Lecture 4 - Cognition I

Cognition I
Learning and Memory
31 Jan 11
PL1101E: Introduction to Psychology
Lecture Outline
What is Cognition?
Learning
Memory
Types of Memory
Sensory Memory Short-term Memory Long-term Memory
Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Other Learning Phenomena
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What is Cognition?
From Colman (2001) in the Oxford Dictionary of Psychology:

The
mental activities involved in acquiring and processing information. study includes cognitive psychology, psycholinguistics, artificial intelligence, and cognitive neuropsychology.
PL1101E: Introduction to Psychology 3
Its
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What is Cognition?
Cognitive Psychology is the branch of psychology that studies topics such as:
Attention Perception Learning Memory Thinking Problem solving Decision making Language
These will be surveyed in greater depth in PL3233 Cognitive Psychology.

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Learning
What is learning?
Any relatively lasting change in behaviour resulting from experience.
The key points are behaviour and experience.

Contrast with maturational change, which is due to genetic dispositions

E.g. height, weight, brain size Walking (can only occur once nervous and muscular system has reached some level of maturity).
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Classical
Conditioning: the association of two stimuli in the environment.

Does the mere sight of the golden arches in front of McDonalds makes you feel pangs of hunger and think about hamburgers? If it does, you are displaying an elementary form of learning called classical conditioning.
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Classical Conditioning
Applies to reflexive, involuntary behaviour.

Learning to make a reflex response to another stimulus that is not the natural stimulus that would normally invoke that particular reflex. Discovered (by chance) by Ivan Pavlov.
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Important Concepts
Stimulus Response
The stimulus refers to any object, event, or experience that causes a reaction (response) in the organism.
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS or US)

A naturally occurring stimulus that produces the involuntary response. Unconditioned means unlearned or naturally occurring.
Unconditioned response (UCR or UR)
An involuntary, reflexive reaction to a naturally occurring stimulus.

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Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Stimulus that is subsequently capable of invoking a learned reflex response on its own because it has been paired with the original unconditioned stimulus. Conditioned means learned. A neutral stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus when paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned response (CR)

Learned reflex reaction to a conditioned stimulus. Sometimes called a conditioned reflex.
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UCS Kiss UCR Racing Heart
CS Sight of Significant Other CS Sight of Significant Other

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UCS Kiss
UCR Racing Heart

CR Racing Heart
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Basic principles and findings

CS must come before UCS. CS and UCS must follow each other closely in time ideally, only several seconds apart.
Several to many pairings between the neutral stimulus and the UCS must take place before conditioning can occur. CS is usually some distinctive stimulus that stands out from other competing stimuli.
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Stimulus generalization
A stimulus that is similar to the original CS can elicit a CR.
Stimulus discrimination
Organisms can learn to be more discriminating if the similar stimulus is never paired with the UCS.
Extinction
When a learned response disappears or is weakened because of the removal or absence of the UCS.
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Spontaneous recovery
A learned response can reappear even after extinction has occurred.
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior.
Higher-order conditioning
Another neutral stimulus can become a second CS when it is paired with an existing strong CS.
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Conditioned emotional response (CER)
Classical conditioning of emotional responses to learned stimuli, e.g. fear of dogs or the emotional reaction that occurs when seeing an attractive person.
CERs may lead to phobias irrational fear responses.
Vicarious conditioning
Watching the reactions of other people can induce classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion.
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Laws
of Learning
Acquisition (conditioned response and unconditioned response presented together)
STRONG
Strength of Conditioned Response (CR)
WEAK
Training
CS alone
TIME
Pause
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Laws
of Learning
Extinction (conditioned stimulus by itself) A basic phenomenon of learning that occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears.
Acquisition
STRONG
WEAK
Training
CS alone
TIME
Pause
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Laws
of Learning
Spontaneous Recovery The reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning. Spontaneous recovery of conditioned response
Acquisition
STRONG
Extinction
Extinction follows (conditioned stimulus alone)
WEAK
Training
CS alone
TIME
Pause
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Operant Conditioning

Term coined by B. F. Skinner. Applies to voluntary behaviour.

Learning through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to responses. Learning depends on what happens after the response the consequence.
Developed from Thorndikes Law of Effect
If a response is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will tend to be repeated, and if followed by an unpleasant consequence, it will tend not to be repeated.
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Why is credit card use so insidious? (from Feinberg, 1986).

Hand
card over to salesperson (behaviour). Immediate delivery of desired item (reinforcer pleasant consequence). Behaviour increases. Having to pay for your purchases, or racking up a debt (unpleasant consequence) occurs much later, and may not be linked to the original behaviour.
31 Jan 11 PL1101E: Introduction to Psychology 20
Differences between classical and operant conditioning
Classical: Behaviour changes are due to the association of two stimuli (CS-UCS) presented prior to the response (CR).
Focuses on elicited behaviours.
Operant: Behaviour changes as the result of the consequences that follow it (reinforcement or punishment).
Focuses on emitted behaviours.
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Important Concepts
Reinforcement
Any event or stimulus, as a consequence of a response, that increases the probability that the response will occur again.
Positive reinforcement
The reinforcement of a response as a result of the addition or experiencing of a pleasurable stimulus.
E.g. getting an A grade for studying hard.
Negative reinforcement
The reinforcement of a response as a result of the removal, escape from, or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus.
E.g. Taking Panadol is a negative reinforcer it removes your headache.

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When stimulus is added, the result is . . .
Positive Reinforcement
Intended Results
Increase in behaviour (reinforcement)

Example: Giving a raise for good performance. Results: INCREASE in response of good performance.
When stimulus is removed, the result is . ..
Negative Reinforcement
Intended Results
Increase in behaviour (reinforcement)

Example: Applying ointment to relieve itchy rash leads to higher future likelihood of applying ointment. Results: INCREASE in response of using ointment
Shaping
Breaking down the desired, complex behaviour into simpler ones and reinforcing those simpler steps so as to reach the desired behaviour. Successive approximations the small steps in behaviour that will sequentially lead to a particular goal behavior.
Extinction
Occurs if the behavior (response) is not reinforced.
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Generalization, discrimination, and spontaneous recovery also occur in operant conditioning.

Reinforcement Schedules
Partial reinforcement effect
If a response is reinforced inconsistently (i.e., some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced), the response will tend to be very resistant to extinction.
Continuous reinforcement
All correct responses are always reinforced. More easily extinguished.
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Partial Reinforcement Schedules

Ratio
(response) based
E.g. get a stamp for every purchase and when you collect 10 stamps, your 11th purchase is free!
Fixed
ratio - number of responses required for reinforcement is consistent and does not change.
Variable
ratio - number of responses required for reinforcement changes for each trial or event.
E.g. Jackpot machines.
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Partial Reinforcement Schedules:

Fixed-Ratio Schedule:
A schedule by which reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses are made.
Cumulative frequency of responses
Typical Outcome:
There are short pauses after each response.
Time
Short pauses occur after each response. Because the more responses, the more reinforcement, fixed-ratio schedules produce a high rate of responding.
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Variable-Ratio Schedule:
Responding occurs at a high, steady rate.
A schedule by which reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses rather than after a fixed number.
Typical Outcome:
Responding occurs at a high rate.
Time
Interval (time) based

Number of responses does not matter. Fixed interval - the same amount of time must pass before reinforcement becomes possible.
Response rate tends to increase as the end of the interval approaches E.g. cramming for final exam.
Variable interval - the amount of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is not predictable.
E.g. consistent studying for potential pop quizzes.
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Fixed-Interval Schedule:
There are typically long pauses after each response.
A schedule that provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed, making overall rates of response relatively low.
Typical Outcome:
Time
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Produces lower rates of responding, especially just after reinforcement has been presented. (The organism learns that a specified time period must elapse between reinforcements.)

Variable-Interval Schedule:
A schedule by which the time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed.
Typical Outcome:
Responding occurs at a steady rate.
Time
Produces a fairly steady stream of responses.
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Punishment
Any event or object that follows a response and makes that response less likely to happen again.
Dont confuse with negative reinforcement, which is meant to increase the likelihood of the response!
Punishment by application
Punishing a response with an unpleasant stimulus.
E.g. spanking
Punishment by removal
Punishing a response by removing a pleasurable stimulus.
E.g. youre grounded!

31 Jan 11
When stimulus is added, the result is . . .
Positive Punishment
Intended Results
Decrease in behaviour (punishment)

Example: Yelling at a teenager for stealing a bracelet. Results: DECREASE in frequency of response of stealing.
When stimulus is removed, the result is . ..
Negative Punishment
Intended Results
Decrease in behaviour (punishment)

Example: Teenagers access to car restricted by parents due to teenagers breaking curfew. Results: DECREASE in response of breaking curfew.
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Illustration of difference between negative reinforcement and punishment by removal:

Desired
behaviour submitting term papers on time:

Negative
reinforcement hand in paper before deadline to avoid late penalty. Punishment by removal deduct 10 marks for each day the paper is late.
Effective Punishment
Immediacy punishment should immediately follow the behaviour it is meant to punish.
Consistency punishment should be consistent.

Punishment of the wrong behaviour should be paired, whenever possible, with reinforcement of the right behaviour.
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Real-life application dealing with naughty children (as seen in Supernanny, previously aired on Arts Central):
Punishment time-outs, withdrawal of privileges. Extinction ignore tantrums so they are not reinforced. Positive reinforcement praise, stars, treats.
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Other Learning Phenomena
Learned helplessness
A history of repeated failures in the past may result in a tendency for not trying to escape from a situation even when escape is possible.
Observational learning
Learning new behavior by watching that behaviour being performed by someone else.
Learning/performance distinction - referring to the observation that learning can take place without actual performance of the learned behavior. TV violence?
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Memory
What is it?
An active system that receives information from the senses, organizes and alters it as it stores it away, and then retrieves the information from storage.
Three Major Memory Processes
Encoding

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Storage

Conversion of sensory information into a form that is usable in the brains storage systems.
Retrieval
Keeping information for some period of time. Getting stored information into a form that can be used.
Types of Memory
Sensory
Memory
Three-stage model of memory In this model, memory has three major components:
Sensory memory: + iconic storage + echoic storage
(1) Sensory memory, which briefly holds incoming sensory information.
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Types of Memory
Sensory memory
The stage where information first enters the nervous system through the sensory systems the very first stage of memory.
Iconic memory
Visual sensory memory, lasting only a fraction of a second. Large capacity whatever that can be seen at one time.
Eidetic imagery - the rare ability to access a visual memory for 30 seconds or more.
Echoic memory
The brief memory of something that was just heard. Capacity - limited to what can be heard at any one moment and is smaller than the capacity of iconic memory Duration lasts longer than iconic about 2 to 4 seconds.
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Types of Memory
Short-term
Memory:
Three-stage model of memory
(2) Working (short-term) memory, which processes certain information received from sensory memory and information retrieved from long-term memory.
Short-term memory: Lasts 12-30 seconds Capacity of 7 +/- 2 chunks of information
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Types of Memory
Short-term memory (STM) (working memory)

Information is held for brief periods of time while being used. Used for selective attention:
Focusing on only one stimulus or task from among all sensory input.
Capacity magic number 7 (+ or 2). Maintenance rehearsal:
Practice of saying something over and over in ones head in order to maintain it in STM. Information in STM tend to be encoded in auditory form.
Duration lasts from about 12 to 30 seconds without rehearsal Susceptible to interference
e.g., if rehearsal is interrupted, have to start over.

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Types of Memory
Long-term
Memory:
Three-stage model of memory

Source: Adapted from Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968.
(3) Long-term memory, which stores information for longer periods of time.
Long-term memory: + Permanent method of storing memories + Unlimited capacity
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Types of Memory
Long-term memory (LTM)

Where information is kept more or less permanently. Information is primarily organized in semantic and conceptual associations.

Types of LTM
Nondeclarative (procedural) memory

Memory for skills, procedures, habits, emotional associations, and conditioned responses. These memories are not conscious (implicit memory) but are implied to exist because they affect conscious behavior. Amnesia typically does not affect procedural memory.
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Types of Memory
Declarative
memory
Memory containing information that is conscious (explicit memory) and known. Semantic memory Memory for facts. General knowledge, knowledge of language, and information learned in formal education. Episodic memory Memory for events. Contains personal information not readily available to others, such as daily activities and occurrences. Amnesia typically affects declarative memory.
Long-Term Memory
Declarative Memory
(factual information)
Procedural Memory
(skills and habits)
Semantic Memory
(general memory)
Episodic Memory
(personal knowledge)
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Long-Term Memory
Declarative Memory
(factual information) Example: Yusof Ishak was the first president of Singapore
Procedural Memory
(skills and habits)
Semantic Memory
(general memory)
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Episodic Memory
Long-Term Memory
Declarative Memory
Procedural Memory
(skills and habits) Example: Riding a bicycle
Semantic Memory
(general memory)
Episodic Memory
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Long-Term Memory
Declarative Memory
Procedural Memory
(skills and habits)
Semantic Memory
(general memory)
Example: Yusof Ishak is Malay.
Episodic Memory
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Long-Term Memory
Declarative Memory
Procedural Memory
(skills and habits)
Semantic Memory
(general memory)
Episodic Memory
Example: Remembering your visit to Yusof Ishak House in NUS
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References
Colman, A. M. (2001). A dictionary of psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Feinberg, R. A. (1986). Credit cards as spending facilitation stimuli: A conditioning interpretation. Journal of Consumer Research, 13, 348-356.
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Summary
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Summary
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Summary
3 stages of memory
Encoding Storage
Retrieval
3 types of memory
Sensory
(iconic and echoic) Short-term (working) Long-term (declarative and nondeclarative)

Take Home Message
Can you remember what you have learned today?
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Lecture 4 - Cognition I

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Cognition I

Learning and Memory

PL1101E: Introduction to Psychology

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Other Learning Phenomena

PL1101E: Introduction to Psychology

From Colman (2001) in the Oxford Dictionary of Psychology:

These will be surveyed in greater depth in PL3233 Cognitive Psychology.

Any relatively lasting change in behaviour resulting from experience.

The key points are behaviour and experience.

Conditioning: the association of two stimuli in the environment.

PL1101E: Introduction to Psychology

Applies to reflexive, involuntary behaviour.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS or US)

Unconditioned response (UCR or UR)

An involuntary, reflexive reaction to a naturally occurring stimulus.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Conditioned response (CR)

PL1101E: Introduction to Psychology

PL1101E: Introduction to Psychology

CS Sight of Significant Other CS Sight of Significant Other

UCR Racing Heart

PL1101E: Introduction to Psychology

Basic principles and findings

A stimulus that is similar to the original CS can elicit a CR.

PL1101E: Introduction to Psychology

A learned response can reappear even after extinction has occurred.

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior.

PL1101E: Introduction to Psychology

Conditioned emotional response (CER)

CERs may lead to phobias irrational fear responses.

Strength of Conditioned Response (CR)

PL1101E: Introduction to Psychology

Strength of Conditioned Response (CR)

PL1101E: Introduction to Psychology

Strength of Conditioned Response (CR)

Extinction follows (conditioned stimulus alone)

PL1101E: Introduction to Psychology

Term coined by B. F. Skinner. Applies to voluntary behaviour.

Developed from Thorndikes Law of Effect

Why is credit card use so insidious? (from Feinberg, 1986).

Differences between classical and operant conditioning

Focuses on elicited behaviours.

Focuses on emitted behaviours.

PL1101E: Introduction to Psychology

The reinforcement of a response as a result of the addition or experiencing of a pleasurable stimulus.

E.g. getting an A grade for studying hard.

E.g. Taking Panadol is a negative reinforcer it removes your headache.

Increase in behaviour (reinforcement)

Increase in behaviour (reinforcement)

Occurs if the behavior (response) is not reinforced.

Generalization, discrimination, and spontaneous recovery also occur in operant conditioning.

Partial reinforcement effect

PL1101E: Introduction to Psychology

Partial Reinforcement Schedules

Partial Reinforcement Schedules:

Cumulative frequency of responses

PL1101E: Introduction to Psychology

Partial Reinforcement Schedules:

Cumulative frequency of responses

Responding occurs at a high rate.

Interval (time) based

E.g. consistent studying for potential pop quizzes.

PL1101E: Introduction to Psychology