Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1Project Title:
Microcontroller Based Remote Monitoring Gas Analyzer is a project to develop a remote monitoring gas analyzer capable of monitoring gas pollutants at a range of about 100 meters and check if their concentrations exceed above critical levels.

1.2 Project Description:

Our atmosphere is composed of various gases which support life in all extent. All these gases have their definite role in human biological development. But now days due to various reasons say industries, eradication of trees there is a huge imbalance in the concentration of these gases which has a direct impact on the living creature of the earth. This imbalance can be controlled to some extent if we get to know about their concentration in the atmosphere and taking the action to have control over it. In this project we are using sensors to detect if the concentration of two gases exceed above critical levels and display it on the LCD using microcontroller. The transmitter will be kept in the required location while receiver in the control room from where we can continuously monitor the concentration of gases.

1.3 Block Diagram:

RF Sensor 1 Transmitter HT-12E

Comp.
2

Vref1

Comp.

Vref2

Fig: 1.3.1 Transmitter Section

HT-12D RF Receiver Microcontroller LCD DISPLAY

Fig: 1.3.2 Receiver Section

Explanation: 1. An input from the gas sensor is given to the anode follower and then to the comparator. The comparator compares the input value with the predefined reference levels and gives the output in the form of 0V or 3.54V (normal=0V, high = 3.54V). 2. An encoder receives this value and encodes the given data into a unique code and sends it to the transmitter to modulate the data. 3. Receiver receives the signal and demodulates it. 4. Decoder decodes the data into its original value fed by the comparator. 5. Microcontroller manipulates the data from decoder and accordingly displays it on the LCD. Instead of gas sensors light sensor (LDR) have been used. This has been done as gas sensors were not easily available. It doesnt affect the concept of project as whatever sensor is used it will give output in the form of electrical signal which will be manipulated further. 1. 2.

1.4Application Areas:
1. SCADA (Supervisory control and data acquisition). 2. Industries to analyze the various gas concentrations. 3. Chimneys for monitoring exhaust gases etc.

1.4Resources Required:
1. Test and Measuring instruments such as a) Digital Multimeter b) Cathode ray oscilloscope 2. Tools such as a) Cutter b) Pliers etc. 1. Assembler and Programmer: a) Keil b) Proteus c) Microcontroller burner device

Chapter 2 HARDWARE
2.1 Circuit Diagram :

Fig 2.1.1 Circuit diagram of transmitter section

Fig 2.1.2 Circuit diagram of receiver section

2.2

Circuit Description:
It consists of two sections: 1. Transmitter section 2. Receiver section. 2.2.1 Transmitter Section:

Transmitter section includes: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Power supply Encoder HT12E RF transmitter TWS-434 Light Sensor (LDR) Comparator (LM324) Circuit Description:

2.1.1.1

1. Power Supply: In power supply of transmitter, a 9V step down transformer is used. LM7805 is used to give constant 5V output. A drop out voltage of 2V is required between input output voltage of LM7805. Hence more than 7V is used at the input. A ceramic capacitor of 0.1F (C2) is connected with the output of constant 5V so as to remove transients, if generated. A LED is connected across the output of LM7805 to monitor the output voltage. Resistor of 330 is connected in series with LED (L1) to limit the current passing through LED. 5V is then provided to the encoder (HT12E), RF transmitter (TWS-434A), comparator (LM324)[2]. 2. Encoder (HT12E): Encoder encodes the input signal placed in data pins. HT12E encoder oscillates at the frequency of 3 KHz. Oscillation signifies the transmission rate of encoder[2]. It has eighteen pins. Pin no 1 to 9 are used for addressing the encoder. An encoder sends data to different decoders; the data is received only at decoder if its address matched with the address of the encoder. In this project we have grounded all pins of encoder, thus address of encoder is defined as 00000111.

Fig: 2.2.1.1.1 Pin Diagram of Encoder[1]

TE (Transmission Enabled) at pin no 14 should be low for encoder to encode and transmit the bits. A graph between supply voltage and oscillator frequency for constant values of Rosc for encoder has been shown below. This graph helps us in calculating the Rosc to be used in encoder. Encoder used in our project works on supply voltage of 5V and oscillates on the frequency of 3 KHz. Both values are used and using the graph Rosc was found to be 1M Ohm which is connected between pins 15 and 16.

Fig: 2.2.1.1.2 Supply Voltage Vs Oscillator Frequency Graph for HT12E

3. RF transmitter (TWS-434):
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RF transmitter (TWS-434A) is used in the transmitter section to transmit the encoded bits. It modulates the bits received from encoder at a 434MHz carrier frequency using amplitude shift keying. 17th pin of encoder is connected to the input 2 pin of transmitter. A helical antenna is used for transmitting. For this a simple conducting wire is helically wound to make the antenna. The length of the wire is calculated using /4, where is the wavelength of the signal transmitted.

Fig: 2.2.1.1.3 TWS 434A

Calculation for antenna length: Frequency 434 MHz Wavelength = C/F = 310 8 / 434 10 6 = 0.6901 m Antenna Length = /4 = 0.1725 m = 17.25 cm 4. Light Sensor: Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) has been used as light sensor. Its resistance increases with decrease in light intensity. It has been used in voltage divider circuit to vary output voltage according to light intensity.[3]

Fig Dependent Sensor[3] 5. Anode Follower and Comparator:

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2.2.1.1.4

Light

LM358, an 8 pin IC, comprising of two operational amplifiers has been used for performing dual function of anode follower and comparator. Anode follower is used to avoid loading effect of sensors and to get same output voltage as input voltage. Comparator is used to compare input voltage with the preset voltage levels set by using trim pot. It has been operated at a voltage of 5V. If the voltage of positive terminal is greater than the voltage of negative terminal the output voltage is 3.54V else output voltage is 0V.

Fig: 2.2.1.1.5 LM324

2.2.1.2 Working Principle: LM35 and LDR continuously monitor change in temperature and light intensity respectively. They are followed by anode follower and comparator. Anode follower continuously outputs the same voltage as provided by the sensors. This voltage is supplied to positive terminals of comparator. Negative terminals are set to the critical voltages set using potentiometer. In case of temperature sensor when the temperature is below 40 degree Celsius, then less than 40mV of voltage is received from the temperature sensor. This voltage is applied to positive terminal of comparator. As we want critical temperature to be set to be 40 degrees Celsius, thus critical voltage is set to be 40mV using trim pot at negative terminal of comparator. In case when input voltage is less then critical voltage output of comparator is
11

0V. This makes green led to glow signifying normal temperature conditions. When temperature exceeds critical temperature of 40 degrees, voltage also rises more than critical voltage then output of comparator at pin 1 is 3.54V. This makes red led to glow signifying abnormal temperature conditions. In case of LDR when there is zero light intensity, input voltage of comparator is .10V. Critical voltage is set at .33V. This makes 0V at output pin of comparator and makes green led to glow. When LDR is kept at normal room light intensity at the time of day, voltage level is 1.20V, this makes voltage exceed critical levels thus results in glow of red led. The outputs of both sensors, whether high or low are sent data pins of encoder. Encoder encodes them and transmits them using RF transmitter. 2.2.2. Receiver Section: Receiver section includes: 1. Power supply 2. RF Receiver (RWS-434A) 3. Decoder (HT12D) 4. Microcontroller (AT89C51) 5. LCD display 2.2.2.1. Circuit Description: 1. Power supply: In the receiver section power supply is same as that of transmitter section to get constant output voltage of 5V. It provides supply to receiver, decoder, microcontroller and LCD display.

2. RF Receiver: The RF Receiver used is RWS-434A. It receives the coded signal, demodulates it and sends the codes serially to the decoder HT12D.

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Fig: 2.2.2.1.1. RWS434 A

3. Decoder (HT12D): Decoder is a versatile device which is used to decode the encoded data so as to retrieve the original data. This also can only be done if the address of the encoder and decoder is matched. If the address and encoded bit transmitted does not match the transmission is not enabled. Pin no. 17 (VT) is the most important pin which shows the valid transmission between the two sections, if pulled high. The decoded data is then received from the four data output pin (pin no. 10 to 13).

13

Fig: 2.2.2.1.2 HT12D

We have used 5V supply voltage at decoder which works at the frequency of 150 KHz which is 50 times that of encoders frequency and hence we get the Rosc of 51K Ohm according to the following graph.

4. Microcontroller: AT89C51 is a 40 pin, 4K microcontroller which has been used to take in data inputs from decoder. These inputs can be either 0V or 3.54V. If it receives 0V it considers it as 0 bit input, if it receives 3.54V it considers it as 1 bit input. Range of 0 bit is less than 0.8V and range of bit 1 is greater than 2.5V. It manipulates the input data according to software written in it and displays the output on the LCD display. It has been operated at a typical voltage of 5V. A reset push button and crystal oscillator is also connected with microcontroller to reset microcontroller when needed, and to provide oscillator frequency of 11.0592 MHz respectively.

Fig: 2.2.2.1.3 Oscillator Frequency Vs Supply voltage HT12D

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Fig: 2.2.2.1.4 Pin Diagram of AT89C51

4. LCD Display:

It is a 16 pin microcontroller display operated at a typical voltage of 5V. It has been interfaced with microcontroller to display whether the status of temperature sensor and LDR is normal or high. This is done according to instructions given by microcontroller to LCD display according to software written in microcontroller.

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Fig: 2.2.2.1.5 LCD Display

2.2.2. Working Principle:

When the receiver unit comes in the range of transmitter unit continuously transmitting RF signal, the whole receiver unit gets activated. The receiver unit receives RF signal at a frequency of 434 MHz which actually is digital data including the binary code assigned to particular transmitter and a carrier signal. Digital output is taken from pin 2 of RWS 434 and received by decoder HT12D through data input pin (14th pin). The received serial input data are compared three times continuously with the local address. If no error or unmatched codes are found, the input codes are decoded and then transferred to the output pins. The VT (Valid Transmission) pin (17th pin) gives high voltage and LED glows to indicate a valid transmission. The decoded bits of the two sensors are given to the microcontroller at pin no P2.7 and P2.6, where P2.7 has been used for temperature sensor and P2.6 has been used for light sensor. There can be four situations which can arise. First situation is when both pins are at 0V. In this case it is taken both inputs as 0 bit. In this situation microcontroller send data to display on LCD that CO2 CONC NORMAL and NO2 CONC NORMAL. This is done using software written in Microcontroller. Second situation is when P2.7 is high at 3.54 V and P2.6 is low at 0V, in this case LCD displays CO2 CONC HIGH and NO2 CONC NORMAL. In third situation when P2.7 is low and P2.6 is high then microcontroller displays CO2 CONC NORMAL and NO2 CONC HIGH. When both pins are high fourth situation then LCD displays CO2 CONC HIGH and NO2 CONC HIGH. In this way the controller sitting in the controller room gets to know whether the sensors are exceeding their critical voltages.

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Chapter 3
CIRCUIT FABRICATION 1.1Hardware Integration And Testing:
1.1.1 Transmitter Section: It was divided in three sub-assemblies. 1. Power Supply: Circuit was fabricated on PCB for making 5V power supply using step down transformer, bridge rectifier, LM7805, required resistors and capacitors as mentioned in the circuit diagram. A red LED was connected in the end to signify if supply is working or not. Supply was tested for 5V using Cathode Ray Oscilloscope. 2. Comparator along with Sensors: LM35 temperature sensor was connected to the input of anode follower of LM358. It was tested if with increasing temperature; voltage at the output of temperature sensor is increasing proportionally or not, using soldering iron. Now the output voltage of anode follower was checked if it is the same as input voltage using CRO. Input voltage at negative terminal of comparator was set to be 40mV, using trim pot. Output voltage of comparator was checked from pin no1 using CRO. It was made sure that output voltage of 3.54V is only received in the case when temperature exceeds 40 degrees, otherwise it should be 0V. LDR was connected in series with a 47K ohm resistor. This value of resistance was calculated using voltage dividing rule over a series network as the resistance of LDR in light and dark were already measured to be 200K Ohm in dark and 50K Ohm in day light using digital multimeter. The value of resistance was calculated such so that there should be maximum difference in voltages across LDR in light and dark. Same procedure was repeated as in case of temperature sensor to check if anode follower and comparator are working properly. The value of resistance in trim pot was set such that comparator gives 3.54V in day light and 0V in dark. 3. Encoder with RF transmitter: Encoder HT12E was connected as shown in the circuit diagram. Output voltages of both comparators were provided to the lower most data pins of encoder. RF transmitter was connected the same way as shown in the circuit diagram. FSK waveform of encoder was checked using CRO.
17

3.1.2 Receiver Section: It was also divided in three sub-assemblies. 1. Power Supply: Power supply was fabricated the same way as in transmitter section to provide constant 5V DC and each of its step was checked the same way. 2. Decoder along with RF receiver: RF receiver and decoder were connected as per the circuit diagram. The output voltages at both lower data pins were checked using CRO, if the voltages are found to be same as the voltages there at encoder. A red LED was connected at VT (Valid Transmission) to get to know it transmission is occurring between transmitter and receiver. Output voltages of both data pins were connected with the input pins of P2 port of microcontroller as shown in the circuit diagram. 3. Microcontroller along with LCD display: Input pins of microcontroller P2.7 and P2.6 were checked to receive same voltages as sent by transmitter using CRO. LCD was connected with microcontroller in the same way as shown in circuit diagram. Microcontroller with the correct software was burned to display on the LCD whether the situation of both sensors is normal or abnormal. It was made sure that display matched the conditions of both sensors accurately and it also changes as soon the case at sensors changes.

3.2 Engineering Design:

All the components were placed and soldered in a systematic matter, which creates no confusion and also appeals to eyes. Soldering of components was done neatly. Cabinets for both transmitter and receiver were designed as shown above in mechanical subassemblies and made with correct precision of dimensions. PCBs in both transmitter and receiver were placed on the bottom surface. Small gap was created between surface of cabinet and PCB using a strip which covered all boundaries of PCB. Tags were used at places to connect antennas over the cabinet. Two pins and three pins connectors were used to take out sensors, leds, switch, and LCD over the surface of cabinet. Cabinets were permanently enclosed from all sides only the upper surface was screwed so that it is removable.

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Chapter 4
FLOW DIAGRAM 4.1 Flow Chart:

19

Check if P1.4 =0 and P1.7 as input pins and initialize the Initialize"P1.4 and P1.7=0 Wait Display CONC. ZERO CONC.LOW =1 HIGH" P1.7=1 Start LCD " DANGER BE PROBLEM ...RUN " NO ALERT

20

YES

NO

YES

NO

YES

4.2 Description of Flow diagram:

1. First step is to initialize P1.4 and P1.7 as input pins by using sbit command and then

initialize LCD using different commands like to clear LCD, display on, cursor on, defining cursor movement either left or right, and position of cursor.
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2. Now pins P1.4 and P1.7 are checked for their values, if a pin receives voltage less than

0.8 V then it is considered as 0 bit by microcontroller. 3. If a pin receives voltage greater than 2.5V, then it is considered as 1 bit by microcontroller. 4. Firstly both pins are checked if they have 0 bit, if condition is satisfied then microcontroller sends data to LCD to display gas concentration normal as shown in flow diagram and waits till next change is observed in value of pins. 5. If condition does not satisfy, then it checks if any of the two pins has bit 1. This is done one by one. If condition satisfies in any of the two cases then it sends data to LCD to display accordingly. Again it waits. 6. Next condition is checked if both pins have 1 bit, if it satisfies then LCD displays gas with high concentration and waits for the next change. 7. Wait state exists till any change is observed in any of the bits, if change is observed it again moves on to check the four conditions. 8. In this way this infinite loop continues until power supply is disrupted or reset is pressed.

Chapter 5 SOFTWARE
5.1 Program Code:
#include<reg51.h> sfr ldata= 0xA0; sbit rs= P0^0;
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sbit rw= P0^1; sbit en= P0^2; sbit sw1= P1^4; sbit sw2= P1^7; void lcdcmd(unsigned char); void lcddata(unsigned char); void delay(unsigned int); void saferoom(); void alertroom(); void dangerroom(); void main() {

lcdcmd(0x38); delay(250); lcdcmd(0x0E); delaylcdcmd(250);

if(sw1==0 && sw2==0) { saferoom(); // room safe } else if(sw1==0 && sw2==1) { alertroom(); // concentration low and alert } else if(sw1==1 && sw2==1) { dangerroom(); // comncentration high and run } } void lcdcmd(unsigned char value) { ldata=value; rs=0; rw=0; en=1; delay(1); en=0; return; }

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void lcddata(unsigned char value) { ldata=value; rs=1; rw=0; en=1; delay(1); en=0; return; }

void delay(unsigned int value) { unsigned int i,j; for(i=0;i<value;i++) for(j=0;j<1275;j++); return; } void saferoom() { unsigned char name1[]=" CONC. ZERO"; unsigned char name2[]=" NO PROBLEM"; unsigned int i; lcdcmd(0x01); //for clear screen delay(250); lcdcmd(0x80); for(i=0;i<12;i++) { lcddata(name1[i]); delay(2); } lcdcmd(0xC0); for(i=0;i<12;i++) { lcddata(name2[i]); delay(2); } return; }

void alertroom() { unsigned char name1[]=" CONC. LOW"; unsigned char name2[]=" BE ALERT";
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unsigned int i; lcdcmd(0x01); //for clear screen delay(250); lcdcmd(0x80); for(i=0;i<11;i++) { lcddata(name1[i]); delay(2); } lcdcmd(0xC0); for(i=0;i<10;i++) { lcddata(name2[i]); delay(2); } return; } void dangerroom() { unsigned char name1[]=" CONC. HIGH"; unsigned char name2[]=" DANGER ...RUN "; unsigned int i; lcdcmd(0x01); //for clear screen delay(250); lcdcmd(0x80); for(i=0;i<12;i++) { lcddata(name1[i]); delay(2); } lcdcmd(0xC0); for(i=0;i<15;i++) { lcddata(name2[i]); delay(2); } return; }

5.2

Generated Hex file

:0300000002032DCB :0C032D00787FE4F6D8FD7581250202A659 :10025D0020434F4E432E205A45524F00204E4F20E3
25

:10026D0050524F424C454D0020434F4E432E204C93 :10027D004F570020424520414C4552540020434FDA :10028D004E432E2048494748002044414E47455291 :09029D00202E2E2E52554E200099 :1002A6007F381203047FFA7E001202D97F0E1203F2 :1002B600042094082097051201EF80092094063047 :0F02C60097031201773094063097031200F92244 :0B02F9007D007BFF7E001200D37F0120 :100304008FA0C280C281D2827F017E001202D9C234 :02031400822243 :050316002521F8E6FFBF :10031B008FA0D280C281D2827F017E001202D9C20D :02032B0082222C :0402D5007F027E0026 :1002D900E4FDFCC3ED9FEC9E5015E4FBFA0BBB005B :0F02E900010ABA04F8BBFBF50DBD00010C80E45F :0102F80022E3 :1001EF0078087C007D007BFF7A02795D7E007F0CB2 :1001FF001200D378147C007A0279697F0C1202F90D :10020F007FFA7E001202D97F80120304E4F520F5F5 :10021F002174081203161202D50521E5217002057B :10022F0020C3940CE520940040E77FC0120304E440 :10023F00F520F52174141203161202D50521E521BC :0D024F0070020520C3940CE520940040E7E8 :01025C00227F :1001770078087C007D007BFF7A0279757E007F0B13 :100187001200D378137C007A0279807F0A1202F971 :100197007FFA7E001202D97F80120304E4F51DF571 :1001A7001E7408251EF8E6FF12031B1202D5051E52 :1001B700E51E7002051DC3940BE51D940040E27F08 :1001C700C0120304E4F51DF51E7413251EF8E6FF9F :1001D70012031B1202D5051EE51E7002051DC394EE :0701E7000AE51D940040E24F :0101EE0022EE :1000F90078087C007D007BFF7A02798A7E007F0C7C :100109001200D378147C007D007BFF7A0279967EF9 :10011900007F101202FF7FFA7E001202D97F80123F :100129000304E4F524F52574082525F8E6FF1203F0 :100139001B1202D50525E52570020524C3940CE59B :1001490024940040E27FC0120304E4F524F52574E9 :10015900142525F8E6FF12031B1202D50525E5250E :0D01690070020524C3940FE524940040E2C9
26

:010176002266 :10000300E709F608DFFA8046E709F208DFFA803EDF :1000130088828C83E709F0A3DFFA8032E309F608CC :10002300DFFA8078E309F208DFFA807088828C8334 :10003300E309F0A3DFFA806489828A83E0A3F608E8 :10004300DFFA805889828A83E0A3F208DFFA804CC2 :1000530080D280FA80C680D4806980F28033801099 :1000630080A680EA809A80A880DA80E280CA803302 :1000730089828A83ECFAE493A3C8C582C8CCC5837A :10008300CCF0A3C8C582C8CCC583CCDFE9DEE7804A :100093000D89828A83E493A3F608DFF9ECFAA9F0C9 :1000A300EDFB2289828A83ECFAE0A3C8C582C8CC1F :1000B300C583CCF0A3C8C582C8CCC583CCDFEADE38 :1000C300E880DB89828A83E493A3F208DFF980CC9A :1000D30088F0EF60010E4E60C388F0ED2402B40493 :1000E3000050B9F582EB2402B4040050AF2323453A :0600F3008223900053730C :00000001FF

Chapter 6
SYSTEM INTEGRATION

6.1 Downloading the program:

6.1.1 Flow Chart to check correctness of code:

Software is written in Keil editor

Assembler assembles the code Analysis is done Check if error

YES
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Debugger shows the error

NO
Generate Hex file

Make circuit diagram in Proteus software

Download hex file in microcontroller

Simulate the circuit

Check if getting desired output

NO Check circuit diagram and code for logic errors

YES
Download the hex code into microcontroller through programmer

6.1.2 Procedure for downloading the program:

1. Software topwin should be installed on your computer and you should have the

microcontroller burner device. 2. Connect the device with your computer via USB port. 3. Wait to see green light glowing to know if device is ready. 4. Insert your microcontroller in the slots given, looking at the proper orientation of IC pins. 5. Double click on the software trap burn. 6. Select the option Select device from its tool bar. 7. A menu will appear showing names of microcontroller. 8. Select the microcontroller you are going to burn. In our case we selected AT89C51. 9. Another dialog box will appear if you want to burn the hex file by 00, or by FF. Take default settings (by FF). 10. Select the option Choose hex file from tool bar. 11. Open the location where you have stored the hex file and select it 12. Click on the option Burn given on the main screen. 13. Wait till the burning procedure completes.
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14. Now your microcontroller is ready to use. 15. Detach the device from USB and turn off the computer.

6.1 Testing of Project:

1. Project was assembled in two parts transmitter and receiver and testing was done for the range, DC conditions and Oscillations. 2. Transmitter was made immobile by fixing its position. Receiver was made mobile by connecting the supply via battery. 3. Firstly receiver was located two meters away from receiver and display was checked by LCD for all four conditions. It worked. 4. Now we kept on increasing distance between transmitter and receiver and checked the display for correct output. 5. Valid transmission (VT) at receiver was also blinking continuously. 6. After 13 meters we observed that display output was not changing with subsequent change in sensor conditions. VT also stopped blinking. 7. Thus we got to know that our project was working well within 13 meters of distance.

Chapter 7
PROJECT EVALUATION 7.1 Results & Conclusions:
After the successful completion of the hardware of the project it was tested and observations were taken as stated below. 7.1.1 Observation: 1. The range of transmission between transmitter and receiver was found to be 13 meters. 2. Transmitter section a) Input voltage of LM7805: 9V b) Output Voltage of LM7805: 5.04V c) Vcc of HT12E: 5.04V d) Vcc of RF transmitter (TWS-434A): 5.03V e) Vcc of both Comparators (LM358): 5.03V f) Output Voltage of comparator1 when temperature <40: 0V g) Output Voltage of comparator1 when temperature >40: 3.54V h) Output voltage of comparator2 when dark : 0V i) Output voltage of comparator2 when light : 3.54V
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1. Receiver section a) Input voltage of LM7805: 7.4V b) Output voltage of LM7805: 4.9V c) Vcc of HT12D: 4.9V d) Vcc of RF receiver (RWS-434A): 4.8V e) Input voltage of AT89C51: 5.01V f) Voltage at pin P2.0 when temp >40: 3.2V g) Voltage at pin P2.0 when temp<40: 0.1V h) Voltage at pin P2.1 when dark: 0.1V i) Voltage at pin P2.1 when day light: 3.2V 7.1.1 Results and Conclusions: 1. Observations were taken and it was observed that there was some voltage drop in the signal voltages received at microcontroller as compared to signal voltages observed at comparator in the transmitter section. 2. This may have happened due to improper matching of frequencies of RF transmitter and receiver. 3. Range of transmitter was found to be 13 meters although it could have extended to 50 meters. 4. This was observed as the transmitter was operated a very low voltage of 5V so the signal was not strong enough to achieve such long range. The transmitter could have been operated at maximum voltage of 12V to increase range but this was not done as we only made power supply for 5V.

7.1 Failure Analysis: 1. Preset was connected in parallel with the resistor 1M at the Encoder. Resistance

reduced drastically and frequency was not matching. Thus we measured the voltages at all pins of the encoder and also the resistance at pins 15 and 16 of encoder using multimeter. Thus we get to know that there was some problem in connections of the resistor and the error was detected and corrected. 2. The resistor connected with LED in the power supply was connected in parallel thus power supply was not working. We checked the voltages at all points in the power supply using multimeter. Thus we get to know the error and it was corrected. 3. The range received during the observation was 13m. It is quite less as the maximum range can exceed up to 50m. This problem can be solved by matching the frequency of encoder and decoder more accurately. There can be a problem with the variation of voltage at the receiver.

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4. Trim Pot after connection with comparator got damaged due to its improper handling as

screw was not screwed slowly. Thus resistance values were not changing on rotating the screw. It was detected using multimeter and replaced later. 5. There was mismatching in the pins used for RS, R/W, EN as used in the hardware and written in the software. There was nothing displayed on LCD. Error was detected by cross checking both hardware and software connections and corrected by writing correct software again. 6. Pins of P2 port which were connected to decoder were incorrectly connected. Instead of using P2.0 and P2.1, pins P2.7 and P2.6 were connected. Thus again there was a mismatching between software and hardware. It was detected by checking all connections again and corrected.

Chapter 8 ANNEXURES
8.1 Datasheets:
8.1.1Encoder (HT12E):
8.1.1.1 Features:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Operating voltage- 2.4V~12V for the HT12E Low power and high noise immunity CMOS technology Low standby current: 0.1_A (typ.) at VDD=5V Minimum transmission word - Four words for the HT12E Built-in oscillator needs only 5% resistor Data code has positive polarity Minimal external components 8. HT12E: 18-pin DIP/20-pin SOP package.

8.1.1.2 Absolute Maximum Ratings 1. Supply Voltage (HT12E) ..............._0.3V to 13V

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2. Input Voltage....................VSS_0.3 to VDD+0.3V 3. Storage Temperature................._50_C to 125_C 4. Operating Temperature..............._20_C to 75_C

5 6 7 8 8.1 8.1.1 8.1.1.1 8.1.1.2 8.1.1.3 Pin Diagram

Figure 8.1.1.3.1 Pin Diagram of HT12E 5 6 7 8 8.1 8.1.1 8.1.1.4 Electrical Characteristics

32

Table 8.1.1.4.1 Electrical characteristics of HT12E 8.1.1.5 Supply Voltage Vs Oscillator Frequency Graph
33

Figure 8.1.1.5.1 Supply Voltage Vs Oscillator Frequency Graph for HT12E

8.1.2. Decoder (HT12D):

8.1.2.1. Features: 1. Operating voltage: 2.4V~12V 2. Low power and high noise immunity CMOS technology 3. Low standby current 4. Capable of decoding 12 bits of information 5. Binary address setting 6. Received codes are checked 3 times 7. Address/Data number combination - HT12D: 8 address bits and 4 data bits 8. Built-in oscillator needs only 5% resistor 9. Valid transmission indicator 10. Easy interface with an RF or an infrared transmission medium 11. Minimal external components 12. Pair with Holtek_s 212 series of encoders 13. 18-pin DIP, 20-pin SOP package .

8.1.2.2. Absolute Maximum Rating: 1. Supply Voltage .........................................._0.3V to 13V 2. Storage Temperature ............................_50_C to 125_C 3. Input Voltage ................................VSS_0.3 to VDD+0.3V 4. Operating Temperature..........................._20_C to 75_C

8.1.2.3 Pin Diagram

34

Figure 8.1.2.3.1 Pin Diagram of HT12D

8.1.2.4. Electrical Characteristics:

Table

8.1.2.4.1 Various parameter table for HT12E

8.1.2.5 Supply Voltage Vs Oscillator frequency Graph

35

Figure 8.1.2.5.1: Graph between oscillator frequency and supply voltage(Vdd)

8.1.1

TWS 434 (RF TRANSMITTER)

8.1.2.1 Pin Diagram

Figure 8.1.2.1.1: pin out of RF Transmitter

8.1.2.2 Electrical Characteristics

36

Table 8.1.2.2.1: Various Parameters Of RF transmitter

8.1.2

RWS-434 (RF RECEIVER)

8.1.3.1 Pin Diagram

Figure 8.1.3.1.1: Pin out of RF Receiver 8.1.3.2 Electrical Characteristics

37

Table 8.1.3.2.1: Various Parameters Of RF Receiver

8.1.5 VOLTAGE REGULATOR (LM7805) 8.1.5.1 Features 1. Output Current up to 1A 2. Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V 3. Thermal Overload Protection 4. Short Circuit Protection 5. Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection

8.1.5.2 Absolute Maximum Ratings

38

8.1.5.3 Pin Diagram

Figure 8.1.5.3.1:Pin Diagram of Voltage Regulator 7805 8.1.5.4 Electrical Characteristics

Table 8.1.5.4.1: Various Parameters Of 780

1.1.6LM324:

8.1.6.1 Features: 1. internally frequency compensated

39

2. n large dc voltage gain: 100db 3. n wide bandwidth (unity gain): 1.1mhz 4. (temperature compensated) 5. n very low supply current/op (500a) 6. essentially independent of supply 7. voltage 8. n low input bias current: 20na 9. (temperature compensated) 10. n low input offset voltage: 2mv 11. n low input offset current: 2na 12. n input common-mode voltage range 13. includes ground 14. n differential input voltage range 15. equal to the power supply voltage 16. n large output voltage swing

8.1.6.2 Pin Diagram

Figure 8.1.6.2.1: Pin Out of LM324[4]

8.1.6.3 Electrical Characteristics:

40

Table 8.1.6.3.1: Various parameters of Comparator IC LM324[4]

1.1.6AT89C51: 8.1.7.1 Features: 1. Compatible with MCS-51 Products 2. 4K Bytes of In-System Reprogrammable Flash Memory 3. Endurance: 1,000 Write/Erase Cycles 4. Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz 5. Three-level Program Memory Lock 6. 128 x 8-bit Internal RAM 7. 32 Programmable I/O Lines 8. Two 16-bit Timer/Counters 9. Six Interrupt Sources 10. Programmable Serial Channel 11. Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes 1.1.7.2Absolute Maximum Ratings:

41

Table 8.1.7.2.1:Required Characteristics of AT89C51

8.1.7.3 Pin Diagram:

Figure 8.1.7.3.1:Pin Out Of Microcontroller AT89C51[1]

42

8.1.7.4 Electrical Characteristics

Table 8.1.7.4.1: Various Parameters of Microcontroller 89C51[1]

1.1.6LCD JHD 162A: 1.1.6.1 Features 1. 5 x 8 dots with cursor 2. Built-in controller (KS 0066 or Equivalent) 3. + 5V power supply (Also available for + 3V) 4. 1/16 duty cycle 5. B/L to be driven by pin 1, pin 2 or pin 15, pin 16 or A.K (LED). 6. N.V. optional for + 3V power supply[1]

1.1.6.1

Absolute Maximum Ratings

43

Table 8.1.8.2.1: Required Characteristics of LCD JHD 162A[1] 1.1.6.2 Pin Diagram

Figure 8.1.8.3.1 : LCD JHD 162A Pin Out 1.1.6.3 Electrical Characteristics

Table 8.1.8.4.1 : Various Characteristics of LCD JHD 162A

44

References:
1. Muhammad Ali Mazidi, Janice Gillispie Mazidi, and Rolin D. McKinlay 8051

Microcontroller and Embedded Systems Edition 2008, pp 75 80, 299 - 307.

2. Jacob Millman and Christos C. Halkias Integrated Electronics Edition 1991, pp 501 -

504. 3. J.B. Gupta Electronic Devices & Circuits Edition 2009, page no.215-220

4. Ramakant A. Gayakwad OP AMPs & Linear integrated CircuitsEdition 2008 Page no. 358-370.

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