allow sunlight (solar radiation) to enter the atmosphere
where it warms the Earth`s surIace and is reradiated back into the atmosphere as longer-wave
energy (heat). Greenhouse gases absorb this heat and trap` it in the lower atmosphere.


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The rapid increase in atmospheric concentrations oI the three main human-made greenhouse
gases carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide is clear Irom the data sets Ior these gases
over the last 420,000 years. Since around the time oI the Industrial Revolution in Western
countries, concentrations oI carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide have all risen
dramatically. Fossil Iuel combustion, increasingly intensive agriculture, and an expanding
global human population have been the primary causes Ior these rapid changes.

Carbon dioxide (chemical Iormula

) is a chemical compound composed oI

two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom. It is a gas at standard
temperature and pressure and exists in Earth's atmosphere in this state. CO
2
is a trace gas
being only 0.038 oI the atmosphere.
Carbon dioxide is used by plants during photosynthesis to make sugars, which may
either be consumed in respiration or used as the raw material to
produce other organic compounds needed Ior plant growth and
development. It is produced during respiration by plants, and by
all animals, Iungi and microorganisms that depend either directly
or indirectly on plants Ior Iood. It is thus a major component oI
the carbon cycle. Carbon dioxide is generated as a by-product oI the combustion oI Iossil


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Iuels or the burning oI vegetable matter, among other chemical processes. Small amounts oI
carbon dioxide are emitted Irom volcanoes and other geothermal processes such as hot springs
and geysers and by the dissolution oI carbonates in crustal rocks.
As oI March 2009, carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere is at a concentration oI
387 ppm by volume. Atmospheric concentrations oI carbon dioxide Iluctuate slightly with the
change oI the seasons, driven primarily by seasonal plant growth in the Northern Hemisphere.
Concentrations oI carbon dioxide Iall during the northern spring and summer as plants
consume the gas, and rise during the northern autumn and winter as plants go dormant, die
and decay. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas as it transmits visible light but absorbs
strongly in the inIrared and near-inIrared.
Carbon dioxide has no liquid state at pressures below 5.1 atmospheres. At 1
atmosphere (near mean sea level pressure), the gas deposits directly to a solid at temperatures
below 78 C (108.4 F; 195.1 K) and the solid sublimes directly to a gas above 78 C. In
its solid state, carbon dioxide is commonly called dry ice.
CO
2
is an acidic oxide: an aqueous solution turns litmus Irom blue to pink. It is the
anhydride oI carbonic acid, an acid which is unstable in aqueous solution, Irom which it
cannot be concentrated. However can be produced by irradiating Irozen mixtures oI water and
carbon dioxide in vacuum. In organisms carbonic acid production is catalysed by the enzyme,
carbonic anhydrase.
ethane is a chemical compound with the chemical Iormula CH
4
. It is the
simplest alkane, and the principal component oI natural gas. Methane's bond angles are 109.5
degrees. Burning methane in the
presence oI oxygen produces
carbon dioxide and water. The
relative abundance oI methane
makes it an attractive Iuel.
However, because it is a gas at
normal temperature and
pressure, methane is diIIicult to
transport Irom its source. In its
natural gas Iorm, it is generally
transported in bulk by pipeline or LNG carriers; Iew countries transport it by truck.


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Methane was discovered and isolated by Alessandro Volta between 1776 and 1778 when
studying marsh gas Irom Lake Maggiore. Methane is a relatively potent greenhouse gas.
Compared with carbon dioxide, it has a high global warming potential oI 72 (calculated over a
period oI 20 years) or 25 (Ior a time period oI 100 years). Methane in the atmosphere is
eventually oxidized, producing carbon dioxide and water. As a result, methane in the
atmosphere has a halI liIe oI seven years.
The abundance oI methane in the Earth's atmosphere in 1998 was 1745 parts per billion
(ppb), up Irom 700 ppb in 1750. By 2008, however, global methane levels, which had stayed
mostly Ilat since 1998, had risen to 1,800 ppb. By 2010, methane levels, at least in the arctic,
were measured at 1850 ppb, a level scientists described as being higher than at any time in the
previous 400,000 years. (Historically, methane concentrations in the world's atmosphere have
ranged between 300 and 400 ppb during glacial periods commonlly known as ice ages, and
between 600 to 700 ppb during the warm interglacial periods).
In addition, there is a large, but unknown, amount oI methane in methane clathrates in the
ocean Iloors. The Earth's crust contains huge amounts oI methane. Large amounts oI methane
are produced anaerobically by methanogenesis. Other sources include mud volcanoes, which
are connected with deep geological Iaults, landIill and livestock (primarily ruminants) Irom
enteric Iermentation.
itrous oxide ( is a powerIul greenhouse gas produced both naturally and
by human activities. Its concentration in the Earth's atmosphere has risen by around 15
since the Industrial Revolution. Atmospheric mixing ratios Ior nitrous oxide now stand at
around 315 parts per billion (ppb) compared to a pre-industrial high oI 275ppb. Though its
concentration the atmosphere is much smaller than that oI carbon dioxide, N2O is a much
more eIIective greenhouse gas having a Global Warming Potential oI 296 over a 100-year
time span. This means that 1kg oI N2O released into the atmosphere has a global warming
eIIect equivalent to 296 kg oI carbon dioxide over a 100 year period.
limate models
Global climate model projections oI Iuture climate most oIten have used estimates oI
greenhouse gas emissions Irom the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change)
Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES). In addition to human-caused emissions, some
models also include a simulation oI the carbon cycle; this generally shows a positive


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Ieedback, though this response is uncertain. Some observational studies also show a positive
Ieedback. Including uncertainties in Iuture greenhouse gas concentrations and climate
sensitivity, the IPCC anticipates a warming oI 1.1 C to 6.4 C (2.0 F to 11.5 F) by the end
oI the 21st century, relative to 19801999.
Models are also used to help investigate the causes oI recent climate change by comparing
the observed changes to those that the models project Irom various natural and human-derived
causes. Although these models do not unambiguously attribute the warming that occurred
Irom approximately 1910 to 1945 to either natural variation or human eIIects, they do indicate
that the warming since 1970 is dominated by man-made greenhouse gas emissions.
The main tools Ior projecting Iuture climate changes are mathematical models based on
physical principles including Iluid dynamics, thermodynamics and radiative transIer.
Although they attempt to include as many processes as possible, simpliIications oI the actual
climate system are inevitable because oI the constraints oI available computer power and
limitations in knowledge oI the climate system. All modern climate models are in Iact
combinations oI models Ior diIIerent parts oI the Earth. These include an atmospheric model
Ior air movement, temperature, clouds, and other atmospheric properties; an ocean model that
predicts temperature, salt content, and circulation oI ocean waters; models Ior ice cover on
land and sea; and a model oI heat and moisture transIer Irom soil and vegetation to the
atmosphere. Some models also include treatments oI chemical and biological processes.

Warming due to increasing levels oI greenhouse gases is not an assumption oI the models;
rather, it is an end result Irom the interaction oI greenhouse gases with radiative transIer and
other physical processes. Although much oI the variation in model outcomes depends on the
greenhouse gas emissions used as inputs, the temperature eIIect oI a speciIic greenhouse gas
concentration (climate sensitivity) varies depending on the model used. The representation oI
clouds is one oI the main sources oI uncertainty in present-generation models.

The physical realism oI models is tested by examining their ability to simulate current or
past climates. Current climate models produce a good match to observations oI global
temperature changes over the last century, but do not simulate all aspects oI climate. Not all
eIIects oI global warming are accurately predicted by the climate models used by the IPCC.
For example, observed Arctic shrinkage has been Iaster than that predicted.


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ttributed and expected effects
It is usually impossible to connect speciIic weather events to global warming. Instead,
global warming is expected to cause changes in the overall distribution and intensity oI
events, such as changes to the Irequency and intensity oI heavy precipitation. Broader eIIects
are expected to include glacial retreat, Arctic shrinkage including long-term shrinkage oI the
Greenland ice sheet, and worldwide sea level rise. Some eIIects on both the natural
environment and human liIe are, at least in part, already being attributed to global warming. A
2001 report by the IPCC
suggests that glacier
retreat, ice shelI
disruption such as that oI
the Larsen Ice ShelI, sea
level rise, changes in
rainIall patterns, and
increased intensity and
Irequency oI extreme
weather events are
attributable in part to
global warming. Other
expected eIIects include
water scarcity in some
regions and increased
precipitation in others, and changes in mountain snowpack.
Social and economic eIIects oI global warming may be exacerbated by growing
population densities in aIIected areas. It is expected that the health beneIits oI climate change
(e.g., Iewer deaths Irom cold exposure) will be outweighed by negative health eIIects (e.g.,
increased levels oI malnutrition), especially in developing countries. A summary oI probable
eIIects and recent understanding can be Iound in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report.
According to this report, there is observational evidence Ior an increase in intense tropical
cyclone activity in the North Atlantic Ocean since about 1970, in correlation with the increase
in sea surIace temperature (see Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation), but that the detection oI
long-term trends is complicated by the quality oI records prior to routine satellite
Larsen Ice ShelI


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observations. The summary also states that there is no clear trend in the annual worldwide
number oI tropical cyclones.
Additional expected eIIects include sea level rise oI 0.18 to 0.59 meters (0.59 to 1.9 It) in
20902100 relative to 19801999, new trade routes resulting Irom arctic shrinkage, possible
thermohaline circulation slowing, increasingly intense, in some locations, (but less Irequent)
hurricanes and extreme weather events, reductions in the ozone layer, changes in agriculture
yields, and ocean oxygen depletion. Increased atmospheric CO
2
increases the amount oI CO
2

dissolved in the oceans. CO
2
dissolved in the ocean reacts with water to Iorm carbonic acid,
resulting in ocean acidiIication. Ocean surIace pH is estimated to have decreased Irom 8.25
near the beginning oI the industrial era to 8.14 by 2004, and is projected to decrease by a
Iurther 0.14 to 0.5 units by 2100 as the ocean absorbs more CO
2
. Heat and carbon dioxide
trapped in the oceans may still take hundreds oI years to be re-emitted, even aIter greenhouse
gas emissions are eventually reduced. Since organisms and ecosystems are adapted to a
narrow range oI pH, this raises extinction concerns and disruptions in Iood webs. One study
predicts 18 to 35 oI a sample oI 1,103 animal and plant species would be extinct by 2050,
based on Iuture climate projections. However, Iew mechanistic studies have documented
extinctions due to recent climate change, and one study suggests that projected rates oI
extinction are uncertain.
#esponses to global warming
The broad agreement among climate scientists that global temperatures will continue
to increase has led some nations, states, corporations and individuals to implement responses.
These responses to global warming can be divided into mitigation oI the causes and eIIects oI
global warming, adaptation to the changing global environment, and geoengineering to
reverse global warming.
Mitigation oI global warming is accomplished through reductions in the rate oI
anthropogenic greenhouse gas release. The world's primary international agreement on
reducing greenhouse gas emissions, the Kyoto Protocol, now covers more than 160 countries
and over 55 percent oI global greenhouse gas emissions. As oI February 2010, only the
United States, historically the world's largest emitter oI greenhouse gases, has reIused to ratiIy
the treaty. The treaty expires in 2012. International talks began in May 2007 on a Iuture treaty
to succeed the current one. The 2009 United Nations Climate Change ConIerence met in


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Copenhagen in December 2009 to agree on a Iramework Ior climate change mitigation. No
binding agreement was made.
There has also been business action on climate change, including eIIorts to improve
energy eIIiciency and limited moves towards use oI alternative Iuels. In January 2005 the
European Union introduced its European Union Emission Trading Scheme, through which
companies in conjunction with government agree to cap their emissions or to purchase credits
Irom those below their allowances. Australia announced its Carbon Pollution Reduction
Scheme in 2008. United States President Barack Obama has announced plans to introduce an
economy-wide cap and trade scheme.
daptation: A wide variety oI measures have been suggested Ior adaptation to global
warming, including: water conservation, water rationing, adaptive agricultural practices
including diversiIication, construction oI Ilood deIenses, changes to medical care, and
interventions to protect threatened species. The capacity and potential Ior human systems to
adapt is unevenly distributed across diIIerent regions and populations. The economic costs oI
adaptation are potentially large, but also largely unknown. Across the literature, there is wide
agreement that adaptation will be more diIIicult Ior larger magnitudes and higher rates oI
climate change.
Geoengineering is the concept oI planetary engineering applied to Earth: i.e. the
deliberate modiIication oI Earth's natural environment on a large scale to suit human needs.
An example is greenhouse gas remediation, which removes greenhouse gases Irom the
atmosphere, usually through carbon sequestration techniques such as carbon dioxide air
capture. Solar radiation management reduces absorbed solar radiation, such as by the addition
oI stratospheric sulIur aerosols or cool rooI techniques. No geoengineering projects oI
signiIicant scale have been implemented, and detailed study has largely been the work oI
small numbers oI scientists; but various signiIicant institutions such as the Royal Society and
ImechE (Institution oI Mechanical Engineers) have recently suggested that Iurther study is
warranted. Their various externalities and other costs are seen as major issues, and the idea or
concern that one country could act unilaterally has also been raised.
The government is doing many things to help stop global warming. The government
made a law called The Clean Air Act so there is less air pollution. Global warming is making
people get very bad illnesses that could make them disabled, very sick, and sometimes even
die. The Clean Air Act is making many companies change their products to decrease these


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problems. Part oI the law says that you may not put a certain amount oI pollutants in the air.
Hairspray and some other products, like Ioam cups, had this problem. Making and using
these products let out too much volatile organic compounds (VOC`s), ozone-destroying
chemicals (chloroIluorocarbons (CFC`s), and related chemicals (such as CO2) into the air.
Now, almost all oI these products have a label on them telling people what this product can do
to the environment and many people. Almost all oI the other chemicals that could be harmIul
will have this label on them hopeIully by this time (2015) as well.
The Clean Air Act has also made car companies change some oI the things inside oI
the cars. Cars pollute a lot. While cars make more than halI oI the world`s smog (visible
pollution in the air), many things that cars need to move and heat up make even more
pollution. Some things that are inside oI cars, buses,
trucks, and motorcycles, like gasoline, pollute the air
when the Iuel is burned. It comes out as a chemical and
when mixed in the air, Iorms smog. Smog is a kind oI
pollution that you see in the Iorm oI a cloud. II you
have ever been to CaliIornia you can see a lot oI smog in
some places. Sometimes the smog gets so bad that you
cannot see at all! Smog Iorms when car exhaust, pollution Irom homes, and pollution Irom
Iactories mixes in the air and has a chemical reaction. The sun`s heat and light add to the
reaction.
Cars, buses, and trucks are also responsible Ior over 50 oI dangerous chemicals let
into the air. Some oI these chemicals can cause cancer, birth deIects, trouble breathing, brain
and nerve damage, lung injures, and burning eyes. Some oI the pollutants are so harmIul that
they can even cause death.
Although adults do many things to help stop global warming, kids can do just as
much. Kids can`t do hard things like making a law, but they can do easier things like not
watching as much TV. You can listen to your parents when they say, turn oII your lights or
go play outside. Listening to them and actually trying to help can help you, your
environment, and the world.



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oncusion
Global warming is basically the earth heating up and increasing in carbon dioxide. When
light Irom the sun reaches the earth 30 percent oI it is reIlected back into space. The
remaining 70 percent oI the light is absorbed by land, air, and oceans heating are planets
surIace and atmosphere.
There are some eIIects on global warming like temperatures, rising sea levels, and sever
storms. Global warming will result in more hot days and Iewer cold days, more intense heat
waves will become more Irequent. Rising sea levels will erode coasts and cause more coastal
Ilooding, hurricanes will likely increase in intensity due to warmer ocean surIace temperatures
and increases in rainIall will come in the Iorm oI bigger, wetter storms.
There are many people that agree global warming is happening and on the other hand
there are many people who believe global warming is a great big lie. Paleoclimate readings
deciphered Irom Iossil records and ice cores have shown that these two most greenhouse
gases are at their highest levels. The national wildliIe Iederation considers global warming to
be 'the most dangerous threat to the Iuture oI wildliIe. There are some species being
dramatically impacted by global warming like the Adelie Penguins, Caribou, Monarch
ButterIlies, Migratory Songbirds, Polar Bears, Coral ReeIs, and the Arctic Foxes. The cause
oI global warming is human activity, including Iossil Iuel combustion associated with
industrial development, the burning oI Iorest by Iarmers in the developing world, biomass
combustion, the burning oI wood and coal, and heat by the poor.
People can do a lot to stop global warming. They can do things like being more careIul
about leaving things turned on like the television, computer, and the lights. A lot oI people
are taking time away Irom the television, and instead, they are spending more time outdoors.
This helps our planet out a lot. Now, more people are even riding busses, walking to school,
and riding their bikes to lower the amount oI greenhouse gases in the air. Planting trees and
recycling also helps. II you recycle, less trash goes to the dump, and less trash gets burned.
As a result, there are Iewer greenhouse gasses in our atmosphere.



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iterature
1. http://library.thinkquest.org/CR0215471/globalwarming.htm
2. http://www.worldviewoIglobalwarming.org/pages/aboutwarm.html
3. http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/kids/greenhouse.html
4. http://unsweducation.wikispaces.com/Iile/view/greenhouseeIIect.png/83618879/green
houseeIIect.png
5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbondioxide
6. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane
7. http://www.globalwarming.org/
8. http://www.eoearth.org/article/Nitrousoxide
9. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Airsmethane20062009359hpa.png