Miscellaneous Fluid Machines

1. Hydraulic Ram
A hydraulic ram is a cyclic water pump powered by hydropower. It functions as a hydraulic transformer that takes in water at one "hydraulic head" (pressure) and flow-rate, and outputs water at a higher hydraulic-head and lower flow-rate. The device utilizes the water hammer effect to develop pressure that allows a portion of the input water that powers the pump to be lifted to a point higher than where the water originally started. The hydraulic ram is sometimes used in remote areas, where there is both a source of low-head hydropower, and a need for pumping water to a destination higher in elevation than the source. In this situation, the ram is often useful, since it requires no outside source of power other than the kinetic energy of water.

Fig. 1(a) Hydraulic ram pump

Fig. 1 (b) A hydraulic ram that drives a fountain

Construction and principle of operation A hydraulic ram has only two moving parts, a spring or weight loaded "waste" valve sometimes known as the "clack" valve and a "delivery" check valve, making it cheap to build, easy to maintain, and very reliable. In addition, there is a drive pipe supplying water from an elevated source, and a delivery pipe, taking a portion of the water that comes through the drive pipe to an elevation higher than the source. Sequence of operation A simplified hydraulic ram is shown in Figure 2. Initially, the waste valve [4] is open, and the delivery valve [5] is closed. The water in the drive pipe [1] starts to flow under the force of gravity and picks up speed and kinetic energy until it forces the waste valve closed. The momentum of the water flow in the supply pipe against the now closed waste valve causes a water hammer that raises the pressure in the pump, opens the delivery valve [5], and forces some water to flow into the delivery pipe [3]. Because this water is being forced uphill through the

delivery pipe farther than it is falling downhill from the source, the flow slows; when the flow reverses, the delivery check valve closes. If all water flow has stopped, the loaded waste valve reopens against the now static head, which allows the process to begin again.

Fig. 2 Basic components of a hydraulic ram. 1. Inlet drive pipe 2. Free flow at waste valve 3. Outlet delivery pipe 4. Waste valve 5. Delivery check valve 6. Pressure vessel A pressure vessel [6] containing air cushions the hydraulic pressure shock when the waste valve closes, and it also improves the pumping efficiency by allowing a more constant flow through the delivery pipe. Although, in theory, the pump could work without it, the efficiency would drop drastically and the pump would be subject to extraordinary stresses that could shorten its life considerably. One problem is that the pressurized air will gradually dissolve into the water until none remains. One solution to this problem is to have the air separated from the water by an elastic diaphragm (similar to an expansion tank). The optimum length of the drive pipe is five-totwelve times the vertical distance between the source and the pump, or 500-to-1000 times the diameter of the delivery pipe, whichever is less. This length of drive pipe typically results in a period between pulses of one-to-two seconds. A typical efficiency is 60%, but up to 80% is possible. The drive pipe is ordinarily straight but can be curved or even wound in a spiral. The main requirement is that it be inelastic, strong, and rigid; otherwise, it would greatly diminish the efficiency.

2. Fluid coupling
A fluid coupling is a hydrodynamic device used to transmit rotating mechanical power.[1] It has been used in automobile transmissions as an alternative to a mechanical clutch. It also has widespread application in marine and industrial machine drives, where variable speed operation and/or controlled start-up without shock loading of the power transmission system is essential. Overview A fluid coupling consists of three components, plus the hydraulic fluid:

The housing, also known as the shell (which must have an oil tight seal around the drive shafts), contains the fluid and turbines. Two turbines (fan like components):

One connected to the input shaft; known as the pump or impellor,[4] primary wheel input turbine o The other connected to the output shaft, known as the turbine, output turbine, secondary wheel or runner.
o

Fig. 3 (a) Fluid Coupling The driving turbine, known as the 'pump', (or driving torus) is rotated by the prime mover, which is typically an internal combustion engine or electric motor. The impellor's motion imparts both outwards linear and rotational motion to the fluid. The hydraulic fluid is directed by the 'pump' whose shape forces the flow in the direction of the 'output turbine' (or driven torque). Here, any difference in the angular velocities of input stage and output stage results in a net force on the 'output turbine' causing a torque; thus causing it to rotate in the same direction as the pump. The motion of the fluid is effectively toroidal - travelling in one direction on paths that can be visualised as being on the surface of a torus:

If there is a difference between input and output angular velocities the motion has a component which is circular (i.e. round the rings formed by sections of the torus) If the input and output stages have identical angular velocities there is no net centripetal force - and the motion of the fluid is circular and co-axial with the axis of rotation (i.e. round the edges of a torus), there is no flow of fluid from one turbine to the other.

Stall speed An important characteristic of a fluid coupling is its stall speed. The stall speed is defined as the highest speed at which the pump can turn when the output turbine is locked and maximum input power is applied. Under stall conditions all of the engine's power would be dissipated in the fluid coupling as heat, possibly leading to damage. Slip A fluid coupling cannot develop output torque when the input and output angular velocities are identical. Hence a fluid coupling cannot achieve 100 percent power transmission efficiency. Due to slippage that will occur in any fluid coupling under load, some power will always be lost in fluid friction and turbulence, and dissipated as heat.

The very best efficiency a fluid coupling can achieve is 94%, that is for every 100 revolutions input, there will be 94 revolutions output. Like other fluid dynamical devices, its efficiency tends to increase gradually with increasing scale, as measured by the Reynolds number. Hydraulic fluid As a fluid coupling operates kinetically, low viscosity fluids are preferred.[6] Generally speaking, multi-grade motor oils or automatic transmission fluids are used. Increasing density of the fluid increases the amount of torque that can be transmitted at a given input speed. [7] Hydrodynamic braking Fluid couplings can also act as hydrodynamic brakes, dissipating rotational energy as heat through frictional forces (both viscous and fluid/container). When a fluid coupling is used for braking it is also known as a retarder. Applications Industrial: Fluid couplings are used in many industrial application involving rotational power, especially in machine drives that involve high-inertia starts or constant cyclic loading. Rail transportation: Fluid couplings are found in some Diesel locomotives as part of the power transmission system. Self-Changing Gears made semi-automatic transmissions for British Rail, and Voith manufacture turbo-transmissions for railcars and diesel multiple units which contain various combinations of fluid couplings and torque converters. Automotive: Fluid couplings were used in a variety of early semi-automatic transmissions and automatic transmissions. Since the late 1940s, the hydrodynamic torque converter has replaced the fluid coupling in automotive applications. In automotive applications, the pump typically is connected to the flywheel of the enginein fact, the coupling's enclosure may be part of the flywheel proper, and thus is turned by the engine's crankshaft. The turbine is connected to the input shaft of the transmission. While the transmission is in gear, as engine speed increases torque is transferred from the engine to the input shaft by the motion of the fluid, propelling the vehicle. In this regard, the behavior of the fluid coupling strongly resembles that of a mechanical clutch driving a manual transmission. Fluid flywheels, as distinct from torque converters, are best known for their use in Daimler cars in conjunction with a Wilson pre-selector gearbox. Daimler used these throughout their range of luxury cars, until switching to automatic gearboxes with the 1958 Majestic. Daimler and Alvis were both also known for their military vehicles and armored cars, some of which also used the combination of pre-selector gearbox and fluid flywheel. Aviation: The most prominent use of fluid couplings in aeronautical applications was in the Wright turbo-compound reciprocating engine, in which three power recovery turbines extracted approximately 20 percent of the energy or about 500 horsepower (370 kW) from the engine's exhaust gases and then, using three fluid couplings and gearing, converted low-torque high-speed turbine rotation to low-speed, high-torque output to drive the propeller. Calculations

Generally speaking, the power transmitting capability of a given fluid coupling is strongly related to pump speed, a characteristic that generally works well with applications where the applied load doesn't fluctuate to a great degree. The torque transmitting capacity of any hydrodynamic coupling can be described by the expression r(N2)(D5), where r is the mass density of the fluid, N is the impeller speed, and D is the impeller diameter.[10] In the case of automotive applications, where loading can vary to considerable extremes, r(N2)(D5) is only an approximation. Stop-and-go driving will tend to operate the coupling in its least efficient range, causing an adverse effect on fuel economy.

3. Hydraulic Torque Convertor

A torque converter is a fluid coupling that is used to transfer rotating power from a prime mover, such as an internal combustion engine or electric motor, to a rotating driven load. Like a basic fluid coupling, the torque converter normally takes the place of a mechanical clutch, allowing the load to be separated from the power source. However, a torque converter is able to multiply torque when there is a substantial difference between input and output rotational speed, thus providing the equivalent of a reduction gear. Usage:

Automatic transmissions on automobiles, such as cars, buses, and on/off highway trucks. Forwarders and other heavy duty vehicles. Marine propulsion systems. Industrial power transmission such as conveyor drives, almost all modern forklifts, winches, drilling rigs, construction equipment, and railway locomotives.

Function: A fluid coupling is a two element drive that is incapable of multiplying torque, while a torque converter has at least one extra elementthe statorwhich alters the drive's characteristics during periods of high slippage, producing an increase in output torque.

Fig. 3 (b) Torque convertor elements

In a torque converter there are at least three rotating elements: the impeller, which is mechanically driven by the prime mover; the turbine, which drives the load; and the stator, which is interposed between the impeller and turbine so that it can alter oil flow returning from the turbine to the impeller. The classic torque converter design dictates that the stator be prevented from rotating under any condition, hence the term stator. In practice, however, the stator is mounted on an overrunning clutch, which prevents the stator from counter-rotating with respect to the prime mover but allows forward rotation.

Fig. 4 Location of Torque convertor in Cars Operational phases: A torque converter has three stages of operation:

Stall: The prime mover is applying power to the impeller but the turbine cannot rotate. For example, in an automobile, this stage of operation would occur when the driver has placed the transmission in gear but is preventing the vehicle from moving by continuing to apply the brakes. At stall, the torque converter can produce maximum torque multiplication if sufficient input power is applied (the resulting multiplication is called the stall ratio). The stall phase actually lasts for a brief period when the load (e.g., vehicle) initially starts to move, as there will be a very large difference between pump and turbine speed. Acceleration: The load is accelerating but there still is a relatively large difference between impeller and turbine speed. Under this condition, the converter will produce torque multiplication that is less than what could be achieved under stall conditions. The amount of multiplication will depend upon the actual difference between pump and turbine speed, as well as various other design factors. Coupling: The turbine has reached approximately 90 percent of the speed of the impeller. Torque multiplication has essentially ceased and the torque converter is behaving in a manner similar to a simple fluid coupling. In modern automotive applications, it is usually at this stage of operation where the lock-up clutch is applied, a procedure that tends to improve fuel efficiency.

The key to the torque converter's ability to multiply torque lies in the stator. In the classic fluid coupling design, periods of high slippage cause the fluid flow returning from the turbine to the impellor to oppose the direction of impeller rotation, leading to a significant loss of efficiency and the generation of considerable waste heat. Under the same condition in a torque converter, the returning fluid will be redirected by the stator so that it aids the rotation of the impeller, instead of impeding it. The result is that much of the energy in the returning fluid is recovered and added to the energy being applied to the impeller by the prime mover. This action causes a substantial increase in the mass of fluid being directed to the turbine, producing an increase in

output torque. Since the returning fluid is initially travelling in a direction opposite to impeller rotation, the stator will likewise attempt to counter-rotate as it forces the fluid to change direction, an effect that is prevented by the one-way stator clutch. Unlike the radially straight blades used in a plain fluid coupling, a torque converter's turbine and stator use angled and curved blades. The blade shape of the stator is what alters the path of the fluid, forcing it to coincide with the impeller rotation. The matching curve of the turbine blades helps to correctly direct the returning fluid to the stator so the latter can do its job. The shape of the blades is important as minor variations can result in significant changes to the converter's performance. During the stall and acceleration phases, in which torque multiplication occurs, the stator remains stationary due to the action of its one-way clutch. However, as the torque converter approaches the coupling phase, the energy and volume of the fluid returning from the turbine will gradually decrease, causing pressure on the stator to likewise decrease. Once in the coupling phase, the returning fluid will reverse direction and now rotate in the direction of the impellor and turbine, an effect which will attempt to forward-rotate the stator. At this point, the stator clutch will release and the impeller, turbine and stator will all (more or less) turn as a unit. Unavoidably, some of the fluid's kinetic energy will be lost due to friction and turbulence, causing the converter to generate waste heat (dissipated in many applications by water cooling). This effect, often referred to as pumping loss, will be most pronounced at or near stall conditions. In modern designs, the blade geometry minimizes oil velocity at low impeller speeds, which allows the turbine to be stalled for long periods with little danger of overheating. Efficiency: A torque converter cannot achieve 100 percent coupling efficiency. The classic three element torque converter has an efficiency curve that resembles: zero efficiency at stall, generally increasing efficiency during the acceleration phase and low efficiency in the coupling phase. The loss of efficiency as the converter enters the coupling phase is a result of the turbulence and fluid flow interference generated by the stator, and as previously mentioned, is commonly overcome by mounting the stator on a one-way clutch.

4. Submersible Pump
A submersible pump (or electric submersible pump (ESP)) is a device which has a hermetically sealed motor close-coupled to the pump body. The whole assembly is submerged in the fluid to be pumped. The main advantage of this type of pump is that it prevents pump cavitation, a problem associated with a high elevation difference between pump and the fluid surface. Submersible pumps push fluid to the surface as opposed to jet pumps having to pull fluids. Submersibles are more efficient than jet pumps.

Fig. 5 Submersible pump Working principle The submersible pumps used in ESP installations are multistage centrifugal pumps operating in a vertical position. Although their constructional and operational features underwent a continuous evolution over the years, their basic operational principle remained the same. Produced liquids, after being subjected to great centrifugal forces caused by the high rotational speed of the impeller, lose their kinetic energy in the diffuser where a conversion of kinetic to pressure energy takes place. This is the main operational mechanism of radial and mixed flow pumps. The pump shaft is connected to the gas separator or the protector by a mechanical coupling at the bottom of the pump. Well fluids enter the pump through an intake screen and are lifted by the pump stages.Other parts include the radial bearings (bushings) distributed along the length of the shaft providing radial support to the pump shaft turning at high rotational speeds. An optional thrust bearing takes up part of the axial forces arising in the pump but most of those forces are absorbed by the protectors thrust bearing.

Fig. 6 ESP systems are effective for pumping produced fluids to surface.

Applications Submersible pumps are found in many applications. Single stage pumps are used for drainage, sewage pumping, general industrial pumping and slurry pumping. They are also popular with aquarium filters. Multiple stage submersible pumps are typically lowered down a borehole and used for water abstraction, water wells and in oil wells. Special attention to the type of ESP is required when using certain types of liquids. ESP's commonly used on board naval vessels cannot be used to dewater contaminated flooded spaces. These use a 440 volt A/C motor that operates a small centrifugal pump. It can also be used out of the water, taking suction with a 2-1/2 inch non-collapsible hose. The pumped liquid is circulated around the motor for cooling purposes. There is a possibility that the gasoline will leak into the pump causing a fire or destroying the pump, so hot water and flammable liquids should be avoided.

5. Gear Pump
A gear pump uses the meshing of gears to pump fluid by displacement. They are one of the most common types of pumps for hydraulic fluid power applications. Gear pumps are also widely used in chemical installations to pump fluid with a certain viscosity. There are two main variations; external gear pumps which use two external spur gears, and internal gear pumps which use an external and an internal spur gear. Gear pumps are positive displacement (or fixed displacement), meaning they pump a constant amount of fluid for each revolution. Some gear pumps are designed to function as either a motor or a pump.

Fig. 7 Schematic of Gear pump Theory of operation As the gears rotate they separate on the intake side of the pump, creating a void and suction which is filled by fluid. The fluid is carried by the gears to the discharge side of the pump, where the meshing of the gears displaces the fluid. The mechanical clearances are small in the order of 10 m. The tight clearances, along with the speed of rotation, effectively prevent the fluid from leaking backwards.

The rigid design of the gears and houses allow for very high pressures and the ability to pump highly viscous fluids. Many variations exist, including; helical and herringbone gear sets (instead of spur gears), lobe shaped rotors similar to Roots Blowers (commonly used as superchargers), and mechanical designs that allow the stacking of pumps. The most common variations are shown below (the drive gear is shown blue and the idler is shown purple).

Fig. 8 (a) External gear pump Fig. 8 (b) Internal gear Fig. 8 (c) Internal gear design for hydraulic power (Gerotor) pump design for (Gerotor) pump design for applications. automotive oil pumps. high viscosity fluids. Suction and pressure ports need to interface where the gears mesh (shown as dim gray lines in the internal pump images). Some internal gear pumps have an additional, crescent shaped seal (shown above, right). Usage: 1. PETROCHEMICALS: Pure or filled bitumen, pitch, diesel oil, crude oil, lube oil etc. 2. CHEMICALS: Sodium silicate, acids, plastics, mixed chemicals, isocyanates etc. 3. PAINT & INK. 4. RESINS & ADHESIVES. 5. PULP & PAPER: acid, soap, lye, black liquor, kaolin, lime, latex, sludge etc. 6. FOOD: Chocolate, cacao butter, fillers, sugar, vegetable fats and oils, molasses, animal food etc.

6. Axial Piston Pump

An axial piston pump is a positive displacement pump that has a number of pistons in a circular array within a cylinder block. It can be used as a stand-alone pump, a hydraulic motor or an automotive air conditioning compressor.

Fig. 9 Axial Piston Pump

Description: An axial piston pump has a number of pistons (usually an odd number) arranged in a circular array within a housing which is commonly referred to as a cylinder block, rotor or barrel. This cylinder block is driven to rotate about its axis of symmetry by an integral shaft that is, more or less, aligned with the pumping pistons (usually parallel but not necessarily).

Fig. 10 Axial Piston Pump

Mating surfaces. One end of the cylinder block is convex and wears against a mating surface on a stationary valve plate. The inlet and outlet fluid of the pump pass through different parts of the sliding interface between the cylinder block and valve plate. The valve plate has two semi-circular ports that allow inlet of the operating fluid and exhaust of the outlet fluid respectively. Protruding pistons. The pumping pistons protrude from the opposite end of the cylinder block. There are numerous configurations used for the exposed ends of the pistons but in all cases they bear against a cam. In variable displacement units, the cam is movable and commonly referred to as a swash plate, yoke or hanger. For conceptual purposes, the cam can be represented by a plane, the orientation of which, in combination with shaft rotation, provides the cam action that leads to piston reciprocation and thus pumping. The angle between a vector normal to the cam plane and the cylinder block axis of rotation, called the cam angle, is one variable that determines the displacement of the pump or the amount of fluid pumped per shaft revolution. Variable displacement units have the ability to vary the cam angle during operation whereas fixed displacement units do not. Reciprocating pistons. As the cylinder block rotates, the exposed ends of the pistons are constrained to follow the surface of the cam plane. Since the cam plane is at an angle to the axis of rotation, the pistons must reciprocate axially as they precess about the cylinder block axis. The axial motion of the pistons is sinusoidal. During the rising portion of the piston's reciprocation cycle, the piston moves toward the valve plate. Also, during this time, the fluid trapped between the buried end of the piston and the valve plate is vented to the pump's discharge port through one of the valve plate's semi-circular ports - the discharge port. As the piston moves toward the valve plate, fluid is pushed or displaced through the discharge port of the valve plate. Effect of precession. When the piston is at the top of the reciprocation cycle (commonly referred to as top-dead-center or just TDC), the connection between the trapped fluid chamber and the pump's discharge port is closed. Shortly thereafter, that same chamber becomes open to the pump's inlet port. As the piston continues to precess about the cylinder block axis, it moves away from the valve plate thereby increasing the volume of the trapped chamber. As this occurs, fluid enters the chamber from the pump's inlet to fill the void. This process continues until the piston reaches the bottom of the reciprocation cycle - commonly referred to as bottom-dead-center or BDC. At BDC, the connection between the pumping chamber and inlet port is closed. Shortly thereafter, the chamber becomes open to the discharge port again and the pumping cycle starts over. Variable displacement. In a variable displacement unit, if the vector normal to the cam plane (swash plate) is set parallel to the axis of rotation, there is no movement of the

pistons in their cylinders. Thus there is no output. Movement of the swash plate controls pump output from zero to maximum. Pressure. In a typical pressure-compensated pump, the swash plate angle is adjusted through the action of a valve which uses pressure feedback so that the instantaneous pump output flow is exactly enough to maintain a designated pressure. If the load flow increases, pressure will momentarily decrease but the pressure-compensation valve will sense the decrease and then increase the swash plate angle to increase pump output flow so that the desired pressure is restored. In reality most systems use pressure as a control for this type of pump. The operating pressure reaches, say, 200 bar (20 MPa or 2900 psi) and the swash plate is driven towards zero angle (piston stroke nearly zero) and with the inherent leaks in the system allows the pump to stabilise at the delivery volume that maintains the set pressure. As demand increases the swash plate is moved to a greater angle, piston stroke increases and the volume of fluid increases; if the demand slackens the pressure will rise, and the pumped volume diminishes as the pressure rises. At maximum system pressure the output is once again almost zero. If the fluid demand increases beyond the capacity of the pump to deliver, the system pressure will drop to near zero. The swash plate angle will remain at the maximum allowed, and the pistons will operate at full stroke. This continues until system flow-demand eases and the pump's capacity is greater than demand. As the pressure rises the swash-plate angle modulates to try to not exceed the maximum pressure while meeting the flow demand.

Uses Despite the problems indicated above this type of pump can contain most of the necessary circuit controls integrally (the swash-plate angle control) to regulate flow and pressure, be very reliable and allow the rest of the hydraulic system to be very simple and inexpensive. Axial reciprocating motors are also used to power many machines. They operate on the same principle as described above, except that the circulating fluid is provided under considerable pressure and the piston housing is made to rotate and provide shaft power to another machine. A common use of an axial reciprocating motor is to power small earthmoving plant such as skid loader machines. Another use is to drive the screws of torpedoes.

7. Axial Flow Pump

An axial flow pump, or AFP, is a common type of pump that essentially consists of a propeller in a pipe. The propeller can be driven directly by a sealed motor in the pipe or mounted to the pipe from the outside or by a right-angle drive shaft that pierces the pipe.

Fig. 11 Axial flow pump for industrial use

The main advantage of an AFP is that it can easily be adjusted to run at peak efficiency at lowflow/high-pressure and high-flow/low-pressure by changing the pitch on the propeller (some models only). These pumps have the smallest of the dimensions among many of the conventional pumps and are more suited for low heads and higher discharges. An application example of an AFP would be transfer pumps used for sailing ballast. In chemical industry, they are used for the circulation of large masses of liquid, such as in evaporators and crystallizers. In sewage treatment an AFP is often used for internal mixed liquor recirculation (i.e. transferring nitrified mixed liquor from aeration zone to denitrification zone).

8. Air Jet Pump

If water is speeded up through a jet, it causes a drop in pressure. Here the pump is fitted into a secondary casing which contains water at discharge pressure, (see Fig. 12). A proportion of the water from this chamber is bled back to a nozzle fitted into the suction end of the pump casing and directed into the eye of the impeller. Once the pump has been used once (having been manually primed initially) it remains full of water so that on start up the pump circulates water from the discharge through the jet and back into the suction side. As before, air is sucked through and bubbles out of the discharge, while (until the pump primes) the water falls back and recirculates. The jet causes low pressure in the suction line and entrains air which goes through the impeller and is discharged, hence water is gradually drawn up the suction line. As soon as all the air is expelled from the system, most of the discharge goes up the discharge line, but a proportion is fed back to the nozzle and increases the suction considerably compared with the effect of a centrifugal impeller on its own. Therefore, this kind of pump not only pulls a higher suction lift than normal, but the pump can reliably run on "snore" (i.e. sucking a mixture of air and water without losing its prime). This makes it useful in situations where shallow water is being suction pumped and it is difficult to obtain sufficient submergence of the footvalve, or where a water source may occasionally be pumped dry. This jet pump principle can also be applied to boreholes as indicated in Fig. 75. An arrangement like this allows a surface-mounted pump and motor to "suck" water from depths of around 1020m; the diffuser after the jet serves to raise the pressure in the rising main and prevent cavitation. Although the jet circuit commonly needs 1.5-2 times the flow being delivered, and is consequently a source of significant power loss, pumps like this are sometimes useful for lifting sandy or muddy water as they are not so easily clogged as a submerged pump. In such cases a settling tank is provided on the surface between the pump suction and the jet pump discharge to allow the pump to draw clearer water. Jet pumps are commonly used to extract water from water wells. A powered pump, often a centrifugal pump, is installed at ground level. Its discharge is split, with the greater part of the flow leaving the system, while a portion of the flow is returned to the jet pump installed below ground in the well. This recirculated part of the pumped fluid is used to power the jet. At the jet pump, the high-energy, low-mass returned flow drives more fluid from the well, becoming a low-energy, high-mass flow which is then piped to the inlet of the main pump.

The disadvantages of jet pumps are, first, greater complexity and therefore cost, and second, reduced efficiency since power is used in pumping water through the jet, (although some of this power is recovered by the pumping effect of the jet). Obviously it is better to use a conventional Centrifugal pump in a situation with little or no suction lift, but where Suction pumping is essential, then a self-priming pump of this kind can offer a successful solution.

Fig. 12 Surface suction jet pump

Fig. 13 Borehole jet pump

9. Air Lift Pump

The primary virtue of air lift pumps is that they are extremely simple. A rising main, which is submerged in a well so that more of it is below the water level than above it, has compressed air blown into it at its lowest point (see Fig. 14). The compressed air produces a froth of air and water, which has a lower density than water and consequently rises to the surface. The compressed air is usually produced by an engine driven air compressor, but windmill powered air compressors are also used. The principle of it is that an air/water froth, having as little as half the density of water, will rise to a height above the water level in the well approximately equal to the immersed depth of the rising main. The greater the ratio of the submergance of the rising main to the static head, the more froth will be discharged for a given supply of air and hence the more efficient an air lift pump will be. Therefore, when used in a borehole, the borehole needs to be drilled to a depth more than twice the depth of the static water level to allow adequate submergence.

Fig. 14 Air lift pump The main advantage of the air lift pump is that there are no mechanical below-ground components, so it is essentially simple and reliable and can easily handle sandy or gritty water. The disadvantages are rather severe; first, it is inefficient as a pump, probably no better, at best, than 20-30% in terms of compressed air energy to hydraulic output energy, and this is compounded by the fact that air compressors are also generally inefficient. Therefore the running costs of an air lift pump will be very high in energy terms. Second, it usually requires a borehole to be drilled considerably deeper than otherwise would be necessary in order to obtain enough [submergence, and this is generally a costly exercise. This problem is obviously less serious for low head applications where the extra depth [required would be small, or where a borehole needs to be drilled to a considerable depth below the static water level anyway to obtain sufficient inflow of water.

10.

Self-priming Rotodynamic Pump

Rotodynamic pumps, of any kind, will only start to pump if their impellers are flooded with water prior to start-up. Obviously the one certain way to avoid any problem is to submerge the pump in the water source, but this is not always practical or convenient. This applies especially to portable pump sets, which are often important for irrigation, but which obviously need to be drained and re-primed every time they are moved to a new site. Sometimes the most reliable arrangement is to use a special "self-priming" centrifugal pump (Fig. 15). Here, the pump has an enlarged upper casing with a baffle in it. When the pump and suction line are empty, the pump casing has to be filled with water from a bucket through the filler plug visible on top. Then when the pump is started, the water in the casing is thrown up towards the discharge and an eye is formed at the hub of the impeller which is at low pressure; until water is drawn up the suction pipe the water discharged from the top of the pump tends to fall back around the baffle and some of the entrained air carries on up the empty discharge pipe. The air which is discharged is replaced by water drawn up the suction pipe, until eventually the suction pipe fills completely and the air bubble in the eye of the impeller is blown out of the discharge pipe. Once all the air has been expelled, water ceases to circulate within the pump and both channels act as discharge channels. A check valve is fitted to the inlet of the pump so that when the pump is stopped it remains full of water. Then even if the foot valve on the suction line leaks and the suction line empties, the water trapped in the casing of the pump will allow the same self-priming function as described earlier to suck water up the suction line. Hence, pumps

of this kind only need to be manually filled with water when first starting up after the entire system has been drained.

Fig. 15 Self-priming centrifugal pump

11.

Screw Pump

Screw pump is a positive displacement pump that use one or several screws to move fluids or solids along the screw(s) axis. In its simplest form (the Archimedes' screw pump), a single screw rotates in a cylindrical cavity, thereby moving the material along the screw's spindle. This ancient construction is still used in many low-tech applications, such as irrigation systems and in agriculturural machinery for transporting grain and other solids.

Fig. 16 Screw Pumps

Development of the screw pump has led to a variety of multi-axis technologies where carefully crafted screws rotate in opposite directions or remains stationary within a cavity. The cavity can be profiled, thereby creating cavities where the pumped material is "trapped".

In offshore and marine installations, a three spindle screw pump is often used to pump high pressure viscous fluids. Three screws drive the pumped liquid forth in a closed chamber. As the screws rotate in opposite directions, the pumped liquid moves aling the screws spindles. Three-Spindle screw pumps are used for transport of viscous fluids with lubricating properties. They are suited for a variety of applications such as fuel-injection, oil burners, boosting, hydraulics, fuel, lubrication, circulating, feed and so on. Compared to centrifugal pumps, positive displacements (PD) pumps have several advantages. The pumped fluid is moving axially without turbulence which eliminates foaming that would otherwise occur in viscous fluids. They are also able to pump fluids of higher viscosity without losing flow rate. Also, changes in the pressure difference have little impact on PD pumps compared to centrifugal pumps.