NUCLEAR SCIENCE PROGRAMME

SCHOOL OF APPLIED PHYSICS

FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
UNIVERSITI KEBANGSAAN MALAYSIA



STSN 6614



EXPERIMENT 6
CALIBRATION OF GAMMA SCINTILLATION DFTECTOR



RAYMOND YAPP TZE LOONG
P62856



DEMONSTRATOR
DR. KHOO KOK SIONG


TITLE : CALIBRATION OF GAMMA SCINTILLATION DETECTOR

AIM : Calibrate the Gamma Scintillation Detector

INTRODUCTION
NaI(T1) CRYSTAL SPECTROMETER FOR MEASUREMENT OF GAMMA
RAYS

This spectrometer will be used to detect and measure the energy oI gamma-rays in the
range oI 50 KeV 2 MeV in the Iollowing experiments.

Gamma-rays passing through a NaI-Crystal produces electrons by photoelectric eIIect,
Compton eIIect and pair production. The energy oI these electrons is quickly
dissipated in the crystal by ionization and excitation. The phosphor (T1) concerts a
Iraction oI this dissipated energy into a Ilash oI light (call scintillation). The Ilash is
picked up u the photocathode oI a photomultiplier and an electrical pulse is produced.

The height oI the pulse is proportional to the intensity oI the light. II the gamma ray
energy is completely transIerred to the electron (line in photoelectric eIIect) and iI the
electron is stopped within the crystal, then the intensity oI light Ilash proportional to
the gamma ray energy. Thus by measuring the height oI the pulses produced, we can
measure the energy oI the gamma-rays.

A small amount oI thallium (0.1 0.2) is suIIicient Ior a good conversion oI
electron energy into a light Ilash. The light Ilash has duration oI less than 1 sec and is
conIine to a wavelength region oI 3200 5500 A. So the photo-cathode oI
photomultiplier tube should be sensitive throughout this region oI wavelengths.

The Scintillator Detector

The detector consists oI a NaI(T1) crystal mounted on the glass window oI a
photomultiplier (PM) tube (see Fig. 1). A uniIorm smearing oI silicon Iluid is given to
the surIaces that are in contact, so that light originating in the NaI(T1) crystal can pass
through the glass window without any reIlection. The outer surIaces oI the crystal (i.e.
the outer surIace) is coated with Al
2
O
3
or MgO powder so that light Irom the crystal
will be reIlected back into the crystal. Since NaI(T1) is hygroscopic, it is sealed in a
metallic container.

Fig. 1 Scintillator Detector

The photomultiplier consists oI a photo-cathode (which is just below glass window), a
number oI electrodes (called dynodes) and an anode. There are usually 10 or more
dynodes maintained successively at high voltage (about 100 volts per dynode stage)
through the use oI potential divider. Photon Irom the light Ilash in the crystal (due the
process mention beIore) release photoelectrons Irom the photo-cathode. These are
then directed towards the Iirst dynode. Each electron Ialling the dynode releases many
more electrons Irom it (dynode). All these electrons will now move towards and strike
the second dynode resulting in a Iurther electron multiplication. By a repeatation oI
this process through 10 stages the multiplication Iactor can be as high as 10
6
. When all
these electrons are collected by the anode, then an electrical pulse is Iormed whose
height is given by

where Q is the total charge oI all electron collected and C is the capacitance at the
output point.

Any stray magnetic Iield in the laboratory will inIluence the motion oI electrons inside
the photomultiplier. ThereIore PM tubes are normally surrounded by mu-metal shield.
ELECTONICS CIRCUITS
The block diagram Ior electronic circuits required Ior measurement oI gamma-rays is
given in Fig. 2.


Fig. 2 Block Diagram Ior Detection System

The scintillation head consists oI the NaI(T1) crystal, PM tube and preampliIier. As
the output pulse Irom the photomultiplier is very small it needs to be ampliIied. The
single channel analyser (SCA) can be used to determine the ampliIier output pulse
height. The SCA has a lower level (LL) discriminator (set to V volts, say) and upper
level (UL) discriminator (set to V dV volts, say). The diIIerence dV is called the
window width. The ampliIier output pulses are Ied to both discriminators
simultaneously. Each discriminator allows the pulses to pass through provided the
pulse height is above the discriminator level. The output oI discriminator is Ied to an
anti-coincidence circuit, which will not produce a pulse output iI it received signals
Irom both the discriminators. Thus the anti-coincidence circuit gives an output only
when the ampliIier pulses have a height between V and V dV Volts. The output oI
the anti-coincidence circuit is then shape into a rectangular pulse (duration a Iew sec
height 2 5V), which can be later registered by the counter/timer.

Note that the ampliIier can give an output 10V maximum. The SCA is thereIore
designed such that LL and UL discriminators are adjustable continuously Irom 0
10V.

OB1ECTIVE

The objectives oI the experiments are to:
O To calibrate the gamma scintillation detector
O To measure the channel Ior peak energy oI
137
Cs and
60
Co
O To determine the unknown source based on its peak energies

METHODOLOGY

1.
137
Cs source (E 661.6 KeV) was placed at 2 cm Irom the Iront Iace oI NaI(T1)
crystal.
2. The ampliIier output on the CRO was observed and set at 1V/cm vertical
sensitivity and 1s/cm horizontal sensitivity.
3. The HV (do not exceed 1000V) was slowly changed until the most instance pulses
are roughly 3 volt. You will later realize that at this HV setting and together with
the already adjusted ampliIier gain, the spectrometer can measure gamma rays up
to 2 MeV in energy.
*Do not change these setting during all the Iollowing experiments.
4. Window 0.1V and LL at 0.2V was set and the number oI gamma rays counted Ior
a time period 30 sec was recorded. This procedure was repeated by increasing LL
in step 0.1V and keeping the same window width as beIore.
5. A graph oI the number oI observed counts against the discriminator setting (say
that oI LL) was drew like Iig. 4.
6. The same procedure was repeated by using a
60
Co source and its spectrum which
was plotted like Iig. 5.
60
Co source emits two closely space gamma line (1173.2
KeV and 1332.5 KeV).
7. Results were tabulated in Table 1.
8. A graph oI E versus discriminator setting was drew by using the result oI Fig. 4
and Iig. 5. This is known as the energy calibration curve now to Iind the gamma
ray energy oI an unknown source by reassuring it spectrum under the same
conditions.



Fig. 4 Energy Calibration Curve Ior NaI(T1) Detector

L
n
e
r
g
y

(
k
e
V
)
Channe| Number
OBSERVATION AND MEASUREMENTS:

STSN 6614
DATA SHEET
Gamma Scintillation Detector

Counter : A
Source :
137
Cs
Voltage : 1000V
Channel (LL) Counts Channel (LL) Counts
0.2 2786 1.8 1820
0.3 3005 1.9 1887
0.4 2490 2.0 1580
0.5 2177 2.1 979
0.6 2246 2.2 542
0.7 2284 2.3 341
0.8 3131 2.4 283
0.9 3687 2.5 437
1.0 3217 2.6 822
1.1 2642 2.7 3372
1.2 2288 2.8 9067
1.3 2142 2.9 11252
1.4 1952 3.0 4899
1.5 1891 3.1 771
1.6 1760 3.2 62
1.7 1908 3.3 22







STSN 6614
DATA SHEET
Gamma Scintillation Detector

Counter : A
Source :
60
Co
Voltage : 1000V
Channel (LL) Counts Channel (LL) Counts Channel (LL) Counts
0.2 663 2.3 563 4.4 469
0.3 953 2.4 577 4.5 473
0.4 743 2.5 572 4.6 458
0.5 735 2.6 526 4.7 499
0.6 729 2.7 561 4.8 821
0.7 751 2.8 578 4.9 1417
0.8 775 2.9 598 5.0 1661
0.9 980 3.0 599 5.1 1213
1.0 1231 3.1 604 5.2 620
1.1 1163 3.2 592 5.3 337
1.2 1017 3.3 575 5.4 320
1.3 898 3.4 643 5.5 729
1.4 793 3.5 688 5.6 1194
1.5 678 3.6 737 5.7 1266
1.6 665 3.7 687 5.8 756
1.7 634 3.8 725 5.9 347
1.8 636 3.9 669 6.0 122
1.9 593 4.0 687 6.1 88
2.0 560 4.1 643 6.2 46
2.1 592 4.2 579
2.2 564 4.3 507



STSN 6614
DATA SHEET
Gamma Scintillation Detector

Counter : A
Source : Unknown
Voltage : 1000V
Channel (LL) Counts Channel (LL) Counts Channel (LL) Counts
0.2 5938 1.9 3906 3.6 21595
0.3 5878 2.0 3956 3.7 14086
0.4 5578 2.1 3918 3.8 4501
0.5 5623 2.2 4049 3.9 818
0.6 5515 2.3 4209 4.0 244
0.7 4766 2.4 4181 4.1 163
0.8 5503 2.5 4245 4.2 180
0.9 7538 2.6 4030 4.3 154
1.0 7630 2.7 3317 4.4 140
1.1 6623 2.8 2200 4.5 109
1.2 5557 2.9 1287 4.6 128
1.3 4858 3.0 880 4.7 101
1.4 4593 3.1 866 4.8 102
1.5 4315 3.2 1113 4.9 85
1.6 4002 3.3 1832 5.0 71
1.7 3863 3.4 5635
1.8 3900 3.5 14971

RESULTS
Event E (KeV) Disc. Setting (LL)(V)
Photopeak 661.6 2.9
Photopeak 1173.2 5.0
Photopeak 1332.5 5.7
Table 1
DISCUSSION

Interaction mechanisms for gamma rays with matter:

When entering a crystal, gamma rays produce Iast charged electrons by three diIIerent
processes: the photoelectric eIIect, the Compton eIIect (Compton scattering) and pair
production. It is these Iast electrons, which give rise to scintillations, not the gamma
ray. The observed spectral distribution will thus depend on the detailed interaction
process oI the gamma rays in the crystal.

i. Photoelectric Effect

Consider a beam oI mono-energetic gamma rays striking the scintillator. For our
purposes the most important energy loss mechanism is the photoelectric eIIect. When
a gamma ray strikes an ion in the crystal, it is absorbed and all oI its energy is
transIerred to one oI the bound electrons, which is Ireed and moves rapidly through
the crystal. Since the energy oI the gamma ray (typically about 0.5 MeV) is much
greater than the binding energy oI the electron oI the ion (typically 10 to 100 eV), the
energy oI the Ireed electron can be considered equal to that oI the incoming gamma.
(Especially since the energy resolution oI the detector is only about 10.) Thus the
photoelectric eIIect results in a peak, called the photopeak, in the photomultiplier
spectrum at an energy equal to that oI the incoming gamma ray.

ii. Compton Scattering

In Compton scattering, the gamma ray is not absorbed, but rather scattered through an
angle 0 by an electron, which recoils and carries away some oI the gamma ray`s
energy E. (The scattered gamma ray then escapes Irom the scintillator; the probability
that a gamma ray Compton scatters in a typical size scintillator is quite small (1 to
10), which means you are unlikely to detect a gamma ray that has undergone two
Compton scatterings.) The gamma ray`s initial wavelength is hc/E 1240/E nm,
where E is in eV. The change in wavelength is:

A h/mc (1 - cos 0) 0.00243 (1 - cos 0) nm, (1)

where h is Planck`s constant, m is the mass oI the electron and c is the speed oI light.
From this equation you can see that the energy loss oI the gamma ray will vary Irom
zero (when 0 0 ) to a maximum corresponding to a wavelength shiIt oI 0.00486
nm (when 0 180 ). This maximum energy loss is called the Compton edge. The
energy distribution oI Compton scattered electrons is essentially a constant. So the
Compton spectrum produced by a photomultiplier tube is an almost Ilat plateau Irom
zero energy up to the Compton edge where it drops oII sharply (at a rate limited by the
energy resolution oI the tube).

Consider, Ior example, a 622 keV gamma ray Irom a
137
Cs

decay. Its initial
wavelength is 0.00199 nm. II it is Compton scattered through 0 180 the
wavelength becomes 0.00199 0.00486 0.00685 nm corresponding to an energy oI
181 keV. The lost energy, 622 - 181 441 keV, is transIerred to the electron Irom
which it scattered and is observed as a Compton edge at 441keV. For smaller
scattering angles, the transIerred energy will be less, extending down to zero Ior 0 0
.

The discussion above reIers to gamma rays that are Compton scattered by electrons
within the scintillator. It is also possible Ior a gamma ray to be Compton scattered into
the scintillator Irom an interaction outside the scintillator. In this case the observed
signal is Irom the scattered gamma and not Irom the recoiling electron. The scattered
gamma ray could then be detected through the photoelectric eIIect. For
137
Cs

the
Compton scattered gamma rays will have energies ranging Irom 181 keV up to the Iull
622 keV. However, because oI the geometry oI the detector, most oI the gamma rays
scattered into the scintillator will have been scattered through a large value oI 0. But
cos 0 varies only slowly with 0 Ior 0 near 180
0
, which means |see Eq. (1)| that these
gamma rays will all have energies near 181 keV. The resulting energy peak is called
the backscatter peak. It can be enhanced by placing a sheet oI lead around the outside
oI the scintillator.



iii. Pair Production

The third interaction mechanism is pair production. II the incoming gamma ray energy
is above 1.02 MeV 2mc
2
, the rest mass oI an electron-positron pair, the gamma ray
can spontaneously create an electron-positron pair and be totally absorbed. II both the
electron and positron lose all oI their kinetic energy while still in the scintillator, they
would produce a photomultiplier pulse corresponding to an energy 2mc
2
below the
gamma ray energy E. (OI course, either might escape the crystal aIter partial loss oI
kinetic energy.)

But the spectrum is actually more complicated since iI the positron has been slowed
down and stopped in the crystal, it will annihilate with an electron, emitted two
gamma rays, each oI energy mc
2
. One, or both, oI these gamma rays may be absorbed
in the crystal, and thus contribute to the height oI the photomultiplier output pulse.
Pair production thereIore produces a 'Iull energy peak (E), a 'one-escape peak (E-
mc
2
) and 'two escape peak (E-2mc
2
), depending upon whether both annihilation
photons are absorbed in the scintillator or one, or both, escapes.

The Iinal question to consider is that oI the relative importance oI the three interaction
mechanisms, which depend in diIIerent ways upon the energy oI the gamma ray. For
low energy rays, the photoelectric eIIect predominates. Since the photopeak directly
yields the energy oI the gamma ray, most scintillators are designed to maximize the
photopeak. In the NaI(T1) scintillator you will use, a small amount oI the heavy metal
thallium is added Ior this purpose when the crystal is grown. (The strength oI the
photoelectric eIIect depends strongly on the number oI electrons bound to the ion.) As
E increases, the photoelectric absorption deceases rapidly, while the Compton
scattering decreases much more slowly and predominates above several hundred KeV.
The absorption coeIIicient Ior pair production rises rapidly above the threshold E
1.02 MeV and exceeds the Compton scattering, while photoelectric absorption
becomes negligible.



"UESTION:

Energy Resolution of NaI (Tl)

The resolution oI a spectrometer is its ability to resolve two peaks that are Iairly close
together in energy. The resolution R () deIines as:

R 0E/ E x 100

Where E is the discriminator setting at the centriod oI the photo peak and 0E is the
Iull width at halI oI the maximum (FWHM) count level in terms oI discriminator bias
voltage.

Resolution of
137
Cs:
0E 3.00 2.73 0.27
E 2.90
R (0.27 / 2.90) x 100
R 9.31

Resolution of
60
Co:
Peak 1,
0E 5.13 4.80 0.33
E 5.00
R (0.33 / 5.00) x 100
R 6.60

Resolution of unknown (
54
Mn):
0E 3.73 3.47 0.26
E 3.60
R (0.26 / 3.60) x 100
R 7.22

CONCLUSION
Peak 2,
0E 5.80 5.48 0.32
E 5.70
R (0.32 / 5.70) x 100
R5.61

Based on this experiment, we were able to plot the NaI(Tl) spectrum oI
137
Cs and
NaI(Tl) spectrum oI
60
Co. From both the spectrum, we had Iound that the peak
energy, 661.6 KeV Ior
137
Cs is 2.9. For
60
Co, the channel numbers are 5.0 and 5.7 with
peak energy 1173.2 KeV and 1332.5 KeV, respectively. From the result above, we are
also plotted the Energy Calibration Curve Ior NaI(Tl) Detector and get a straight line
oI graph as a result.
From the Energy Calibration Curve, we had determined the unknown source Irom its
peak energy which is about 0.83 MeV and the unknown was known as
54
Mn.

REFERENCES
1. Laboratory Manual, Sarjana Sains Keselamatan Nuklear Dan Sinaran, Practical I,
STSN6614
2. http://www.physics.rutgers.edu/ugrad/389/gamma.pdI
3. http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~gan/teaching/spring09/Lab5.pdI