PRINCIPLES OF GRAMMATICAL ANALYSIS: UNITS AND CONSTITUENCY Level of lexico-grammar has an observation in these two things: 1.

we find a number of different kinds of units 2. these units are related to each other through constituency, i.e smaller units make up bigger units, and so does the converse. A text is indicated by different spatial or graphological that obviously will be relating each other. The table below shows us the summary: Units Criteria used to identify units paragraph double spacing sentence full stop comma-unit comma word spaces letter smaller spaces This is what we called ranked constituent analysis of orthographic expression. This will no make reference to the meaning or content of passage nor the phonological properties. If we want to analyze that, the table will be like this: Units Criteria used to identify units verse silence either side tone group tonic foot salience syllable articulation of sound clusters phoneme articulation of discrete sounds Explanation: Phoneme is the smallest unit of sound Phoneme syllable feet tone verse Constituents of the content plane When we talk about lexico-grammar, it is all about content, not expression. The text as a whole constitutes a number of unit of meaning that is indicated by orthographic convention. The largest is sentence, indicated by capital letter and full stop. Secondary is clause, indicated by colons and commas or semi colons. Next is the phrase which rules as sub clause, sometimes separated by commas. Next is the word, indicated by spacing. The last is morpheme. For clearing the rank, table below will help us: Content units Orthographic signal text paragraph sentence capital letter/ full stop clause comma group/ phrase comma word spacing morpheme no signal

Rank scale As Halliday and Hasan said, text is semantic unit, a unitnot of form but of meaning. So it is related to a clause or sentence not by size but by realization, text does not consist of sentence bu it is realized by it. Complex sentence is the association of clauses in sequence, either spoken or written. It is not placed above the clause on the rank, but rather next to it because the relationship between two clauses is a logical structure. So the rank scale should be like this: clause clause complex group/ phrase word morpheme In a group rank we often find a modification or expansion where Head ( the Thing in nominal group) is included inside. For example: The three hairy redback spiders over there Head : spiders Deictic : the Numerative : three Epithet : hairy Classifier : redback Qualifier : over there For morpheme, it has two levels that are bound morpheme and free morpheme. In word friendly the free morpheme is friend and the bound is ly. Not that not all the bound morpheme can be applied in free morpheme. Bracketing It aims to uncover and describe the structures of different units, according to rank scale. The highest rank scale is the clause, so if you may take a look at the following clause: The professor has prepared a provisional exam timetable The step-to-step of bracketing first is the clause is bracked into phrases which make it up. Then each phrase is bracked into the words that make it up. We should bracket until the smallest unit, that is morpheme, but we will just analyze as far as word. So it will be like this: ((The) (professor) ((has) (prepared)) ((a) (provisional) (exam) (timetable)) There is another example which includes the rule of preposition as prepositional phrase. Consider the following clause: Application forms can be collected from the Secretarys office on the first floor If we bracked it will be like this:
((Application) (forms)) ((can) (be) (collected)) ((from) ((the) (Secretarys) (office))) ((on) ((the) (first) (floor)))

As you can see that prepositional phrase is made up of a unit of the same rank, so it is a phrase within a phrase. This is obviously considered more complex as a structure. Now if we put two more additional preposition phrases:

Application forms for postgraduate scholarships can be collected from the Secretarys office on the firs floor of the Arts Faculty building. Those additional phrase do not seem to be functioning, because it is only in the clause for giving information and specify, not meant to be functioning. This means that these phrases are operating at the group/ phrase rank not operating at the clause rank. For this reason you can use these tests to make sure: 1. Movability if an element is a clause rank, it will move independently. For instance: For each assignment, on the following two weeks there are second and third collections. On the following two weeks there are second and third collections for each assignment. 2. Substitution a single clause should be reducible to a single substituted item. Example: Formal extensions of time are not granted They are not granted 3. Probe question the point is asking a question and answering it in order to make a respond. Example in Documentary evidence of the disability must be attached to the essay. You probably will ask: What must be attached? The answer: Documentary evidence of the disability. Embedding or rank shift There is another complexity beside the prepositional phrase explained above as the following clause shows us: All students who are completing this year must submit their final essays You maybe realize that there is clause within that clause (this complexity is called as rank shift). It is all students who are completing this year. In addition there is also prepositional phrase for further embedding. So the clause that be embedded will be like this: (All) (students) ((who) ((are) (completing)) ((this) (year))) Labeling So far we have already know the way of dividing clause structure into bracket, but we have not known about the information beneath that. So we must have a technique to describe the grammatical structure further. The technique is called as labeling. The rank has two kinds of label that are Class Labels and Function Labels. Class Labels determine what the rank is called as, meanwhile Function Labels determine for what the rank is. The table below will summarize both labels: Rank Class Labels clause rank finite, non-finite, dependent clause, subordinate clause, relative clause, etc. group/ phrase rank prepositional phrase, adverbial phrase, nominal phrase, etc. word rank noun, adjective, article, adverb, etc. Rank clause rank group/ phrase rank word rank Function Labels main clause, qualifying clause, projected clause, etc. subject, finite, object, agent, actor, etc. deictic, classifier, thing, head, modifier, etc.

Multifunctionality of clause constituents In order to reveal how the clause is a simultaneous realization of ideational, interpersonal and textual meaning, we need to develop three sets of functional labels to describe clause structure. We know that clause has more that one role in a structure, or we can call it multifunctionality. Now take a look at the clauses below in order to find the Subject: i) The redback spider gave the captured beetle a poisonous bite The redback spider is the Subject ii) A poisonous bite was given to the captured beetle by the redback spider A poisonous bite is the Subject iii) The captured beetle was given a poisonous bite by the redback spider The captured beetle is the Subject iv) A poisonous bite is what the captured beetle was given by redback spider The captured beetle is the Subject The examples above suggest that Subject has some different roles that show three different types: 1. Psychological Subject: is the concern of the message or the point information of the clause. This will be labeled as THEME 2. Grammatical Subject: is the constituent of which something is predicated. It is called as SUBJECT 3. Logical subject: is the doer of the action. It refers to term ACTOR For the easiest example, look at this clause: The redback spider gave its prey a poisonous bite Subject/Actor/Theme It seems that here Subject, Actor and Theme, are fused together on to the same participant. This is aimed to show us that Subject has other roles i.e. as Theme and Actor. On the other hand there are also three types of meaning that clauses brought in some cases. That a clause is expressing three strands of meaning can be demonstrated further by exploring how a clause can be varied in three different ways. Consider these following set of clauses: The redback spider gave the captured beetle a poisonous bite Did the redback spider give the captured beetle a poisonous bite? What did the redback spider give the captured beetle? Who gave the captured beetle a poisonous bite? Give a poisonous bite, redback spider! What a poisonous bite the redback spider gave the captured back! Here the ideational meaning is constant but the interpersonal meaning has been varied. Now consider the second set of clauses:

The redback spider gave the captured beetle a poisonous bite It was the redback spider who gave the captured beetle a poisonous bite By the redback spider the captured beetle was given a poisonous bite A poisonous bite was what the redback spider gave the captured beetle To the captured beetle the redback spider gave a poisonous bite Here the interpersonal meaning remains the same, that is a declarative way, and so the ideational meaning also remains the same. Last but not least take a look a set of clauses: The redback spider gave the captured beetle a poisonous bite The redback spider bit the captured beetle with poison The redback spider sniffed the captured beetle The redback spider thought about biting the captured beetle The redback spider has a poisonous bite The redback spider is the most deadly Australian spider Here we realize that the ideational meaning has been varied, while the interpersonal meaning still remains the same (declarative).