Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Some authorities classified seven subspecies of markhor (Five of them occur in Pakistan). But other researches (Schaller & Khan, 1975) claim that chialtanensis Chiltan Markhor is a form of C. hircus (= aegagrus) and combine the remaining six subspecies into three. :Morfology C. falconeri (markhor) are thought to be the most specialized species of the genus, it is highly sexually dimorphic in size: Males weigh between 80 and 110 kg, whereas females weigh only 32 to 50 kg. Body length varies between 140 and 180 cm, and the tail may add an additional 8 to 14 cm to total length. The relatively short coat of C. falconeri can range in color from light tan to dark brown and even black. Male ruff and limb tufts well-developed; females may have a short chin tuft. Fringed beards are present in both sexes, but are thicker, longer, and more distinct in male markhors. Light .and dark color patterns, typical of all C. falconeri subspecies, are present on the lower legs The main characteristic is the presence of tightly curled, corkscrew-like horns in both sexes, starting close together at the head, but spreading towards the tips, I assume that by this shape the males succeeded in fighting over the female in the reproduction season . To this specie belongs the following subspecies depends of the spiral form in the horns :
Capra falconeri falconeri: very wide spiral Capra falconeri megaceros: nearly straight and closer spiral Capra falconeri heptneri: vertical straight like the thread of a screw
The horns of markhors make them quite unique in appearance. The C.falconeri horns typically not straight but curved (in front or rear view) to form 'V' or flared 'U' shape. The markhor has somewhat laterally compressed and spiraling horns while the bezoar (C. aegagrus) has scimitar-shaped horns that are also laterally compressed or, more precisely, teardropshaped in cross-section. Capra falconeri differs from Capra ibex in that it lacks the extremely dense winter underwool possessed by the latter. The resemblance between the horns of C. pyrenaica, C. falconeri, and C. aegagrus would likely be due to convergent evolution. Mitochondrial genome fragments were examined in all species of the genus Capra, Phylogenetic analysis was carried out using 59 cytochrome b gene sequences to understand the phylogenetic hierarchy, from the distance of cytochrome b between the species the researches has shown that the genetic distance separating C. falconeri (the most independent species of the genus related to its morphology) from the other species is small and the shortest distances were between C. falconeri and C. aegagrus, C. falconeri and C. caucasica.
The resemblance between the horns of C. pyrenaica, C. falconeri, and C. aegagrus would likely be due to convergent evolution. It should be noted that markhors do not form distinct monophyletic cluster. Genetically, the group is weakly isolated and is characterized by high within-group variability. It seems likely that a character like turbinal horns can appear relatively easily, probably, as a result of a single mutation, and can rapidly spread over the population. Chpater 2- Geographical Distribution of Capra falconeri *The markhor has a limited geographical distribution in south Asia, mainly in west Pakistan and Pakistan-held Kashmir, although small populations also occur in southern Russia, Russian Turkestan, Afghanistan and Indian-held Kashmir, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan. (Schaller & Mirza, 1971; Heptner et al. 1988; Schaller, 1975; the IUCN red list of threatened species) The southeastern limit of markhor distribution lies in the Pir Panjal range of Kashmir north of the Chenab river. To the north, Astor markhor can be found mostly centering around the Nanga Parbat massif, but an isolated population seemingly of the Kashmir race inhibits the Haramosh range just downstream of Skardu in Baltistan. Northwest of the Kishenganga river, the subspecies extands in narrow band across northern Indus Kohistan, Swat, and Dir into Chintal. The southern limit of its range crosses into Afghanistan near the Chitral border. (Schaller, 1971) *Five subspecies of markhor are said to occur in Pakistan, the majority of the total world population, and is estimated to encompass about 3,2003,700 animals, with numbers generally decreasing (Shackleton, 1997; Weinberg et al.1997) (One subspecies, the socalled Chiltan markhor, was found to be a wild goat (Capra hircus-classified by Lydekker (1913)), and the other four subspecies were reduced to two, the straight and flare-hortied markhors). The reasons why markhor can be found in specific distribution are because they prefer fairly dry terrain near cliffs and they avoid deep snow and cold temperatures. These habitat requirements have restricted their range to mountains below altitudes of 2200 m in winter. The presence of cliffs allows them to retreat in times of danger. Absence of excessive moisture, and suitable terrain up to about 2200 m made temperatures moderate in winter. In these areas they may vary from 45C or more in the Sulaiman Range down to --15C in the northern mountains. Within these limitations, markhor are quite adaptable. Though markhor seem to prefer fairly dry habitats, with an average annual rainfall of 100 cm or less, they tolerate diverse vegetation types. (Schaller, 1975) More reasons for specific distribution: *markhor colonies could not expend to northern Pakistan because of geographical barriers such as various river valleys. Their advance was halted by altitude and sometimes also by the disappearance of suitable cliffs. The erratic location of cliffs is largely responsible for the discontinuous and local distribution of markhor, particularly among the straight-horned ones. (Schaller, 1975) *Excessive hunting has reduced the populations to small, often isolated remnants. The total number of flare-horned markhor in eastern Afghanistan, and in the Chitral, Dir and western Swat districts of Pakistan, was estimated at around 1500. Farther east, along the upper Indus and its tributaries, are perhaps twice as many more (excluding some 250-300 in India) but in tribal areas ,wildlife laws, mostly arent enforced although there has been efforts made by the governments to protect the remnant. Still, the future of this subspecies is tenuous. (Goodwin & Holloway, 1972). *Most straight-horned markhor occur south of the Khyber Pass in tribal areas which have no wildlife laws. There, markhor were reduced to a number of small and scattered populations, comprising possibly fewer than 2000 individuals. *In northern Pakistan mountains, markhors suffered greatly from new military roads and undisciplined shooting by soldiers. Several wars with India and strained relations with Afghanistan resulted in many modern rifles being acquired by villagers. Literature comprising mostly on old hunting accounts. (e.g. Burrard, 1925;Stockley, 1936;Heptner et al., 1966; Goodwin & Holloway, 1972; Petocz, 1972, 1973).
Reports were checked whenever possible by examining horns, (according to literature sometimes it was hard to distinguish between subspecies) which may be found in homes, on mosques, and in graveyards. knowledge is based also on foot surveys.
:Chapter 3- Capra falconeri life history The markhor is the national animal of Pakistan. The markhor is a relative of the goat, and have distinctive cork-screwing horns. Capra falconeri was classified as endangered and conservation.dependant in 1996 by the IUCN
Behavior
Markhor are crepuscular which mean they active early in the morning and late afternoon. Male markhor are generally solitary while females gather into herds of up to 9 individuals. The markhor alarm call resembles the call of the common domestic goat. markhors are agile and nimble creatures that can climb and jump over rocky terrain with ease. In the winter months the markhor descends to .lower altitudes to avoid extreme cold Capra falconeri is adapted to mountainous terrain between 600 m and 3600 m elevation. Moreover, the presence of the markhor is strongly associated with scrub forests made up primarily of oaks .((Quercus ilex), pines (Pinus gerardiana), and junipers (Juniperus macropoda .Markhors forage up to 12 or 14 hours per day, including a resting period to chew cud Females are social and travel in herds that contain, on average, 8 to 9 individuals. Herd composition is primarily female, with males temporarily joining during the rutting season. Males are otherwise solitary. Although most markhor move to lower elevations, and subsequently milder conditions, .during the winter, several populations of Capra falconeri have been documented at higher elevations .Main predators of the markhor include the wolf, snow leopard, leopard, lynx and humans )Nowak, 1999; Roberts, 1997(
:Diet
The Capra falconeri species is entirely vegetarian. markhor diet include Pennisetum orientale, Enneapogon persicum, Hippophae rhamnoides and Quercus ilex. It also aid in the dispersal of seeds .of the wild grasses that also compose their diet, but is not limited for this only Markhor are grazing animals in the summer and browsing animals in the winter. They nourished from grasses and leaves and other vegetation. Like the Ibex, they stand on their hind legs to eat leaves and shoots from trees. The markhor forages 8 - 12 hours daily and it is usually active all day except for several hours in the middle of the day, when it rests and chews its cud. As is true of other large, mountain-dwelling ungulates, Capra falconeri maintains a strictly herbivorous diet composed of a variety of grasses in the spring and summer months. During the autumn and winter months, it .switches over to eating leaves, twigs, and shrubs )Nowak, 1999; Schaller, 1975)
reproduction
.The Females gestate for 135-170 days and give birth typically to 1-2 offspring .The animals are sexually mature at 18-30 months, and live 12-13 years Mating season begins when the male markhors enter into 'rut' and fight for the attention of the female. Fights involve horn locking and then twisting and pushing until one male falls over. they reach maturity at around 18 - 30 months, male later than female. Capra falconeri does not mate monogamously. Capra falconeri breeds annually, with the rut occurring in the autumn and winter months. It is during this time that solitary males may temporarily join female herds. They are able to walk soon after birth, and can travel with the mother. Mothers provide nourishment (milk) and
protection to their growing young. They stay with the mother for approximately 6 months, although there are several reports of kids remaining with their mother thereafter. Males are not reported to .participate in parental care (Burrand, 1925; Nowak, 1999(
REFERENCES GOODWIN, H. & HOLLOWAY, C. (1972) IUCN Red data book: Mammalia. Lausanne. HAMMER SE Evidence for introgressive hybridization of captive markhor (Capra falconeri) with domestic goat: Cautions for Reintroduction. SCHALLER G. & MIRZA Z. (1971) On the behavior of Kashmir markhor (Capra falconeri Cashmiriensis) Mammalia, 35, issue 4: 548-566 SCHALLER G. & S.A KHAN (1975) Distribution and status of markhor (capra falconeri) Center for field Biology & Conservation, New York Zoological Society, New York. E. Y. KAZANSKAYA, M. V. KUZNETSOVA, & A. A. DANILKIN (2006) Phylogenetic Reconstructions in the Genus Capra (Bovidae, Artiodactyla) Based on the Mitochondrial DNA Analysis, Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119071 Russia. ANNE ROPIQUET & ALEXANDER HASSANIN (2006) Hybrid origin of the Pliocene ancestor of wild goats, Service de Systematique Molculaire, Musum National dHistoire Naturelle, 43 rue Cuvier, 75005 Paris, France. NATHALIE PIDANCIER, STEVE JORDAN, GORDON LUIKART & PIERRE TABERLET (2006) Evolutionary history of the genus Capra (Mammalia, Artiodactyla): Discordance between mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosome Phylogenies, Geneticos Campus Agrario de Vairdo Universidade do Porto, Portugal. NOWAK, R. (1999). Walker's Mammals of the World, Sixth Edition. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press ROBERTS, T. (1997). The Mammals of Pakistan. Pakistan, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Capra falconeri
Part 1 : Taxonomy- Hila Mor 039347174 Prat 2: Geographical Distribution- Lihi Saltpeter 034720789 Part 3: life history ella levy 26486084